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Finite Element Method
Finite Element Method
Physics and Solution Methods

Sinan Müftü
Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Northeastern University, Boston, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom

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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research
and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own
safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-821127-4
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Publisher: Matthew Deans

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Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India
This book is dedicated to my family

Lynne, Serra, and Emre

Yunus, Gülgün, and Ali
Contents

Preface xv
Acknowledgment xix

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Modeling and simulation 1
1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems 1
1.1.2 Boundary value problems 3
1.2 Solution methods 5

2. Mathematical modeling of physical systems 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics 9
2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress 9
2.2.2 Stress transformations 12
2.2.3 Deformation and strain 17
2.2.4 Strain compatibility conditions 21
2.2.5 Generalized Hooke’s law 22
2.2.6 Two-dimensional problems 27
2.2.7 Balance laws 30
2.2.8 Boundary conditions 32
2.2.9 Total potential energy of conservative systems 36
2.3 Mechanics of a flexible beam 41
2.3.1 Equation of motion of a beam 43
2.3.2 Kinematics of the Euler–Bernoulli beam 45
2.3.3 Stresses in an Euler-Bernoulli beam 46
2.3.4 Kinematics of the Timoshenko beam 47
2.3.5 Stresses in a Timoshenko Beam 48
2.3.6 Governing equations of the Euler–Bernoulli beam
theory 48
2.3.7 Governing equations of the Timoshenko beam theory 49
2.4 Heat transfer 50
2.4.1 Conduction heat transfer 50
2.4.2 Convection heat transfer 51
2.4.3 Radiation heat transfer 51
2.4.4 Heat transfer equation in a one-dimensional solid 53
2.4.5 Heat transfer in a three-dimensional solid 56

vii
viii Contents

2.5 Problems 58
References 59

3. Integral formulations and variational methods 61

3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Mathematical background 63
3.2.1 Divergence theorem 63
3.2.2 Green-Gauss theorem 63
3.2.3 Integration by parts 64
3.2.4 Fundamental lemma of calculus of variations 64
3.2.5 Adjoint and self-adjoint operators 64
3.3 Calculus of variations 65
3.3.1 Variation of a functional 66
3.3.2 Functional derivative 67
3.3.3 Properties of functionals 68
3.3.4 Properties of the variational derivative 69
3.3.5 Euler–Lagrange equations and boundary conditions 69
3.4 Weighted residual integral and the weak form of the
boundary value problems 74
3.4.1 Weighted residual integral 74
3.4.2 Boundary conditions 75
3.4.3 The weak form 76
3.4.4 Relationship between the weak form and functionals 77
3.5 Method of weighted residuals 85
3.5.1 Rayleigh–Ritz method 86
3.5.2 Galerkin method 87
3.5.3 Polynomials as basis functions for Rayleigh–Ritz
and Galerkin methods 87
3.6 Problems 104
References 109

4. Finite element formulation of one-dimensional

boundary value problems 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.1.1 Boundary value problem 111
4.1.2 Spatial discretization 112
4.2 A second order, nonconstant coefficient ordinary
differential equation over an element 113
4.2.1 Deflection of a one-dimensional bar 113
4.2.2 Heat transfer in a one-dimensional domain 114
4.3 One-dimensional interpolation for finite element method
and shape functions 114
4.3.1 C0 continuous, linear shape functions 115
4.3.2 C0 continuous, quadratic shape functions 117
 Contents ix

4.3.3 General form of C0 shape functions 118

4.3.4 One-dimensional, Lagrange interpolation functions 119
4.4 Equilibrium equations in finite element form 120
4.4.1 Element stiffness matrix for constant problem
parameters 123
4.4.2 Element stiffness matrix for linearly varying problem
parameters a, p, and q 124
4.5 Recovering specific physics from the general finite
element form 124
4.6 Element assembly 125
4.7 Boundary conditions 128
4.7.1 Natural boundary conditions 128
4.7.2 Essential boundary conditions 129
4.8 Computer implementation 130
4.8.1 Main-code 130
4.8.2 Element connectivity table 130
4.8.3 Element assembly 130
4.8.4 Boundary conditions 131
4.9 Example problem 131
4.10 Problems 133

5. Finite element analysis of planar bars and trusses 139

5.1 Introduction 139
5.2 Element equilibrium equation for a planar bar 141
5.2.1 Problem definition 141
5.2.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 141
5.2.3 Total potential energy of the system 142
5.2.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an elastic bar 143
5.3 Finite element equations for torsion of a bar 147
5.4 Coordinate transformations 148
5.4.1 Transformation of unit vectors between orthogonal
coordinate systems 148
5.4.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
one-dimensional bar element 149
5.5 Assembly of elements 151
5.6 Boundary conditions 155
5.6.1 A formal definition 156
5.6.2 Direct assembly of the active degrees of freedom 158
5.6.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 158
5.7 Effects of initial stress or initial strain 165
5.7.1 Thermal stresses 165
5.7.2 Initial stresses 166
5.8 Postprocessing: Computation of stresses and reaction forces 166
5.8.1 Computation of stresses in members 166
x Contents

5.8.2 Reaction forces 167

5.9 Error and convergence in finite element analysis 172
Problems 177
Reference 185

6. Euler–Bernoulli beam element 187

6.1 Introduction 187
6.2 C1 -Continuous interpolation function 187
6.3 Element equilibrium equation 189
6.3.1 Problem definition 189
6.3.2 Weak form of the boundary value problem 189
6.3.3 Total potential energy of a beam element 191
6.3.4 Finite element form of the equilibrium equations
of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 192
6.4 General beam element with membrane and bending
capabilities 195
6.5 Coordinate transformations 196
6.5.1 Vector transformation between orthogonal
coordinate systems in a two-dimensional plane 196
6.5.2 Transformation of equilibrium equations for the
Euler-Bernoulli beam element with axial deformation 197
6.6 Assembly, boundary conditions, and reaction forces 198
6.7 Postprocessing and computation of stresses in members 198
Problems 206
Reference 209

7. Isoparametric elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 211
7.1 Introduction 211
7.2 Solution domain and its boundary 213
7.2.1 Outward unit normal and tangent vectors along
the boundary 213
7.3 Equations of equilibrium for two-dimensional elastic solids 215
7.4 General finite element form of equilibrium equations for
a two-dimensional element 216
7.4.1 Variational form of the equation of equilibrium 217
7.4.2 Finite element form of the equation of equilibrium 218
7.5 Interpolation across a two-dimensional domain 221
7.5.1 Two-dimensional polynomials 221
7.5.2 Two-dimensional shape functions 223
7.6 Mapping between general quadrilateral and rectangular
domains 229
7.6.1 Jacobian matrix and Jacobian determinant 230
7.6.2 Differential area in curvilinear coordinates 233
7.7 Mapped isoparametric elements 239
7.7.1 Strain–displacement operator matrix, [B] 238
 Contents xi

7.7.2 Finite element form of the element equilibrium

equations for a Q4-element 240
7.8 Numerical integration using Gauss quadrature 245
7.8.1 Coordinate transformation 245
7.8.2 Derivation of second-order Gauss quadrature 246
7.8.3 Integration of two-dimensional functions by Gauss
quadrature 248
7.9 Numerical evaluation of the element equilibrium equations 250
7.10 Global equilibrium equations and boundary conditions 252
7.10.1 Assembly of global equilibrium equation 252
7.10.2 General treatment of the boundary conditions 253
7.10.3 Numerical implementation of the boundary
conditions 254
7.11 Postprocessing of the solution 254
References 255

8. Rectangular and triangular elements for two-dimensional

elastic solids 257
8.1 Introduction 257
8.1.1 Total potential energy of an element for a
two-dimensional elasticity problem 259
8.1.2 High-level derivation of the element equilibrium
equations 260
8.2 Two-dimensional interpolation functions 262
8.2.1 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
quadrilateral elements 262
8.2.2 Interpolation and shape functions in plane
triangular elements 263
8.3 Bilinear rectangular element (Q4) 264
8.3.1 Element stiffness matrix 264
8.3.2 Consistent nodal force vector 267
8.4 Constant strain triangle (CST) element 273
8.5 Element defects 275
8.5.1 Constant strain triangle element 275
8.5.2 Bilinear rectangle (Q4) 277
8.6 Higher order elements 277
8.6.1 Quadratic triangle (linear strain triangle) 277
8.6.2 Q8 quadratic rectangle 278
8.6.3 Q9 quadratic rectangle 279
8.6.4 Q6 quadratic rectangle 280
8.7 Assembly, boundary conditions, solution, and postprocessing 282
References 290

9. Finite element analysis of one-dimensional heat

transfer problems 291
9.1 Introduction 291
9.2 One-dimensional heat transfer 291
xii Contents

9.2.1 Boundary conditions for one-dimensional heat

transfer 292
9.3 Finite element formulation of the one-dimensional,
steady state, heat transfer problem 293
9.3.1 Element equilibrium equations for a generic
one-dimensional element 294
9.3.2 Finite element form with linear interpolation 299
9.4 Element equilibrium equations: general ordinary
differential equation 300
9.5 Element assembly 302
9.6 Boundary conditions 305
9.6.1 Natural boundary conditions 305
9.6.2 Essential boundary conditions 306
9.7 Computer implementation 307
Problems 309

10. Heat transfer problems in two-dimensions 313

10.1 Introduction 313
10.2 Solution domain and its boundary 313
10.3 The heat equation and its boundary conditions 315
10.3.1 Boundary conditions for heat transfer in
two-dimensional domain 315
10.4 The weak form of heat transfer equation in two dimensions 316
10.5 The finite element form of the two-dimensional heat transfer
problem 318
10.5.1 Finite element form with linear, quadrilateral
(Q4) element 320
10.6 Natural boundary conditions 323
10.6.1 Internal edges 324
10.6.2 External edges subjected to prescribed heat flux 324
10.6.3 External edges subjected to convection 326
10.6.4 External edges subjected to radiation 327
10.7 Summary of finite element form of the heat equation and
natural boundary conditions 328
10.8 Numerical integration of element equilibrium equations 329
10.9 Element assembly 331
10.10 Imposing the essential boundary conditions 332
10.10.1 Symbolic representation of essential boundary
conditions 333
10.10.2 Numerical implementation of essential boundary
conditions 333
Problems 340
Reference 341

11. Transient thermal analysis 343

11.1 Introduction 343
11.2 Transient heat transfer equation 344
 Contents xiii

11.2.1 Boundary/initial value problem 344

11.2.2 Element equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 345
11.2.3 Global equilibrium equation of one-dimensional,
transient heat transfer 348
11.2.4 Global boundary conditions 348
11.3 Finite difference approximations to derivatives 348
11.3.1 Temporal discretization of a continuous function 348
11.3.2 Taylor series expansion 349
11.3.3 Approximations to the first derivative of a function 349
11.4 Direct time integration of the heat transfer equation 351
11.4.1 Forward difference or Euler method 351
11.4.2 Backward difference method 352
11.4.3 Central difference or Crank–Nicholson method 353
11.4.4 Generalized trapezoidal method 353
11.5 Solution algorithm 355
11.5.1 Explicit and implicit time integration methods 356
11.6 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 358
11.6.1 Modal expansion of the semidiscrete first-order
equation 359
11.6.2 Stability of the semidiscretized first-order equation 360
11.6.3 Modal expansion of the generalized trapezoidal
algorithm 361
11.6.4 Stability of the generalized trapezoidal algorithm 361
11.6.5 Fourier–von Neumann stability analysis of the
generalized trapezoidal method 362
11.6.6 Consistency and rate of convergence 366
References 376

12. Transient analysis of solids and structures 377

12.1 Introduction 377
12.2 Vibration of single degree of freedom systems 378
12.2.1 Free vibrations: complementary solution 379
12.2.2 Response to harmonic excitations: particular
solution 382
12.2.3 Combined response: complimentary and
particular solutions 384
12.2.4 Transient vibration 385
12.3 Initial/boundary value problems for deformable solids 386
12.3.1 Two-dimensional deformable solid 386
12.3.2 One-dimensional bar 387
12.3.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam 387
12.4 Vibration response of an Euler–Bernoulli beam 388
12.4.1 Eigenvalue problem 389
12.4.2 Free vibration problem 391
12.5 Semidiscrete equations of motion 394
xiv Contents

12.5.1 Two-dimensional deformable element 394

12.5.2 One-dimensional elastic bar element 396
12.5.3 Euler–Bernoulli beam element 398
12.6 Mass matrix 400
12.6.1 Consistent mass matrices 400
12.6.2 Lumped mass matrix 402
12.7 Damping matrix 403
12.8 Global equation of motion 405
12.9 Analytical analysis of vibration of semidiscrete systems 405
12.9.1 Eigenvalue problem for the semidiscrete equation
of motion 406
12.9.2 Orthogonality of the eigenvectors 414
12.9.3 Response to initial excitations by modal analysis 415
12.10 Direct time integration of the equation of motion of a solid 421
12.10.1 Central finite difference approximations:
explicit time integration 423
12.10.2 Linear and average acceleration methods:
implicit time integration 424
12.10.3 Newmark’s method for direct time integration 426
12.10.4 α-Method for direct time integration 428
12.10.5 Initial conditions 430
12.10.6 Solution algorithm 430
12.11 Convergence, stability, and accuracy of time integration
methods 431
12.11.1 Stability of the explicit method 431
12.11.2 Stability and consistency of the Newmark and
α-methods 435
Problems 440
References 444

Appendix A MATLAB 445

Appendix B Guidelines for writing a finite element code in MATLAB 459
Appendix C Finite element analysis with ANSYS 475
Appendix D ANSYS tutorial: beam and bar elements 483
Appendix E ANSYS tutorial: two-dimensional linear elastic analysis 499
Appendix F ANSYS tutorial: thermomechanical deformation 503
Index 515
Preface

This book comes out of teaching graduate level finite element method and
applied mechanics courses over the last two decades at Northeastern University.
One of the major goals in writing this book is to convey to the reader that the
physical models, the solution methods, and the results are inseparable parts of
analysis. The knowledge in these areas is spread over many excellent textbooks
including references [1–9] in the finite element literature, [10–18] in the mechan-
ics literature, [19–23] in the engineering mathematics literature, and [24–25] in
the heat transfer literature, among others. I have drawn upon these textbooks and
my own derivations in preparing this book which aims for a unified presentation
between the two covers.
Having a good grasp of the underlying physics of a problem, its mathematical
representation, and the capabilities and the limitations of the solution methods
is necessary to setup the problems and to interpret the results effectively. I
hope that this book will help guide the users of the finite element codes to
have a holistic view in their analysis. This book also aims to provide detailed
background information on the development of the finite element method with
a target audience who is interested to develop their own codes for engineering
research.
All physical systems in the realm addressed by finite element analysis can be
represented by boundary/initial value problems. In this book, we primarily focus
on the solution of one- and two-dimensional linear elasticity and heat transfer
problems. Extension of these solution techniques to three-dimensional analysis
is straight forward, therefore it is not addressed here to preserve the clarity of
presentation and avoid repetition. A chapter is dedicated at the beginning to the
detailed derivation of the boundary/initial value problems in heat transfer and
elasticity. Chapter 2 is intended to serve as a reference for not only this book,
but also for those who want a concise review of these topics.
The finite element method falls under the general umbrella of variational
methods. The connections between the classical variational techniques and
the finite element method are introduced in Chapters 3 and 4. The former is
dedicated to a brief introduction to variational calculus followed by two classical
variational methods: the Rayleigh–Ritz and Galerkin. In Chapter 4, we develop
the Rayleigh–Ritz-based finite element method for the solution of the boundary
value problems governed by self-adjoint ordinary differential equations. Here,
and in the rest of the book, the finite element method is developed as a natural

xv
xvi Preface

extension of the Rayleigh–Ritz method and the boundary value problem is

defined over a subsegment (element) of the solution domain.
Chapters 5 and 6 develop the finite element form of the boundary value
problems that represent the deformation of bars and Euler–Bernoulli beams,
respectively. These chapters are extended to analysis of two-dimensional trusses
and frames, respectively. Chapters 4–6 are foundational in all aspects of solving
an engineering problem by using finite element method, with topics ranging from
the physical model to element derivation, element assembly, imposing boundary
conditions, and postprocessing.
Chapter 7 gives a detailed account of solution of two-dimensional linear
elasticity problems by using isoparametric elements. In Chapter 8, an analysis of
two-dimensional finite element method is provided for rectangular and simple
triangular elements much like in reference [3]. Chapter 9 introduces the finite
element method for the solution of one-dimensional, steady state heat transfer
problems. This is extended to two-dimensional heat transfer problems by using
isoparametric formulation in Chapter 10.
Chapters 4–10 of the book are involved with setup and solution of boundary
value problems at steady state. Solution methods for problems in which transient
effects are significant are introduced in Chapters 11 and 12 for parabolic and
hyperbolic systems for heat transfer and solid mechanics problems, respectively.
Derivation of the finite difference approximations to the derivative operators;
direct time integration methods for the heat transfer (parabolic) problems;
and their convergence, stability, and accuracy characteristics are presented in
Chapter 11. Transient analysis methods for solids and structures are presented in
Chapter 12. In addition to the derivation of the semidiscrete equation of motion
by finite element method, this chapter includes comprehensive treatments of
vibration of single- and multidegree of freedom systems and solution approaches
to the transient problems with modal, as well as direct time integration methods.
This book is written for an audience who wants to write their own finite ele-
ment codes, who wants to use commercially available finite element programs,
and who wants to make informed choices on element types, solution conver-
gence, and in-depth understanding of physical models. The target audience for
the first part of the book is the first-year graduate students. A one semester
course can be delivered by using Chapters 1–6 and 8. The target audience for
the second part of the book is graduate students in their second-year or higher.
A one semester course can be delivered for this group by using Chapters 7
and 9–12.
Examples in the book have been prepared by using Mathematica and by finite
element programs written in MATLAB. Appendix A provides a summary of
the MATLAB functions I find useful to write a finite element program. Two of
the MATLAB-based finite element programs used in the book are provided in
Appendix B. We also provide extensive instructions on using the commercially
available finite element analysis program ANSYS Mechanical APDL for one-
and two-dimensional solid mechanics and heat transfer problems. These include
 Preface xvii

step-by-step instructions to use the program from the graphical user interface and
a summary of how to prepare input macros with the ANSYS Parametric Design
Language (APDL). Several APDL macros are also provided.
Acknowledgments

I would like to take this opportunity to thank the many people who helped me
along the way and who were influential in writing of this book in one fashion or
another. Many of the students who were in ME 5657 and ME 7275 at North-
eastern University asked many deep, penetrating questions to help me focus
on the details and pointed out typos and early mistakes. I had many enjoyable
discussions about the topic and the course with my former graduate students
Dr. Dinçer Bozkaya, Dr. Ernesto Lopez, Dr. Hsuan-Yu Chou, Dr. Qian Sheng,
Dr. Hankang Yang, Dr. Soroush Irandoust, and Dr. Runyang Zhang who were
teaching assistants during different periods. Dr. Tuğçe Kaşıkçı was the one who
pointed out the obvious by asking “why don’t these notes have any examples?”
This book was written during trying times for humanity when the Covid-19
epidemic was raging around the World and for me personally. I would like
to thank the editors at Elsevier, Mr. Brian Guerin and Mr. Rafael Guilherme
Trombaco, for their patience and understanding with the delays. Mr. Sojan
Pazhayattil for the excellent typesetting. Ms. Berin Üçyiğit was my eighth and
ninth grade mathematics teacher at Tevfik Fikret Lisesi in Ankara, Turkey. I am
grateful to her for the love of mathematics and geometry I developed under her
tutelage.
Finally, I would like to thank my family. My father instilled the sense of right
and wrong in me and my mother provided for me and my brother after he passed
away. She showed both of us the value of never giving up. I am grateful to both
for their love and for the opportunities they provided us. Lastly, I would like
to thank my wife Lynne and our children Serra and Emre for the patience and
encouragement they afforded me during this project.

xix
Chapter 1

Introduction

One of the major aims of natural sciences is to identify the cause–effect relation-
ships in nature. Grasping these relationships is not only useful to satisfy inherent
curiosity, but it is also helpful in building and designing systems that improve
our daily lives.
Engineers and scientists interested in developing predictive capabilities for
natural processes are generally involved in two major tasks: modeling and
simulation. Our understanding of the term model refers to developing a math-
ematical representation of a physical process that is observed in nature. To
this end, partial differential equations (PDEs) are typically used to formulate
mathematical representations of physical processes. The term simulation, on the
other hand, refers to solving the mathematical model and analyzing the results
to gain insight into the cause–effects relationships.

1.1 Modeling and simulation

1.1.1 Boundary and initial value problems
Consider a system with dependent variables u, v, and w defined over a domain ,
which itself occupies a subsection of space (Fig. 1.1). In general, each variable
can take different values at different points in the domain and these values can
also vary in time. Spatial position of a point P in the domain  can be identified
with respect to a spatial reference system (e.g., (x, y, z)). If the position of point P
also varies in time, the position of point P is said to be time dependent. Thus, for
example, if u is a function of space and time u = u(x, y, z, t). In these notes, we
will consider boundary value problems (BVPs) and initial value problems that
are formulated by using PDEs. A very general representation of such a problem
can be given as follows:
L(u, v, w) = f in , for 0 ≤ t ≤ τ (1.1)
where L(·) is a differential operator of independent spatial variables x, y, z and
time t, f = f(x, y, z, t) is typically a function that represents the internal effects
that act on the system, and τ is the duration of interest.
The dependent variables interact with the outside of the domain  through
the boundary  of the domain, and typically experience changes as a result
Finite Element Method: Physics and Solution Methods. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821127-4.00001-3
Copyright c 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Finite element method

FIGURE 1.1 A domain  with internal and external boundaries. Note that boundary conditions
can be applied on both internal and boundaries.

of the external effects that are imposed on the boundary. These external effects
are known as the boundary conditions which depend on the physics of the
problem.
The Dirichlet boundary condition represents a prescribed value for a depen-
dent variable,
u = ub (t ) on E (1.2)
Here the variable u of the solution domain is prescribed to ub on a segment of the
boundary  E . In general, this prescribed variable can be a function of time t. The
Dirichlet boundary condition is also known as the essential boundary condition.
The von Neumann boundary condition typically describes the external effects
that cause a change in the system. Such effects include external forces, heat
flow, etc. As we will demonstrate later in the notes, the von Neumann boundary
conditions are typically represented as follows:
B(u, v, w) = g(t ) on N (1.3)
where B(·) is another differential operator, g is a given function, and  N rep-
resents the segment of the boundary over which the von Neumann boundary
condition is applied. The von Neumann boundary condition, also known as the
natural boundary condition or the nonessential boundary condition, can also
vary in time.
The initial states of the dependent variables are also required to describe
the problem properly. For example, the initial values of the variable u and its
temporal rate of change u,t and u,tt can prescribed in the solution domain as
initial conditions as follows:
u (x, y, z, 0) = u(0) , u,t (x, y, z, 0) = u̇(0) , u,tt (x, y, z, 0) = ü(0) in  (1.4)
˙ ,t and (·)
where (·) ˙ indicate differentiation with respect to time. Similar initial
conditions have to be defined for v and w as well. Number of initial conditions
that are sufficient to describe the problem properly depends on the physical
system, and this topic is addressed in later chapters.
 Introduction Chapter | 1 3

FIGURE 1.2 A bar with variable cross-sectional area, subjected to an axially distributed load q(x),
and the free body diagram of a small segment of this bar at position x.

1.1.2 Boundary value problems

In some problems, only the steady state of the dependent variables is of interest
and the temporal variation is neglected (or negligible). Thus, for example, u
becomes only a function of the spatial dimensions u = u(x, y, z). A steady state
boundary value problem can be formulated by dropping the time dependence as
follows:

L (u, v, w) = f in  (1.5)

where for a boundary value problem L(·) is a differential operator of the

independent spatial variables (x, y, z) and f = f(x, y, z). A steady state boundary
value problem is also subject to the Dirichlet and/or von Neumann conditions on
the boundary of the domain.
Example 1.1 Equation of motion of a solid bar

a) Derive the equation of motion of an elastic bar in terms of its deflection u(x,t).
Initially, assume that the bar has a variable cross-sectional area A(x) and
that it is subjected to distributed axial load q(x,t) and a concentrated force
F at its free end as shown in Fig. 1.2. Also assume small deflections, linear
elastic material behavior with constant elastic modulus E, and constant mass
density ρ.
b) Obtain the steady state solution for the case of constant cross-section and
zero distributed force.

Solution 1.1a: The solution domain  for this problem spans 0 < x < L. The
boundaries  of the solution domain are located at x = 0 and x = L. Internal
forces develop in the bar in response to external loading. The internal normal
4 Finite element method

force N(x) at the cross-section x can be defined as follows:

N(x) = σ̄ (x)A(x) (1.6)

where the average normal stress σ̄ is defined as follows:


1
σ̄ (x) = σ dA
A(x)
A(x)

and where σ is the internal normal stress, A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.
The equation of motion of the bar can be obtained by using Newton’s second
law on a small segment of the bar (Fig. 1.2). The balance of internal and inertial
forces gives,
 ∂ 2u
Fx = ρAdx 2 (a)
∂t 
∂N ∂ u 2
−N + q dx + N + dx = ρAdx 2 (b) (1.7)
∂x ∂t
∂N ∂ u 2
= −q + ρA 2 (c)
∂x ∂t
Hooke’s law defines the constitutive relationship between the internal stress
and strain for linear, elastic materials. For a slender bar, the Hooke’s law can be
given as follows:

σ̄ = Eε (1.8)

where E is the elastic (Young’s) modulus of the material. The strain–

displacement, ε–u, relationship is given as follows:
∂u
ε= (1.9)
∂x
Combining Eqs. (1.6–1.9), we find the internal force resultant as follows:
∂u
N = σ̄ A = EA (1.10)
∂x
The equation of motion can then be found by combining Eqs. (1.7c) and
(1.10),
 
∂ ∂u ∂ 2u
EA = −q + ρA 2 (1.11)
∂x ∂x ∂t
This is a PDE that governs the dynamics of axial deflection u(x,t) along the bar.
Its solution requires two boundary conditions and two initial conditions. The
boundaries of this bar are located at x = 0, L. At the x = L boundary, the force
resultant should be equal to the applied load, i.e., N(L) = F. By using Eq. (1.10),
this condition can be expressed in terms of the bar deflection. The boundary
 Introduction Chapter | 1 5

conditions for this problem then become,

Boundary conditions: u(0) = 0 (a)

∂u  F (1.12)
= (b)
∂x x=L EA(L)
The initial conditions represent the state of deflection and velocity of the entire
bar at t = 0. In general, these conditions can be represented as follows:
Initial conditions: u(x, 0) = u(0) (x) (a)

∂u  (1.13)
= u̇(0) (x) (b)
∂t t=0
where u(0) (x) and u̇(0) (x) are known functions.
Solution 1.1b: Let us find the steady state deflection of a bar with constant cross-
sectional area, A0 , subjected only to a concentrated force F at its free end. Eqs.
(1.11) and (1.12) become,
d2u
Governing equation, (in ): EA0 = 0 in 0 < x < L (1.14)
dx2
Boundary conditions, (on ): u(0) = 0 (a)

du  F (1.15)
= (b)
dx x=L EA0
Solution of Eq. (1.14) gives,
C1
u(x) = x + C2 (1.16)
EA0
where C1 and C2 are integration constants that can be found by using the
boundary conditions as follows:
C1 = F and C2 = 0
And the variation of u(x) becomes,
Fx
u(x) = (1.17)
EA0
Note that this relationship shows that the displacement varies linearly for a bar
with cross-section that is fixed on one end and pulled by a force on the other.

1.2 Solution methods

In this work, modeling refers to mathematical formulation of a physical process.
This requires background in the related subjects, certain mathematical tools, and
experimental observations. In Chapter 2, we present the formulation of models
for deformation of elastic solids and transfer and storage of thermal energy in
solids and fluids. Solution of the mathematical model can be a challenging task
6 Finite element method

and forms the general background of this work. Analytical solutions which can
be expressed as relatively straight forward relationships between the dependent
and independent variables exist only for a relatively small number of situations
where the geometry and the physical nature of the problem can be simplified.
Numerical methods are used otherwise. Among the numerical solution meth-
ods for solving PDEs are the finite difference, variational, and finite element
methods.
The finite difference method (FDM) is implemented on the differential form
of the BVP. The derivative operators of the PDE are approximated by finite
difference operators. The solution domain is discretized in to a grid, and the
unknowns are the values of the dependent variable at the nodes. The discretized
version of the PDE is evaluated at each grid point. This results in a set of algebraic
equations which can be represented in matrix form,
[K]{D} = {R} (1.18)
where [K] is the stiffness matrix representing the discretized form of the partial
derivatives, {D} is the vector of unknown nodal values of the dependent variable,
and {R} is the loading vector representing the external effects. The boundary
conditions often require specialized treatment of the finite difference operators
and modify the [K] matrix. The FDM is effective over relatively simple shapes
such as rectangular and cylindrical domains in two-dimensional problems and
parallelepiped or spherical domains in three-dimensional problems.
Solution of PDEs by variational methods involves use of a weighted-residual
integral, e.g.,

w(A(u) − f )d = 0 (1.19)


where w is a weight function. One way to distinguish the well-known techniques

such as the Rayleigh–Ritz, Galerkin, and collocation methods, which fall under
the umbrella of the variational methods, is the choice of the weight functions.
Nevertheless, in these traditional methods, an approximation function is chosen
for the dependent variable over the entire solution domain. Therefore, traditional
variational approaches can be impractical when the shape of the domain is not
one of the simple shapes mentioned above. A more complete discussion of the
variational methods is given in Chapter 3.
The finite element method (FEM) is based on the variational methods.
However, the approximation function for the dependent variable is developed
for small regions, known as elements, with regular shapes such as rectangles,
triangles, tetrahedra, and hexahedra. As most irregular solution domains can be
approximated as a collection of smaller regions (Figs. 1.3 and 1.4) the finite
element method presents a powerful technique to solve BVPs over very complex
shapes. In the FEM, the domain over which the problem is defined is divided into
elements interconnected at nodal points and along edges. An element can take
 Introduction Chapter | 1 7

FIGURE 1.3 Definitions of domain and boundary on a two-dimensional object subjected to

distributed external forces, f. Finite element analysis requires discretization of the solution domain
to subdomains called elements.

FIGURE 1.4 Elements communicate with the other elements on their boundaries. A line element
with three nodes and a 2D element with four nodes are shown in this figure.

various shapes and can have a number of nodes associated with it. The dependent
variable (i.e., the unknown quantity) is determined at the nodes.
FEM overcomes the disadvantage of the traditional variational methods
by providing a systematic procedure for the derivation of the approximation
functions over subregions of the domain. As the solution domain is represented
by a collection of elements, it is relatively straight forward to implement nonho-
mogeneous, and or discontinuous material properties.
As problems with complex geometry, material properties and boundary
conditions cannot be effectively solved with analytical techniques, use of FEM
provides must be accompanied with experimental verification. In addition, if
possible, analytical forms of the problems should also be sought for simplified
conditions as a check to the finite element solution. Finally, the importance of a
systematic mesh convergence study for the solution cannot be understated.
Chapter 2

Mathematical modeling of
physical systems

2.1 Introduction
The goal of this chapter is to give brief descriptions to modeling of deformation
of linear elastic solids and thermal energy transfer and storage in physical
systems. More detailed discussion of these topics can be found in the specialized
references provided at the end of this chapter. Our goal is to demonstrate how
to obtain mathematical models (representations) of physical systems by using
the fundamental laws of physics. Thus, we will show that deformation of elastic
solids can be described by using Newton’s laws of motion. This will result in
equations of motion represented as partial differential equations. Vibration of
a long and slender bar (Section 2.1), deflection of a general deformable body
(Section 2.2), and deflection of beams (Section 2.3) constitute examples of such
systems. The principle of conservation of energy will be used to describe effects
of heat transfer in a continuum (Section 2.4).

2.2 Governing equations of structural mechanics

When a deformable body is subjected to external effects such as external forces
and/or imposed displacements on its boundary, its shape will change and internal
forces will develop throughout its volume. The level of deformation for given
external effects depends on the material of the deformable body. In this section,
the equations of motion for small deflections of linear, elastic materials are
presented. In particular, we are interested in small deformations of linear, elastic
solids. To this end, following are discussed: i) concepts of external and internal
forces and the concept of stress, ii) elastic deformations and the concept of
small strain, iii) linear elastic constitutive relations, iv) balance laws, and v) total
potential energy of a deformable body.

2.2.1 External forces, internal forces, and stress

External forces acting on continua fall under two categories: body force and
surface traction as depicted in Fig. 2.1.

Finite Element Method: Physics and Solution Methods. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821127-4.00008-6

Copyright c 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 9
10 Finite element method

FIGURE 2.1  surface traction Tn and surface normal n.

Body force B,

FIGURE 2.2 Infinitesimally small volume dV of sides dx, dy, and dz. Faces are subjected to F x ,
Fy , and F
z , which can be expressed in terms of their Cartesian components as given in Eq. (2.1).

The body force, F B acts on all material points contained in the deformable
solid (domain) and it is typically due to presence of an external field that affects
the solid at-a-distance. For example, gravitational and magnetic fields result in
body forces. The unit of body force is force/volume [F/L3 ].1
In contrast, the surface tractions T act across the surface (boundary) of the
solid body. External tractions are typically due to direct contact of one body
with another. Examples include the contact stresses and wind pressure. The unit
of surface traction is force/area [F/L2 ]. Concentrated force or distributed force
(over a line) are special cases of surface tractions, with units [F] and force/length
[F/L], respectively.
Internal forces develop in a deformable solid when it is subjected to external
forces, and help keep the material intact. In general, the internal forces vary
from point to point within the body. If we consider an infinitesimally small
hexahedral volume V( = dx.dy.dz) (Fig. 2.2) with the corresponding surface
areas Ax = dy dz, Ay = dx dz, Az = dx dy, we will see that each face of

1. F and L represent force and length, respectively. The [◦] notation is used to indicate the units of
the variable.
 Mathematical modeling of physical systems Chapter | 2 11

this small segment will be subjected to a resultant internal force, F x , F

y , and
Fz . Note that the subscripts x, y, and z in the force vector designations indicate

the direction of the unit outward normal of the face on which the force is acting.
The same convention is also used in designating the faces of the hexahedron.
The force vectors on each face can then be written with their Cartesian
components,
x = Fxx î + Fxy jˆ + Fxz k̂
F
F
y = Fyx î + Fyy jˆ + Fyz k̂ (2.1)
F
z = Fzx î + Fzy jˆ + Fzz k̂

where î, jˆ and k̂ are the unit normal vectors along the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
If we represent a generic force component Fij by using the subscripts i and j,
we note that the first subscript (i = x, y, z) represents the vector F i , hence the
surface on which the force is acting. The second subscript (j = x, y, z) represents
the direction of the force component acting along one of the coordinate axes.
As we consider smaller volumes V inside the material, the force to area
ratio (Fi /Ai ) approaches a constant value even though the volume approaches
zero. This ratio is known as stress. It is simpler to define stress in terms of its
components acting along the three major axes, as the effects caused by these
stress components are physically observable.
Normal stress represents the force intensity acting normal to Ai (i = x, y, z)
and it is defined as follows:
Fxx Fyy Fzz
σxx = lim , σyy = lim , and σzz = lim (2.2)
A→0 Ax A→0 Ay A→0 Az

When viewed one at a time, it can be seen that the normal stress causes
elongation/compression along the axis that it is associated with.
Shear stress represents the force intensity in the plane of A and it is defined
as follows:
Fxy Fxz
σxy = lim , σxz = lim
A→0 Ax A→0 Ax
Fyx Fyz
σyx = lim , σyz = lim (2.3)
A→0 Ay A→0 Ay
Fzx Fzy
σzx = lim , σzy = lim
A→0 Az A→0 Az

Shear stresses cause distortion of the small volume segment, V.

The stress components are often represented by using the index notation,
σ ij where the subscripts i, j = x, y, z. As mentioned above, the indices in the
stress are not arbitrary: i, the first subscript, indicates the direction of the outward
unit normal of the plane on which the stress component acts; and, j, the second
subscript, indicates the direction of the stress component.
12 Finite element method

The symbol τ ij is often used to indicate shear stress, and used interchangeably
with the symbol σ ij .
Stress at a point in the continuum is represented by nine independent stress
components. In indicial notation, this is represented as follows:
σi j for (i, j = x, y, z) (2.4)
The stress components at a point can be represented in a tensor as follows:
⎡ ⎤
σxx τxy τxz
[σ ] = ⎣ τyx σyy τyz ⎦ (2.5)
τzx τzy σzz
It can be shown that the shear stress components have the following complimen-
tary property, τxy = τyx , τyz = τzy , τxz = τzx . The stress tensor then becomes
symmetrical.
In finite element formulation, the following vector representation will be
used,
 T
{σ } = σxx σyy σzz τxy τyz τzx (2.6)

2.2.2 Stress transformations

The state of stress of the point P’ is expressed by the stress tensor in the
global, Cartesian, coordinates (x, y, z) by Eq. (2.5). However, the choice of this
coordinate system and the small volume (dV = dx.dy.dz) is arbitrary. We would
like to be able to transform the stress state between different orientations.
In order to develop these transformations, we consider an oblique cross-
section of the hexahedron by a plane of arbitrary, but known orientation. This
results in the tetrahedral volume on one side of the plane as shown in Fig. 2.3.
The traction components Tx , Ty , Tz , and Tn , acting on the small triangular areas
Ax , Ay , Az and An , respectively, must be in static equilibrium in order to
keep the continuum whole. Let us look into the arbitrary plane in more detail
before we state this equilibrium condition.
The orientation of the plane is identified by its outward unit normal n, as
shown in the figure. The unit normal is defined as follows:
n = nx î + ny jˆ + nz k̂ (2.7)
in Cartesian coordinate system. In vector notation, the unit normal is expressed
as follows:
 T
{n} = nx ny nz (2.8)
The components nx , ny , and nz are the direction cosines of n with respect to the
(x, y, z) axes, and have the property,
n2x + n2y + n2z = 1 (2.9)
 (A) (B) (C)

Mathematical modeling of physical systems Chapter | 2

FIGURE 2.3 A tetrahedral volume formed by an oblique plane with unit normal n and the (x, y), (y, z), and (z, y) planes. The area of the oblique plane is An ,
and the other three faces of the tetrahedron are Ax , Ay , and Az . Note that traction Tn acts on the plane n, and tractions Tx , Ty and Tz act on the other faces, as
shown. These tractions are not necessarily normal to the surface on which they act. The Tn and its components along the Cartesian coordinate axes can be represented
as shown.

13
14 Finite element method

It can be shown that the direction cosines can be expressed as the ratios Ai
to An as follows [7]:
Ai
ni = for i = x, y, z (2.10)
An

Let’s consider traction Tn acting on the oblique plane in Fig. 2.3. Since the
traction represents the intensity of force per unit area, it can be expressed by the
vector representation as follows:

Tn = Tnx î + Tny jˆ + Tnz k̂ (2.11)

Next, consider the static equilibrium of the forces acting on the pyramid, as
follows:

Tn An = Tx Ax + Ty Ay + Tz Az (2.12)

where Tx , Ty and Tz are the tractions acting on the other faces (Ax , Ay , and
Az ) of the tetrahedron. By using Eq. (2.10), this expression becomes,

Tn = Tx nx + Ty ny + Tz nz (2.13)

On each lateral face of the tetrahedron, we can express the tractions in terms of
their components, by using Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) as follows:

Tx = σxx î + τxy jˆ + τxz k̂

Ty = τyx î + σyy jˆ + τyz k̂ (2.14)
Tz = τzx î + τzy jˆ + σzz k̂
Combining this relationship with Eq. (2.13), we find that equilibrium dictates
that,
  
Tn = σxx î + τxy jˆ + τxz k̂ nx + τyx î + σyy jˆ + τyz k̂ ny + τzx î + τzy jˆ + σzz k̂ nz
(2.15)

This relationship can be rearranged as follows:

 
Tn = σxx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz î + τxy nx + σyy ny + τzy nz jˆ

+ τxz nx + τyz ny + σzz nz k̂ (2.16)

This equation can be represented in tensor and matrix forms as follows:

Tn = σ ·n (2.17a)

{Tn } = [σ ]T ·{n} (2.17b)

respectively. Note that for the case where the stress tensor is symmetric, we will
have [σ ]T = [σ ] in Eq. (2.17a). By using Eqs. (2.11) and (2.16), we can find the
 Mathematical modeling of physical systems Chapter | 2 15

components of Tn acting on the oblique plane as follows:


Tnx = σxx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz

Tny = τxy nx + σyy ny + τzy nz (2.18)

Tnz = τxz nx + τyz ny + σzz nz

2.2.2.1 Normal and shear components of tractions

Traction Tn on an oblique plane n can be expressed by using the normal and shear
components on the plane as follows:
Tn = σnn ·n + σnt ·t (2.19)
where the normal and tangential traction components are σ nn and σ nt , respec-
tively. These components can be found as follows:
σnn = Tn ·n and σnt = Tn ·t (2.20)
where t is a unit vector in the oblique the plane, which has the unit normal n. The
vector t has following components expressed in the global Cartesian system,
 
t = tx î + ty jˆ + tz k̂ or {t} = tx ty tz T (2.21)

The normal component of the traction Tn is found by using Eqs. (2.16) and (2.20)
as follows:

σnn = Tn ·n = [σ ]T ·{n} ·{n}
 
= σxx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz î + τxy nx + σyy ny + τzy nz jˆ
 
+ τxz nx + τyz ny + σzz nz k̂ · nx î + ny jˆ + nz k̂
or, after rearranging,
 
σnn = σxx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz nx + τxy nx + σyy ny + τzy nz ny

+ τxz nx + τyz ny + σzz nz nz (2.22)
Similarly, the tangential component of the traction Tn is found as follows:
 
σnt = σxx nx + τyx ny + τzx nz tx + τxy nx + σyy ny + τzy nz ty

+ τxz nx + τyz ny + σzz nz tz (2.23)
In fact, Eqs. (2.22) and (2.23) can be used to transform the stresses to any
orientation n and t .

2.2.2.2 Principal stresses and directions

Infinitely many planes can pass through a given point in a continuum, such as
the plane that gives rise to the tetrahedron shown in Fig. 2.3. The normal and
shear traction components σ nn and σ nt will vary according to the orientation
of the cutting-plane. It is reasonable to assume that among these planes, there
is one on which the shear tractions vanish, i.e., σ nt = 0. This plane is called
16 Finite element method

the principal plane, and its orientation is called the principal orientation n p .
The normal component of the traction σ nn acting on the principle plane has the
magnitude λ and it is named the principal stress.
The traction acting on the principal plane can be expressed by a simple vector
argument and by using Eq. (2.17a) as follows:
Tn p = λn p (2.24a)
 
Tn p = [σ ]T n p (2.24b)
By combining these two relationships, we find,
  
λ n px î + n py jˆ + n pz k̂ = σxx n px + τyx n py + τzx n pz î + τxy n px + σyy n py + τzy n pz jˆ

+ τxz n px + τyz n py + σzz n pz k̂
(2.25)
The following system of equations can be obtained for the unknown vector
components of the normal vector of the principle plane from this relationship,

σxx n px + τyx n py + τzx n pz = λn px
τxy n px + σyy n py + τzy n pz = λn py (2.26)
τxz n px + τyz n py + σzz n pz = λn pz
This equation can be represented in matrix form as follows:
⎡ ⎤⎧ ⎫
(σxx − λ)  τyx τzx ⎨n px ⎬
⎣ τxy σyy − λ τzy ⎦ n py = 0 (2.27a)
⎩ ⎭
τxz τyz (σzz − λ) n pz
or,
 
([σ ] − λ[I]) n p = 0 (2.27b)
where [I] is the identity matrix. This relationship represents the equilibrium of
the principal stress λ acting on the principal plane n p .
A nontrivial solution of Eq. (2.27a) is possible if the determinant of the term
in the brackets is zero,

det [σ ]T − λ[I] = 0 (2.28)
In general, this determinant can be expressed as the following polynomial
equation in terms of the unknown principle stress magnitude,
λ 3 − I1 λ 2 − I2 λ − I3 = 0 (2.29)
This relationship is also known as the characteristic equation. The coefficients of
this third order polynomial equation I1 , I2 , and I3 are called the stress invariants
and they represent the state of stress in the material as follows:
I1 = σxx + σyy + σzz
I2 = − σxx σyy + σyy σzz + σzz σxx + τxy 2
+ τyz2 + τzx2 (2.30)
I3 = 2τxy τyz τzx + σxx σyy σzz − σxx τyz − σyy τxz2 − σzz τxy
2 2
 Mathematical modeling of physical systems Chapter | 2 17

(A) (B)

FIGURE 2.4 The stress state at point expressed in the Cartesian coordinate system and the
corresponding principal stresses and directions.

The characteristic equation has three roots, for a given state of stress. λ1 ,
λ2 , and λ3 correspond to three different planes n p(1) , n p(2) , and n p(3) . The three
principle planes are mutually orthogonal [7], and the state of principle stress can
be represented by a hexahedron as shown in Fig. 2.4.
The principle stresses are assigned as σ 1 = λ1 , σ 2 = λ2 , and σ 3 = λ3 and
ordered from highest to lowest (algebraically) as follows:

σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3 (2.31)

The principal direction n p(i) for each principle stress σ i is obtained by substituting
σ i into Eq. (2.27a) and by using the identity,
 (i) 2  (i) 2  (i) 2
n px + n py + n pz = 1 (2.32)

2.2.3 Deformation and strain

When subjected to external forces, an internal material point located, for ex-
ample, at position P before the loading, moves to point P’ as depicted in two
dimensions (a two-dimensional solid) in Fig. 2.6. The position of all material
points in this solid domain are referred to a fixed Cartesian reference frame, and
the position of point P’ is found as follows (Fig. 2.6):
r p = r p + u (2.33)

where u is the deformation vector. For a general deformation in three-

dimensional space, the deformation vector is represented as follows:
u = ux î + uy jˆ + uz k̂ (2.34)

where ux , uy , and uz are the projections of u onto the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
18 Finite element method

(A) (B)

FIGURE 2.5 One-dimensional deformation of a bar.

2.2.3.1 Uniaxial deformation

Uniaxial deformation, also referred to as the simple loading, is the type of
deformation that can be described with respect to a single orientation (e.g., x).
Typical examples of this type of loading are the elongation/compression of a bar
by a tensile/compressive force (Fig. 2.5).
In order to describe the uniaxial deformation in a slender bar, consider an
infinitesimally small segment BC of length dx before deformation as shown in
Fig. 2.19B. Once the external load is applied in the x direction, the bar deforms.
Point B moves to B’ where its position change u is described by the deformation
vector as follows:

u = u î (2.35)

Note that u = u(x). As the point B moves to the position B’, the point C moves to
position C’and undergoes a position change of u + (du/dx)dx. Thus, the distance
between points CB changes from dx to dx + (du/dx)dx.
Elongation/contraction along a given direction is measured by using the
normal strain ε which is defined as the ratio of the change in length along a
given direction to the original length as follows:
  
1 du du
ε= 1+ dx − dx = (2.36)
dx dx dx

2.2.3.2 Planar deformation

In some problems deformation is confined into a plane. A material point
P in the undeformed material will move to point P’ after deformation as
shown in Fig. 2.6. This deformation can be represented by a deforma-
tion vector u. In case of the planar deformation depicted in Fig. 2.6, the
deformation vector can be expressed in a Cartesian coordinate system as
follows:

u = ux î + uy jˆ (2.37)

where ux and uy are the projections of u on the x and y axes, respectively. In

vector form, the deformation vector is represented as follows:
 T
{u} = ux uy (2.38)
 Mathematical modeling of physical systems Chapter | 2 19

(A) (B)

FIGURE 2.6 (A) As a result of the external forces and having a fixed boundary, an internal material
point P of the deformable solid deforms to point P’. The deformation vector is u and the position
vectors for points P and P’ are rP and rP , respectively. (B) Undeformed (ABCD) and deformed
(A’B’C’D’) states of a small segment (dx.dy.1) and the displacement components.

Note that, in general, the deflection components ux and uy vary from point to
point inside the deforming solid. Therefore, these variables are functions of the
x and y coordinates, ux = ux (x,y) and uy = uy (x,y).
Deformation of a small rectangle around the point P with side lengths dx,
dy and unit depth is shown Fig. 2.6. As a result of deformation, point A in the
undeformed configuration moves to point A’. Similarly points B, C, and D move
to B’, C’, and D’.
For the two-dimensional deformation depicted in Fig. 2.6, the original length
of the side AB is dx. The length of the projection of the deformed line A’B’on the
x axis is (dx + (∂ux /∂x) dx. Thus, by using Eq. (2.36), we can define the normal
strain along the x direction as follows:

∂ux
εxx = (2.39a)
∂x
It can be similarly shown that the normal strain along the y direction is defined
as follows:
∂uy
εyy = (2.39b)
∂y

Change in the relative orientation of two mutually perpendicular lines is

defined as the shear strain. For the x and y directions, this is defined as
γ xy = π /2 − θ . For small deformations, this can be approximated, and results in
the following definition of the shear strain,

∂ux ∂uy
γxy = + (2.40)
∂y ∂x
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an enthusiastic supporter of woman’s rights. The difference between
theory and practice is, as you know, a very great matter. When the
Belgian comrades in 1902 brought forward their motion for
Universal Suffrage in communal councils and provincial diets, then
the Clericals at once said that they would agitate for Woman
Suffrage; and they did, only to get the Liberals to vote against the
Socialist proposal. When it came to the voting, however, none of the
Clericals voted for the resolution of the Belgian comrades, and one
only had the courage to abstain from voting. The tactics which I have
described are characteristic, because they prove that the Centre, in
taking part in the agitation for Woman Suffrage, is not—when things
are looked at closely—actuated by any principle except the one of
securing the ascendancy of the Church, and that of the ruling classes.
The Clericals, as they have often declared, are ready to assert that
women should be silent in the assembly[2] as long as it suits the
interests of their power; but they are now quite prepared to loosen
the tongues of women there if by so doing they can strengthen the
authority of the Church, and that of the capitalist class, which is the
chief supporter of the Church. The reactionary classes are only now
beginning to show themselves friendly to the idea of Woman
Suffrage, because they think that, by the help of the women’s votes
they may thus diminish the power of the men’s votes, and they are
actuated in this matter by the following reasons. They believe that
their power over the minds of a great number of women, and
especially of those belonging to the proletariat, is still strong enough
for them to be able to make use of the unemancipated women as
against the men that are already emancipated. They reckon on this
modified Woman Suffrage to act as a counterpoise against the
increasing growth of free thought among men, and to counteract the
steady march of Catholic working men into the camp of Social-
Democracy. This is a reason why in some countries, and not only in
the ranks of the middle class, but also among Social-Democrats,
many persons are opposed to the movement in favour of Woman
Suffrage. Thus in Holland Troelstra has stated that if the question of
extending the franchise was brought forward he would vote against
it, because it would undoubtedly lead to a strengthening of reaction,
because the women there are still unemancipated.

2. An allusion to the opinion of St. Paul I. Timothy C. II., 12.—J.B.

So that where Clericalism rules there will be a strong movement
against Woman Suffrage, because it will be thought to be a source of
danger, as by means of it the Clericals would receive such an increase
of support that the political class struggle of the proletariat would for
a long time be in danger. It would be foolish to deny that directly
Woman Suffrage was granted, a certain number of women would at
once give their votes to reactionary candidates, and so strengthen the
party of reaction. But that is no reason for withholding the vote from
women. If it were so, the proletariat ought never to agitate for an
extension of the Suffrage. For every fresh democratisation of the
Suffrage allows large masses of men to take part in voting whose
political education is imperfect, and who have not yet been properly
trained as to how they should vote. But we ask for Universal
Suffrage, not as a means for a political dodge, but as a working
means of training and organising the masses properly.
If we acted otherwise we should always have to disfranchise a large
number of citizens. The “Revue Socialiste” had a series of articles on
this question of granting the Suffrage to women. Comrades from
different countries sent contributions, and they were all agreed that
the backwardness of women from a political point of view was no
reason not to give them the vote, because the very possession of that
right would act as a corrective to the danger. Allemane, for the
French Socialists, Ferri for the Italian, Keir Hardie and MacDonald
for the English, and Kautsky and Bernstein for the German, all took
the same view of the question. This alleged danger of Woman
Suffrage to the cause of the proletariat affords no ground for an
alteration of the programme of Social-Democracy.
But now there is another point to be considered. The action of the
Social-Democracy with reference to Woman Suffrage is more and
more energetic and thorough, and the question that arises is whether
we weaken the danger of the granting of a partial Woman Suffrage by
agitating as we do for Universal Suffrage. But to that I reply that by
carrying on a propaganda of enlightenment and organisation of
working women we shall so improve the political knowledge and
outlook of these women that it will be impossible for reaction ever to
reckon on the support of women’s votes. After, however, making that
point clear, there are yet, in many countries, comrades who have
worked hard in order to obtain Universal Suffrage for men, and who
are doubtful whether it is wise at present to agitate for Woman
Suffrage. That we saw in Belgium in 1902, where the Labour Party, in
their struggle for equal Universal Suffrage, gave up the agitation for
Woman Suffrage, on the ground that the Liberals declared they
would not support the demand for a reform of the Suffrage unless
the Socialists gave up the demand for Woman Suffrage. What
happened then? The Labour Party in Belgium, in their campaign in
and out of Parliament for the advocacy of equal Universal Suffrage,
was most shamefully deserted by the Liberal Party. There has been
no practical result, though the demand for Woman Suffrage was
abandoned. The same kind of thing happened this year in Sweden.
Under the stress of the agitation of the Socialist Party, the
Government promised to bring in a Bill for the extension of the
Suffrage, but they had previously declared, when asked by the
leaders of the middle-class partisans of Woman Suffrage, that if they
did so they would also bring in a Bill establishing a modified form of
Woman Suffrage. The Social-Democratic Party then determined not
to ask for Woman Suffrage, but to vote for it if that measure was
advocated by another party. The measure for the reform of the
Suffrage was passed by the popular Chamber, but was wrecked by
the Upper House. Though the working men had reduced their
demands, yet the Socialists were left in the lurch by the middle-class
parties. The abandonment of the principal demand led to no
practical result. Comrade Branting declared recently that the struggle
would enter into a new phase, and that a reform of the Upper House
would be demanded, and he finished by saying that this struggle
would be one of great importance, as it would be a struggle between
the power of the classes possessing property and those having none,
and that the proletariat must use all its power in the struggle. But a
struggle which is to be so important, and which is to have such far-
reaching consequences, must be fought on the question of principles,
and not carried on in any petty opportunist manner; it must be a
fight for universal, equal Suffrage for both men and women. A
similar situation has also occurred in Austria. Here the proletariat,
after a long, weary struggle of ten years, has at last compelled the
Government to grant a complete reform of the Suffrage, to bring in a
measure to establish universal, equal and direct Suffrage for the
elections to the Reichsrath, and to do away with the system of class
voting which weakened completely the political power of the
proletariat in Parliament. The reform in the Suffrage is important,
but it does not meet the demands of the Social-Democracy. In this
situation the Austrian comrades have determined that it is highly
important to secure Universal Suffrage for men, and, as the
attainment of this object appears to be endangered by the agitation
in favour of Woman Suffrage, they have determined not to agitate for
that reform. The Austrian Social-Democracy has thus weakened itself
by using all its power against the Government, though they think
that by leaving Woman Suffrage aside they will the easier obtain
Manhood Suffrage. I do not know how the idea originated that by
foregoing the demand for Woman Suffrage they would more easily
obtain the votes for men. The greatness of the reform to be obtained
is one which, indeed, will require all the force of the proletariat, but I
cannot see how it would have been hindered, in any way, by also
pressing forward the claims of women. We must all recognise the
discipline of our female Austrian comrades, and the help which they
have given when they accepted the decision of the party; but it is still,
to my mind, an open question whether this decision was necessary.
No one of us is so foolish as to claim that the demand for Woman
Suffrage should have been made a test question in the active
programme of our Austrian comrades. That would have been a
crime. But it is another question when it is said in the beginning of
the struggle that the question should be entirely kept out of the fight.
We, therefore, regret that both in the agitation and in Parliament
these questions should have been put on one side, and we hope that
afterwards they will receive the consideration they deserve. But at
present no action is being taken to show the connection between an
extension of the Suffrage and the granting of Woman Suffrage. The
Democrat Hock has made a motion in favour of Woman Suffrage,
while two reactionaries, Hrubi and Kaiser, have advocated ladies’
Suffrage. Our comrade Dr. Adler then also took part in the question
in a determined manner, and it is to be regretted that this was not
done from the first. If retaliation was feared from our opponents it
would have been easier to meet this if we had presented a united
front to our opponents. In such a question as this we should always
act from the point of view of principle. For the fight for the Suffrage
is a struggle for the capture of political power by the proletariat. This
is what the middle classes well understand, and that is why they fight
against us with great vivacity, great energy, great wickedness
whenever we agitate for an extension of the franchise. They fear the
growing power of the proletariat, and they will never concede this
reform to us from a sense of justice, but only because they are afraid
of us. And this brings me again to the question, and I ask: “Do we
strengthen our power, and do we take the best way of strengthening
our cause by putting this demand in the background?” We must
broaden the basis of our demands in order to get better terms for the
masses.
I must refer to another historical point. When in the mass we agitate
for Woman Suffrage we are weak in marching against the enemy
because we have to reckon with those who are half-hearted and those
who are hostile in our own ranks. We must put on one side all
questions which would divide men and women, and we must compel
all middle-class parties to take part in the question of granting
Woman Suffrage.
We must always press on the question of Woman Suffrage when we
are agitating about the Suffrage. We have always argued in the
Suffrage agitation that it was a question of equal rights for men and
women, and we must continue to do so till we succeed. We must be
united. We know that we shall not attain the victory of Woman
Suffrage in a short time, but we know, too, that in our struggles for
this measure we shall revolutionise hundreds of thousands of minds.
We carry on our war, not as a fight between the sexes, but as a battle
against the political might of the possessing classes; as a fight which
we carry on with all our might and main, without hatred of the other
sex; a fight whose final aim and whose glory will be that in the
broadest masses of the proletariat the knowledge shall arise that
when the day of the historical development shall have made
sufficient progress then the proletariat, in its entirety, without
distinction of sex, shall be able to call out to the capitalist order of
society: “You rest on us, you oppress us, and, see, now the building
which you have erected is tottering to the ground.”
The speaker then submitted the following resolution:—
“The demand for Woman Suffrage is the result of the changes which have occurred
owing to the capitalist method of production in modern economic and social
conditions, especially since the changes in labour, owing to the position and the
destiny of women. Woman is in this position as a consequence of the middle-class
democratic principle which regulates the destiny of all social callings, not
depending on wealth and on social position. The demand for Woman Suffrage has
thus, from the beginning, been connected in the minds of a few thinkers with the
struggle in which the middle class has been engaged for the democratisation of
political rights as a means of procuring its political emancipation and its rule as a
class. This class has received great and increasing power partly through the great
and growing wealth produced by woman’s labour, which is continually increasing
in modern industry. Woman Suffrage is the assertion of the economic
emancipation of woman from home, and her economic independence from the
family as an only means of subsistence.
“Active and passive Suffrage for women may be looked upon as a social question;
as a practical measure it is the means of obtaining political power, of doing away
with legal and social fetters, which hinder the development and the emancipation
of woman. But in woman’s world, as well as in that of man, there are class conflicts
which render the possession of the Suffrage of great value for woman. The value of
the franchise as a means of engaging in the social war is one which depends largely
on the greatness of the struggle to be engaged in and the social power to be
obtained. Its chief use will be that by means of it the whole proletariat—men and
women—will be able to obtain political power, and will thus be able to contribute
to bringing about the downfall of the present class system, and the establishment
of a Socialist state of society in which alone the full emancipation of woman will be
accomplished.
“Complete emancipation of woman is advisable instead of the middle-class Woman
Suffrage movement, and, therefore, it is absolutely necessary that Universal
Woman Suffrage should be obtained. Working women, in order to conquer their
complete right of citizenship, must rely on their own strength alone and on their
own class. The proletarian needs of the struggle for emancipation, together with
the historic insight and justice, compel the proletariat to energetically take up the
cause of the political equality of woman. Social-Democracy, the political fighting
organisation of the class-conscious proletariat, therefore, is in favour of Woman
Suffrage, both as a matter of principle, and as a practical question.
“The question of Woman Suffrage, owing to the keenness of the class struggle,
acquires great importance. On the side of the ruling reactionary classes the belief
grows that the granting of a restricted Woman Suffrage would strengthen the
political power of the capitalist class. On the side of the proletariat the necessity is
seen of revolutionising the minds of women and of obtaining their help in the
struggle. The struggle for Universal Woman Suffrage is the most powerful means
of interesting the mass of women in the struggle of the proletariat for freedom.
“Having considered these historical facts, the Fourth Conference of Socialist
women at Mannheim resolves—
“‘That in the struggle which the proletariat has entered into for the obtaining of
universal, equal, secret and direct voting in towns and elsewhere, all the energies of
the party should be used in obtaining the same franchise for women, and that the
question should constantly be pressed forward. The Conference of women declares
that it recognises the duty of all women comrades to take part energetically in the
political campaign for the attainment of the Suffrage, and that every effort should
be made to induce working women to take an interest in this matter, so that the
question may be settled as soon as possible.’”
In the discussion which ensued,
Frau Mensing, from Holland, said: Comrade Zetkin has referred to
the declaration of comrade Troelstra that he for the moment would
not support the extension of the Suffrage to women. This statement
was a very heavy blow to our associations of women in Holland. We
had hoped that the question would have been raised at our last
Congress in Holland, but there was so much time spent in the
discussion between Marxians and Opportunists that there was no
time left to do this. We trust, however, that at the next Congress of
the party its members will declare against this opinion of Troelstra,
and that the agitation in favour of Universal Suffrage for Women will
be renewed.
Comrade Bebel, who was received with loud and hearty cheers, said:
Comrades, after the long and able speech which you have just heard
from our comrade Zetkin, I should have thought that the debate
would have come to a close. I quite agree that our comrade Mensing,
as our guest, had an undoubted right to speak, but I cannot see for
the moment why I should say anything. But the officials at this table
have decided otherwise, and they wish me to say a few words to you.
It was of no use for me to protest, so here I am. I see once more how
I have been compelled to do what women wish.
I have once more been strengthened in the opinion that this question
of Woman Suffrage can only be properly considered and decided
from a radical standpoint. Social-Democracy can have no policy
except one directed by principles. Freedom and equality for all must
be our motto in Parliament, on the platform, and in the press, and in
that spirit we must live and act. It is only in that way that we can win
over the mass of the people to our side, and exercise a powerful
influence which finally will help us to achieve what we desire.
Certainly it often happens in Parliament that we ask ourselves the
question whether we should insist fully on our principal demands, or
whether we should allow some of them to go by, and the Opportunist
policy is ever before us. People think that if we asked for less, we
should more easily get it; but in my political career in Parliament,
which now extends over nearly 40 years, I have made the discovery,
which is no less true in private life, that modesty is an ornament, but
one often gets on better without it. This remark is often quoted by
members of the middle classes. We might make modest demands,
and they would not be complied with unless we had a strong force
behind to back them up. Behind our principal demands there are our
principles, which are strengthened by our force. We are ready to
meet our opponents. They are ready to shamelessly repel if we ask
with modesty. In the last weeks and months I have often heard about
the weakness of Social-Democracy. There is no falser word. I
fearlessly assert that in the German Empire there is no more
powerful party in existence than ours. Social-Democracy rules the
whole political and social life, both at home and abroad. Without its
existence we should still be far from attaining much we now have. As
an example of this truth, I may speak of the progress of the woman
question in the last 15 years. The Centre in the nineties opposed with
all its power our demand that women should be free to attend
lectures on all subjects in all universities. But before two years had
passed one of the most Conservative members of the Centre, Freiherr
von Hertling, declared, with great force, that he was quite in favour
of women studying whatever they wished. This is a good example of
the influence that may be exercised by a powerful party which really
knows what it wants.
Another question is the right of forming unions and of holding
meetings. In many States, even in reactionary Saxony, women and
men have equal rights on this matter. In other States—and Prussia is
naturally foremost in the cause of reaction—the right of women to
form unions has been much crippled. Some progress in this question
has also been made by the Centre. Now that party is ready to declare,
not indeed that women should have freedom to form political
unions, but that the millions of women who are struggling in
industry for existence should have liberty to form unions and
associations, and that no impediments should be placed in their way
to prevent them from combining together. These victories show how
we should work if we wish to be successful. The question of obtaining
for women universal, equal, secret and direct Suffrage is looked upon
somewhat askance by middle-class parties. We need not wonder
much at this, because in many middle-class circles there is a good
deal of dislike to universal, equal, secret and direct Suffrage for men,
and a very influential class thinks that this Suffrage should at the
first good opportunity be subverted or weakened. These people are
naturally not prepared to grant the franchise to women. But,
nevertheless, I venture to prophesy that in Germany we shall extend
this franchise to women before it shall be taken away from men. I
will venture to say that the proposal to do that cannot succeed, and I
am sure it would be very imprudent to attempt it, because if it were
done all men who have the vote, and who would by the proposal be
injured, would raise such a protest and engage in such a struggle as
Germany has never seen. And just as the Centre in 1898 declined to
follow one of its members when he proposed then the law on
penitentiaries, so I do not think it will care to shake up our great
mass of voters by trying to curtail the franchise. But on the other
hand, as discontent increases in the mass and the power of Socialism
grows, it is possible, in order to weaken our voting power, that our
enemies might try to get the support of women, because,
undoubtedly, there are a large number of them who are not friendly
to the Social-Democratic organisation. Reckoning on this—I will not
consider to-night why it is so—and that women are often indifferent,
and will either be influenced by Conservatives or by clergymen, the
majority may think that the granting of Woman Suffrage would be a
disadvantage to the Socialists. That is undoubtedly right. But it will
be our own fault if, when women get the vote, they are against us. All
the reasons which are urged to-day against Woman Suffrage were
formerly used against granting the vote to men. I myself, 43 years
ago, as a member of the Builders’ Union, spoke against Universal
Suffrage on the ground that working men were not properly
educated. That has, in fact, been shown to be true, for now, after
having Universal Suffrage in Germany for nearly 40 years, we still
have nearly seven and a-half millions of votes against us. There is no
doubt that the great majority of these men are working men who vote
against the interests of their own class. But no one of our party has,
therefore, thought it necessary to speak against Universal Suffrage,
but we have gone on agitating and trying to convince people more
and more that Social-Democracy is the only cure for the evils of life.
Already we have three millions of voters on our side, and I hope that
we may get four, five, and six millions, and become the majority.
Then when the Reaction calls the women to its aid as a last chance,
then we men must work not only among our sex but also among the
women. Then the last anchor which holds the middle-class society
will give way.
In Belgium, in Austria, in Sweden, the position of women is more
backward than in our country. Those who know what power the
priest still has in some Catholic countries near Germany will
understand why our comrades did not think that Woman Suffrage
was advisable there at present. Yet I do not think that in those
countries the Reaction was prepared to give Universal Suffrage to
men and to women. But, on the other hand, it would have done our
cause a great deal of good if our comrades themselves had agitated
for this, and thus have made the reactionaries appear unfriendly to
woman. If, then, the question had really become one of practical
politics, they could have said: “We were the first in favour of this
Woman Suffrage.” But I will not enter here into any polemic with our
foreign comrades; I have only felt myself compelled at this moment
to give the arguments on both sides as briefly as possible. We can
discuss this matter next year at the International Congress at
Stuttgart.
For myself I have no doubt in the matter, if we wish to succeed—and
we must succeed—we cannot do so if we put our principal demands
in the background, and declare that we only expect to get some of our
demands. I hold that to be bad tactics, and that is why I am glad that
on this occasion the question of Woman Suffrage was argued fairly
and openly, and I beg of you to unanimously adopt the resolution
which has been read. You thus will pledge the party to carry on the
struggle, and, sooner or later, to be victorious.
Frau Wengels, of Berlin, moved the closure.
Frau Braun, of Berlin, wished to speak on behalf of English
supporters of Woman Suffrage.
The closure was adopted.
The resolution was unanimously adopted, and it was also decided to
print as a pamphlet a full report of the speeches.
Translated by Jacques Bonhomme.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
1. Silently corrected typographical errors.
2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard
spellings as printed.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOCIAL-
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