Atomic structure & Equilibrium

Mass Number (A) :

Total number of neutrons in atom
protons plus
Atomic Number (2) Number of protons in atom

Principle energy level/shell : Electrons don't freely more around the nucleus They ,
are confined to regions of space .
A region of space around a nucleus whe reelectrons are found

subshell divided into subshell , that are designated by letter, s , p , d , -

The shell is further
f

A region of space where electrons or pair of electrons Spend 90% to 95 %

Orbitals sub shells are further divided into orbitals each orbital hold selections
.

: ,

of its time .
Electronic configuration of Atoms
ground state electron configuration :
configuration of the
The electron lowest energy of atom moleculeorion .
,

Element No : ofe Electronic configuration T

I I
the outer shell that bond other atoms
-

15 Valence Electrons : electrons in

First H I 15

dar
period inevertical columns in the periodic table is called group
. groups ,
He 152 represent the number of valence electrons , thus elements in the
2 p
same group have similar chemical properties

n
second
other electrons that are closer to the nucleus .
Li
152251/[He]25 core electrons :
3
period
Be & 152282/[He]25
4f
B 5 152252 2p/[He] 2522p/
C 6 1522522p2/CHe] 2522p2 you fill Is before 3f

N 7 1522522p3/[He]2522p3 Molecular bonding/intramolecular bonding

153252 bonding sharing of electrons , generally between nonmetals
2pd/[He]2522p4 covalent :
O S
A chemical bond resulting from the sharing of one/more pairs of electrons
Ionic b onding : A chemical bond resulting from the electrostatic attraction cation and
F 9 152252245/[He]2522p5
Anion : negatively charged
Ne 18 1522532p6/[He]2522pS cation : positively charged
full fill their tendency of atoms to form outtershell
of s
Third Atoms form molecules to
Na Il 152252 2p6351/[Ne]35/
period electrons , called octetrule : The tendency of atoms from 1-7 elements to group ,

react in way that achieve full outter shell .

MG 12 1522522p6352/[Ne] 352 an

Electroneg ativity
Electroneg ativity : measure of the force of attraction for electron it shares in
Al 13 1522522p635734//[Ne]352zp chemical bond with anotheratom .
an atom a

Si 14 152252 2p6352342/[Ne]3523p Trend in the periodictable

from left right of a period , electronegativity generally increases
to because of the
P 15 1522822463523p3/[Ne73523p3 increasing positive charge on the nucleus which leads to stronger attraction in valence
shell From bottom to top within a group , electronegativity increases because of distance
.

j 16 152252 2p63523p9/[Ne] 3523p9 between nucleus and valence electron decreasing which leads to stronger attraction
between nucleus and valence electrons .
Cl 17 1522522p63823p5/[Ne]352345
I I I
Ar
- 1822522463523p6/[Ne]3523p6 0 .0 .
04 Polar covalent bond 2 0
. Ionic bond .
4 0

nonpolar
covalent bond : forms when portion of atomicorbital of atom covalent
overlaps that of another atom .

Example : H-H , approach each other so thatI s orbital overlaps to form a

sigma covalent bond .

Sigmabonds is a covalent bond where orbitals overlap

along the axis joining two nuclei.
Hybridisation of Atomic orbitals : The formation of covalent bonds with second period elements, presents a problem : Informing covalent bonds atoms of carbon ,

nitrogen and oxygen (all and periodelements) use 25 and 2p atomic orbitals . The three orbitals of 2p are 900 to each other and if atoms these orbitals to
form covalent bonds , the bonds would approximately 90 : However , they actually 120 ; 180 ; 108 : to Account for these Pauling proposed atomic orbitals
that combine to form new orbital called hybrid orbitals .
of zor more atomic orbital
Hybrid orbitals : An orbital produced from combination

sp3 Hybrid Orbital

: combination of o n e sorbital and three zporbital forms four equivalent sp3 hybrid orbital .

up2 Hybrid Orbital : combination of 25 and two 2porbital form three equivalent sp2 Hybrid orbital
pi(n) bond : A covalent bond formed by the overlap of // porbitals Shapes of molecules USPER

1180)
1120) ( ??)
(i
!) !)
(
1108)

??) ) . 180
(!
17
i

180
Lewis structure

f ormal :
# of neutral atom
-
# of allocate bonded atom
(??) (2)(i)(es
formal charge ?
Hybridisation ?
Chemical Equilibrium
Reversible : when reactants and products are of similar stability , the reaction is reverisble .
Reversible reaction can either way from reactant to product or product to reactant
go
A + B
The reaction read from
left to right is called forward reactions and reaction from right to left is reverse reaction . Both
reaction occur till the concentration of reactants and products undergo no further change . At this point, reaction vessel contains mixture all reactants
and products and reaction is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium

chemical equilibrium
N

Forwarion
-
rectant
oduct
i
everse Reaction
>
time Time
·
All substance present are being made and unmade at the same rate , so their concentration at equilibrium is constant
·
The concentration of reactants and products may not be the s a m e

k(Equilibrium) - [c] Product

constant
[A] [B] Reactant
· < 0 001 Only Reactants ; no forward
.
-
reaction
at equilibrium ; Reverse faster
·
0 001 < K)1-more Reactants than products
.

·
1k < 1000 more products than reactant at equilibrium ; Forward faster
-

·
< 1000- only products ; reaction only goes forward

Le Chatelier's principle : When stress is applied to a system at equilibrium the equilibrium shifts to relive stress and restore equilibrium changes
, .
in
concentration , temperature and pressure affects equilibrium , but catalyst doesn't it only affects the time to reach equilibrium . ,

Acids and Bases

Acid : Anacid is a proton donor Conjugate Acid-Base Pair
HA H20 -Hz0T A-
S
&conjugate
+
+
- Acid N
conjugate base
Bronsted
Base : A base is a proton acceptor
Lowry Base
B + H20 - BHY + OH- NH3 + +28 >
- NHqt + OH
X
Base ↑conjugate Bronsted
Conjugate
Lowry Acid base
Acid
Base is anything that lone pair of electrons that bind with H

↑
r

Acid , Base strenght

Strong acid completely : ionises in water , for strong acids the Kaisbig , PKais small
& Acid-Base
base completely dissociate in water , for strongbase the Kaisbig Pka is pair
strong :
,
small

The concept of PH , POH , K

PH value : the scale used to measure how acidic

or basic a solution is

10910[HzOT]
PH = -

If concentration CoHJ is known Pka for strong acid is small Kais

, big
POH = -10910COH-] pkb for strong base is small , kbisbig

kw = 1 x 10
- 4
=
[Hz0
+
] + [OH-]

Buffers are solutions that maintain the phapprox constant despite small addition of acid o r base-resist the changes in PH
usually a mixture of weakacid and its conjugate base when small quantites of Hzo+ o r o f added to the buffer they , cause small amount
of one buffer component to convert into the other .
- Conjugate Buffer solution
base
][A-]
·

BufferQuesti on ka =
[Hz0
+
1 .

[A -J ph = pa
CHA] =
,

- [CHyCOOH] -

0 001 M .
CHA]
Acid
.
2 [HA] > [A-J , ph < pla
Acid 3 [HA][A-J Ph > pka
. ,

[CHyCOONa]-0 .

001 M
[HzO
- +
] =
CHA] X Ka Method ofpreparing buffer solution
Conjugate base
[A ]
-

22
-
5
ka = 1 73x10
.

CH3COOH + H20 -CHyCOO + Hz8t 10910 (H30 ]

[HA] xKa
+
- 10910
-
=

-
[A ]
-

=
[CH3(00-]x[H30 + ]

↓ [CHyCOOH] X [H20]
got [A ]
-
Buffer Range

0
Already CH3 COO-
H30t ↑ ph PKa 109 ,
= +

accounts for
CH3COOH
Hendersson Hasselbach Equation
H20 0 001
I O 0 001 only true if near buffer region
.
.

C +H +H
when [A-Jir/0x [HA] when [HA] is 10 X
[A]
-
x Question :
77 x10- 9 Pka
Formic Acid : Ka = ph pka Ph 10g , 0)
b)
+
1
10g10 (10)
=

001
=
+
E 0 001 0 +2
.

x +
.

2
-
.

Pka = 3 75 .

PH = Pka + 1 Ph = p(a -
1
5
10 x)(x)

toget
00 1 +
-

1 73x10 =
.
.

10 001 .
-

x) EffectivePHRange PKall
:
Phlevel =

[Hz0 ]
+
6x10 5
-

x
Buffer capacity
=
1
acid/base
= .

: The amount of a buffer before

5)
10910 (1
=
PH = 6 x 10
-

.
=
4 78
.

0 5
.
ph changes by a large amount

when [HA] [A], has a higher capacity for added base

↑ twice as
much for
when [A] > [HA] ,
har a higher capacity for added a did

Buffers !
[A ]
-