INTRODUCTION TO URBAN CLIMATOLOGY

- KEN PINTO(NU21UAR009) 28/02/2025

1.1 What is Urban and Complexity of Urban System

The term urban refers to areas characterized by high population density, infrastructure, and economic
activities compared to rural areas. Urban systems are complex due to various interconnected
components such as transportation, housing, industries, governance, and social interactions. This
complexity arises from dynamic interactions between natural and human-made elements, leading to
challenges such as pollution, resource depletion, and climate change.

1.2 Urban vs Rural

Category Urban Areas Rural Areas

Definition & Densely populated cities and Sparsely populated

Population towns with modern villages, mainly
infrastructure. dependent on
agriculture.

Economic Industries, business, and service Agriculture, fishing, and

Activities sectors dominate. small-scale
industries.

Infrastructure & Well-developed roads, hospitals, Limited access to

Facilities schools, and public transport. healthcare,
education, and
transportation.

Lifestyle & Social Fast-paced, diverse, and Simple,

Structure competitive environment. community-based,
and traditional
lifestyle.

Environmental High pollution, deforestation, and Less pollution but

Impact overcrowding. affected by
deforestation and
resource shortages.
 Challenges Traffic congestion, housing Unemployment, lack of
shortages, and high living modern facilities,
costs. and migration to
cities.

Interdependence Urban areas rely on rural regions Rural areas depend on

for food and raw materials. cities for healthcare,
education, and
technology.

1.3 Geographical Epochs

Geographical epochs refer to different historical periods that have shaped the development of human
settlements.

Prehistoric Settlements – Early humans lived as nomads, relying on hunting and gathering for
survival.

Agricultural Revolution – The shift to farming led to permanent settlements, fostering the growth of
villages and early civilizations.

Industrial Revolution – Advances in industry and technology spurred rapid urbanization, transforming
cities into economic and manufacturing hubs.

Modern Era – Cities now serve as centers of innovation and economic growth but face challenges like
climate change, resource depletion, and overpopulation.

1.4 Anthropogenic Activities

Anthropogenic activities are human actions that alter the environment, contributing to climate change
and ecological degradation. Key activities include:

1. Deforestation for Urban Expansion

●​ Clearing forests for cities and industries destroys habitats and

reduces biodiversity.
●​ Leads to increased carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels, worsening global
warming.
●​ Causes soil erosion and disrupts natural ecosystems.
 2. Industrial Emissions and Air Pollution

●​ Factories release pollutants like sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen

oxides (NOx), causing smog and acid rain.
●​ Contributes to respiratory diseases and climate change through
greenhouse gas emissions.

3. Transportation and Carbon Footprint

●​ Vehicles burn fossil fuels, emitting carbon monoxide (CO) and

greenhouse gases.
●​ Traffic congestion increases air pollution and fuel consumption.
●​ Expanding roads disrupts wildlife habitats.

4. Waste Generation and Pollution

●​ Poor waste management contaminated land and water, harming

marine and terrestrial life.
●​ Landfills produce methane (CH₄), a major greenhouse gas.
●​ Plastic pollution threatens ecosystems and human health.

( Uncontrolled human activities accelerate environmental

crises. Sustainable urban planning, pollution control, and renewable energy use are crucial for
a balanced future. )

1.5 Climate Change and Cities

Climate change has a significant impact on cities, leading to:

●​ Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect – Higher temperatures in cities due to concrete structures absorbing
heat.
●​ Increased flooding – Poor drainage systems make cities vulnerable to heavy rainfall and rising sea
levels.
●​ Air pollution – High vehicle emissions worsen air quality.
●​ Water scarcity – Overpopulation strains water resources.​
Sustainable urban planning is necessary to mitigate these issues.

1.6 Urban Climatology – Theme, Origin, Terminologies

Urban climatology is the study of how urbanization influences local and regional climate patterns. It
focuses on the interactions between urban landscapes and atmospheric processes, addressing
challenges such as heat islands, pollution, and microclimatic variations. The field emerged from early
research on urban heat islands and has expanded to include air quality, energy fluxes, and climatic
adaptation strategies.

Key Terminologies in Urban Climatology:

 ●​ Urban Heat Island (UHI): A phenomenon where urban areas experience significantly higher
temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to heat absorption by buildings, roads, and
human activities.
●​ Albedo Effect: The measure of a surface’s reflectivity. Urban areas with dark surfaces, such as
asphalt roads, have low albedo, leading to higher heat absorption and temperature increases.
●​ Microclimate: Localized climatic variations influenced by factors such as building density,
vegetation, and water bodies within a city.
●​ Anthropogenic Heat Flux: Heat generated from human activities, including transportation,
industries, and air conditioning, contributing to rising urban temperatures.
●​ Urban Boundary Layer: The atmospheric layer directly influenced by urban structures and
emissions, impacting wind flow and pollution dispersion.
●​ Smog Formation: A combination of pollutants and weather conditions leading to reduced air
quality in urban environments, often intensified by traffic emissions and industrial activity.

1.7 Time vs Population Growth

As time progresses, urban populations continue to grow due to migration, economic opportunities, and
better living conditions. This growth, however, puts pressure on infrastructure, housing, and resources,
leading to congestion and pollution. Governments must plan for sustainable urbanization to prevent
resource depletion and maintain a high quality of life.
1.8 Urban Ecology

Urban ecology studies the relationship between humans and their urban environment. It focuses on:

●​ Green spaces that improve air quality and biodiversity.

●​ Water management to prevent shortages and flooding.
●​ Sustainable urban development for better resource utilization.

1.8.1 Urban Ecosystem

An urban ecosystem consists of both natural (parks, rivers) and man-made (buildings, roads)
components. It includes:

●​ Biotic factors – Humans, animals, and plants.

●​ Abiotic factors – Air, water, and soil quality.​
The balance between these factors determines the sustainability of a city.

COMPONENTS OF URBAN ECOSYSTEM ARE:

1. Urban Atmosphere

The urban atmosphere refers to the air and

climate system within cities. It is characterized
by:

●​ Higher temperatures due to the urban heat

island (UHI) effect, where concrete and asphalt
retain heat.
●​ Increased pollution levels from vehicle
emissions, industrial activity, and construction
dust.
●​ Altered wind patterns caused by tall buildings
and dense infrastructure, which can trap
pollutants.
●​ Artificial climate modifications such as air
conditioning exhaust, industrial emissions, and
reduced vegetation cover.

2. Urban Lithosphere

The lithosphere includes the solid, outer part of the

Earth that forms the foundation of urban areas.
This includes:

●​ Soil and rocks that are often modified or removed

for construction.
●​ Built environments such as roads, sidewalks, and
buildings, replacing natural landscapes.
●​ Land subsidence issues, where excessive extraction of groundwater leads to sinking cities (e.g.,
Jakarta, Mexico City).
●​ Impermeable surfaces that prevent water absorption, increasing the risk of flooding.

3. Urban Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere in cities includes all forms of

water, such as lakes, rivers, groundwater, and
artificial reservoirs. Urbanization has a profound
effect on water systems, including:

●​ Pollution of water bodies from sewage, industrial

waste, and plastic.
●​ Altered drainage systems, where natural water
flows are replaced by artificial stormwater drains.
●​ Reduction in groundwater recharge due to
concrete surfaces preventing water infiltration.
●​ Increased flood risks due to poor drainage and
climate change impacts.

4. Urban Biosphere

The biosphere refers to all living organisms in

urban areas, including humans, plants, animals,
and microorganisms. Characteristics of the urban
biosphere include:

●​ Urban wildlife adaptation, where certain species

(e.g., pigeons, rats, and crows) thrive in
human-dominated environments.
●​ Loss of biodiversity due to deforestation, pollution,
and habitat destruction.
●​ Green spaces such as parks, rooftop gardens,
and urban forests that provide ecological balance
and improve air quality.
●​ Microbial ecosystems in wastewater, landfills, and
sewage systems that affect health and sanitation.

5. Urban Pedosphere

The pedosphere refers to urban soils, which are

crucial for supporting plant growth, filtration, and
construction stability. In cities, urban soil is often:

●​ Contaminated with heavy metals and chemicals

from industrial activities and waste disposal.
●​ Compacted and degraded, making it difficult for
plants to grow.
●​ Modified for green spaces, where artificial soil
layers are used for urban farming and
landscaping.
●​ Influential in water filtration, helping to absorb
rainwater and prevent flooding in natural areas.
1.8.2 Urban Metabolism

Urban metabolism refers to the flow of resources such as water, energy, and food in a city. A well-managed
urban metabolism ensures efficient resource use and minimal waste generation.

1.9 Timeline of Key Human-Climate Events

1.​ Industrial Revolution (1750s–1900s) – The rise of

coal-powered industries led to a significant increase in carbon
emissions, deforestation, and urban air pollution, contributing
to long-term climate change.​

2.​ Great Smog of London (1952) – A severe air pollution

event caused by excessive coal burning and stagnant weather
conditions. Over 12,000 deaths were linked to respiratory
illnesses, leading to the Clean Air Act of 1956.​

3.​ Kyoto Protocol (1997) – A global treaty to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions with legally binding targets for
industrialized nations. It introduced carbon trading but faced
enforcement challenges.​

4.​ Paris Agreement (2015) – A legally binding international

treaty aimed at limiting global warming to below 2°C. It requires all
nations to set emission reduction targets (NDCs) and supports
climate finance for developing countries.​