UNIT-Ⅰ

Resistive Transducers: Resistance Potentiometer: Loading effect on Potentiometer.

Resistance Strain gauges: Un bonded and Bonded type strain gauges. Applications:
Temperature Measurement using RTD and Thermistor – Gas flow measurement using hot-
wire Anemometer –measurement of moisture in solids and wood – level measurement
using resistive tapes. Piezoelectric Transducers - Magnetostrictive Transducers – Hall
Effect Transducers – Photo electric Transducer.

POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by
comparing it with a known voltage. The known voltage may be supplied by a standard cell or
any other known voltage reference source.
Another advantage of the potentiometers is that since a potentiometer makes
use of a balance or null condition, no current flows and hence no power is consumed in the
circuit containing the unknown emf when the instrument is balanced.

Types of Potentiometer
There are two main types of potentiometers:
• Rotary potentiometer-The rotary type potentiometers are used mainly for obtaining
adjustable supply voltage to a part of electronic circuits and electrical circuits. The
volume controller of a radio transistor is a popular example of a rotary potentiometer
where the rotary knob of the potentiometer controls the supply to the amplifier.

ROTARY POTENTIOMETER
 • Linear potentiometer- The linear potentiometer is basically the same but the only
difference is that here instead of rotary movement the sliding contact gets moved on
the resistor linearly.

Basic Potentiometer Circuit

The principle of operation of all potentiometers is based on the circuit of, which shows the
schematic diagram of the basic slide wire potentiometer. With switch 'S' in the "operate"
position and the galvanometer key K open, the battery supplies the "working current" through
the rheostat R and the slide wire.
The working current through the slide wire may be varied by changing the rheostat setting.
The method of measuring the unknown voltage, E, depends upon finding a position for the
sliding contact such the galvanometer shows zero deflection, i.e., indicates null condition,
when the galvanometer key, K, is closed. Zero galvanometer deflection or a null means that
the unknown voltage, E, is equal to the voltage drop Ey across portion ac of the slide wire.
Thus determination of the value of unknown voltage now becomes a matter of evaluating the
voltage drop Ej along the portion ac of the slide wire.

The slide wire has a uniform cross-section and hence uniform resistance along its entire
length. A calibrated scale in cm and fractions of cm, is placed along the slide wire so that the
sliding contact can be placed accurately at any desired position along the slide wire.
Since the resistance of slide wire is known accurately, the voltage drop along the slide wire
can be controlled by adjusting the value of working current. The process of adjusting the
working current so as to match the voltage drop across a portion of sliding wire against a
standard reference source is known as "Standardisation".
Standardisation. The procedure for standardisation of the potentiometer is illustrated by the
following example : The slide wire of Fig. 15.1 has a total length of 200 cm and a resistance
of 200 Q.
The emf of the standard cell is 1.0186 V. Switch 'S' is thrown to "calibrate” position
and the sliding contact is placed at 101.86 cm mark on the slide wire scale. The rheostat Rh is
now adjusted so as to vary the working current. This adjustment is carried on till the
galvanometer shows no deflection when key 'K' is pressed.
Under these conditions, the voltage drop along the 101.86 cm portion of the slide wire
is equal to standard cell voltage of 101.86 V. Since the 101.86 cm portion of the slide wire
has a resistance of 101.86 Q, the working current in fact has been adjusted to a value ; 1-0186
x 1000 = 10 mA. 101.86 The voltage at any point along the slide wire is proportional to the
length of slide wire. This voltage is obtained by converting the calibrated length into the
corresponding voltage, simply by placing the decimal point in the proper position e.g. 153.6
cm. = 1.536 V', If the potentiometer has been calibrated once, its working current is never
changed

Applications of Potentiometers
• Audio control: Both linear, and rotary potentiometers, are used to control audio
equipment for changing the loudness and other audio related signals.
• Television: They are used to control the picture brightness, colour response and
contrast.
• Motion control: In order to create a closed-loop control, potentiometers are used as
position feedback devices known as a servomechanism.
• Transducers: As these give large output signals, they find applications in designing
of displacement transducers
STRAIN GAUGE
 If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of
the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change.
 Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
and this property is called piezoresistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are
also known as piezoresistive gauges.
 The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and associated stress in
experimental stress analysis.
 Secondly, many other detectors and transducers, notably the load cells, torque meters,
diaphragm type pressure gauges, temperature sensors, accelerometers and flow
meters, employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.

Basic Principle
We know that the resistance of a conductor is given by,
ρL
R=
a
Where ρ is the specific resistivity, L is the length and a is the area of cross-section of
the resistance material. When this material is under a strain, the resistance R will change
because of the change in L, a or ρ.

The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and 0.5. This gives a gauge factor of
approximately, 2. The common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This gives a value of
1.6 for wire wound strain gauges.

Grid Material Composition GF

Nichrome 80% Ni, 20% Cr +2.0
Constantan 45% Ni, 55% Cu +2.0
36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5%
Isoelastic Mo, remaining Mn,Fe +3.5
and Si
Iridium-Platinum 5% Ir, 95% Pt +5.10
Working Principle
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the dimensions :
length= L, area A, diameter=D before being strained. The material of the wire has a resistivity
p.
⸫ Resistance of unstrained gauge R =pL/ A.
Let a tensile stress s be applied to the wire. This produces a positive strain causing the
length to increase and area to decrease as shown. Thus when the wire is strained there are
changes in its dimensions. Let ΔL= change in length, ΔA = change in area, ΔD = change in
diameter and ΔR = change in resistance.

In order to find how ΔR depends upon the material physical quantities, the expression
for R is differentiated with respect to stress s.
Thus we get:
dR ρ δL ρL ρA L δρ
= − +
ds A δs A 2 δs A δs

Dividing throughout by resistance R= ρ L/ A, we have

1 dR 1 δL 1 δA L δρ
= − +
R ds L δs A δs A δs

It is evident that the per unit change in resistance is due to:

 Per unit change in length = ΔL/ L
 Per unit change in area = ΔA/ A, and
 Per unit change in resistivity = Δp/p

π 2 δA π δD
Area A= D ⸫ =2. D .
4 δs 4 ds

Or
1 dA
=
( 4 ) δD 2 δD
2π
D
=
A ds
( 4)D
π δ s D δs
2

⸫ The above equation can be written as:

1 dR 1 δL 2 δ D 1 δρ
= − +
R ds L δs D δs ρ δs

Now, Poisson’s ratio :

lateral strain δD /D
v= =
longitudinal strain δL /L
or δD/D = -v x δL/L
1 dR 1 δL 2 δD 1 δρ
⸫ = − +
R ds L δs D δs ρ δs
For small variations, the above relationship can be written as:
ΔR ΔL ΔL Δρ
= +2 v +
R L L ρ
The gauge tactor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit
change in length.
ΔR /R
Gauge factor Gf =
ΔL / L
ΔR ΔL
or =Gf =Gf x ε
R L
ΔL
where, ε = strain = L

The gauge factor can be written as :

Δρ / ρ
¿ 1+2 v +
ε

= 1 2v Δρ /ρ
+
+ ε
Resistance change due to
Resistance change due to change in area Resistance change due to
change of length piezoresistive effect

ΔR /R Δρ/ ρ
Gf = =1+2 v +
ΔL / L ΔL/ L
The strain is usually expressed in terms of microstrain. 1 microstrain = 1 μm/m.
If the change in the value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected, the
gauge factor is :
G=1+2v
It is valid only when Piezoresistive Effect i.e., change in resistivity due to strain is
almost negligible.

The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and 0.5. This gives a gauge factor of
approximately, 2. The common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3. This gives a value of
1.6 for wire wound strain gauges.
Types of Strain gauges
Based on the construction method used strain gauges are classified as,
1. Unbonded type
2. Bonded type

Unbonded type Strain gauge

An unbonded metal strain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points in an
insulating medium such as air. The wires may be made of various copper nickel, chrome
nickel or nickel iron alloys. They are about 0.003 mm in diameter, have a gauge factor of 2
to 4 and sustain 9 force of 2 mN. The length of wire is 25 nun or less. the flexture element is
connected via a rod to a diaphragm which is used for sensing of pressure. The wires are
tensioned to avoid buckling when they experience a compressive force.

The unbonded metal wire gauges, used almost exclusively in transducer applications, employ
preloaded resistance wires connected in a wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 25.56(b). At
initial preload, the strains and resistances of the four arms are nominally equal, with the result
the output voltage of the bridge, e0 = 0.

Bonded type Strain gauge

The bonded metal-wire strain gauges are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducers. A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance
wire of about 0.025 mm in diameter or less.
The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which may be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet
of bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top with a thin sheet of material so as
to prevent it from any mechanical damage. The spreading of wire permits a uniform
distribution of stress over the grid. The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the
specimen under study.
This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires cannot
buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement and hence faithfully follow both the
tensile and compressive strains of the specimen.
Since, the materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire strain gauges are the same
as used for unbonded wire strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for both are
comparable. The size of the strain gauges varies with application. They can be as small as 3
mm by 3 cm square. Usually they are larger but seldom more than 25 mm long and 12.5 mm
wide.

.
Based on the type of resistance material strain gauges can be classified into
 Fine wire strain gauge
 Metal foil strain gauge
 Semiconductor strain gauge.
 Photo-electric strain gauge

Advantages
i. Semi-conductor strain gauges have the advantage that they have a high gauge factor
of about ± 130. This allows measurement of very small strains of the order of 0.01
microstrain.
ii. Hysteresis characteristics of semi-conductor strain gauges are excellent. Some units
maintain it to less than 0.05%.
iii. Fatigue life is in excess of 10 × 106 operations and the frequency response is upto
1012 Hz.
iv. Semi-conductor strain gauges can be very small ranging in length from 0.7 to 7 mm.
They are very useful for measurement of local strains.
Disadvantages
i. The major and serious disadvantage of semi-conductor strain gauges is that they are
very sensitive to changes in temperature.
ii. Linearity of the semi-conductor strain gauge is poor. The equation for the fractional
change in resistance is :
ΔR/R = As+ Bε 4m
where A and B are constants.
This gauge is rather non-linear comparatively high strain levels. The gauge factor
varies with strain. For example, if the gauge factor is 130 at 0.2 percent strain, then it
is 112 at 0.4 percent strain. The charac- teristics can be made linear by proper
doping.
iii. Semi-conductor strain gauges are more expensive and difficult to attach to the object
under study.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING RTD AND THERMISTOR

Temperature Sensor
A temperature sensor is a device that measures temperature and converts it into an
electrical signal that can be read by a system or user. These sensors are used in various
applications, from industrial automation and medical devices to home automation and
weather monitoring.

Types of Temperature Sensor

There are a wide variety of temperature sensors on the market today, including
• Thermocouples,
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs),
• Thermistors
THERMISTORS
Thermistor is a contraction of a term "thermal resistors". Thermistors are
generally composed of semi-conductor materials. Although positive tempe rature co-efficient
of units (which exhibit an increase in the value of resistance with increase in temperature) are
available, most thermistors have a negative coefficient of temperature resistance
i.e. their resistance decreases with increase of temperature. The negative
temperature coefficient of resistance can be as large as several percent per degree Celsius.

Construction of Thermistors
 Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in variety of sizes
and shapes. The thermistors may be in the form of beads, rods and discs.
Some of the commercial forms are shown in Fig. 25.65. A thermistor in the form of
a bead is smallest in size and the bead may have a diameter of 0.015 mm to 1.25 mm. Beads
may be sealed in the tips of solid glass rods to form probes which may be easier to mount
than the beads.
Glass probes have a diameter of about 2.5 mm and a length which varies from 6 mm
to 50 mm. Discs are made by pressing material under high pressure into cylindrical flat
shapes with diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm.

Resistance-Temperature
Characteristics of Thermistors
The mathematical expression for the relationship between the resistance of a
thermistor and absolute temperature of thermistor is :
RT1 = RT2 exp[β(1/T1 – 1/T2)]
where Rr1 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T1; °K,
RT2 = resistance of the thermistor at absolute temperature T2; °K,
B = a constant depending upon the material of thermistor, typically 3500 to 4500 °K
The resistance temperature characteristics of a typical thermistor are given in Fig.
25.66. The resistance temperature characteristics of Fig. 25.66 shows that a thermistor has a
very high negative temperature co-efficient of resistance, making it an ideal temperature
transducer. Figure 25.66 also shows the resistance temperature characteristics of platinum
which is a commonly used material for resistance thermometers. Let us compare the
characteristics of the two materials. Between -- 100°C and 400°C, the thermistor changes its
resistivity from 10° to 10-20m, a factor of 10, while platinum changes its resistivity by a
factor of about 10 within the same temperature range. This explains the high sensitivity of
thermistors for measurement of temperature.
 Applications of Thermistors
1. Measurement of Temperature.
2. Control of Temperature
3. Temperature Compensation.

THERMOCOUPLES
The emf produced in a thermocouple circuit is given by :
E = a(Δθ)+b(Δθ)2
Where, Δθ difference in temperature between the hot thermocouple junction and the
reference
junction of the thermocouple ; °C,
a, b= constants.
a is usually very large as compared with b and therefore emf thermocouple is
E = a(Δθ) or Δθ = E/a
Construction of Thermocouples
A pair of two dissimilar metals that are in physical contact with each other form
a thermocouple. These metals may be twisted, screwed, peened, clamped or welded
together. The most commonly used method for fabricating is to weld the metals
together.
Thermocouples do not use bare conductors except in applications where
atmospheric conditions permit their use. These conditions obtain when temperatures
to be measured are low and the atmosphere is non-corrosive.
Industrial thermocouples employ protective sheathing surrounding the junction
and a portion of the extension leads. The leads and the junction are internally insulated
from the sheath, using various potting compounds, ceramic beads or oxides. The type
of insulation used depends upon the process being monitored. The different types of
protective sheaths used for thermocouples.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is changed. This
property is utilized for measurement of temperature.
The variation of resistance R with temperature T(°K) can be represented by the
following relationship for most of the metals as :
R = R(1+α2T+α2T2+...+ α, T” +...)
where R resistance at temperature T =0 and a1, α2,3,...α, are constants.
The resistance thermometer uses the change in electrical resistance of
conductor to determine the temperature.
The resistivity of metals showed a marked dependence on temperature was
discovered by Sir Humphry7 Davy. A few years later Sir William Siemens preferred
the use of platinum as an element in the resistance thermometer. His choice proved
most propitious, as platinum is used to this day as the primary element in all high
accuracy resistance thermometers.
In fact, the platinum resistance temperature detector (PRTD) is used today as an
interpolation standard from oxygen point (- 182.96°C) to antimony point (630.74°)
Platinum is especially suited for this purpose, as it can withstand high temperatures
while maintaining excellent stability.
As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility to contamination. All metals
produce a positive change in resistance with temperature. This, of course, is the main
function of an RTD. The system error is minimized when the nominal value of RTD is
large. This implies a metal with a high value of resistivity should be used for RTDs.

The requirements of a conductor material to be used in RTDs are :

i. The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should be
as large as possible.
ii. The material should have a high value of resistivity so that minimum volume of
material is used for the construction of RTD.
iii. The resistance of materials should have a continuous and stable relationship
with temperature.

Gas Flow Measurement Using a Hot-Wire Anemometer

A Hot-Wire Anemometer (HWA) is a highly sensitive device used to measure the velocity of
gases, including air, in various applications such as aerodynamics, HVAC systems,
combustion monitoring, and industrial gas flow measurement.

Principle of Operation
The hot-wire anemometer operates based on convective heat transfer. It consists of a thin
wire (usually platinum or tungsten) heated electrically. When gas flows over the wire:
 The wire cools down due to heat transfer.
 To maintain a constant temperature, the system adjusts the electrical current supplied
to the wire.
 The change in current is proportional to the flow velocity of the gas.
This principle follows King’s Law, which relates the heat loss of the wire to the velocity of
the surrounding gas.

Types of Hot-Wire Anemometers

1. Constant Current Anemometer (CCA)
 The current through the wire remains constant.
 The change in temperature affects the wire's resistance, which is measured.
  Used in low-speed and turbulent flow applications.
2. Constant Temperature Anemometer (CTA) (Most Common)
 Maintains a constant wire temperature by varying the current.
 Faster response time and higher accuracy.
 Common in gas flow diagnostics, aerodynamics, and industrial applications.
3. Constant Voltage Anemometer (CVA)
 The voltage across the wire is kept constant.
 Less commonly used due to lower stability and accuracy.

Gas Flow Measurement Process

1. Wire Heating – The wire is heated above the gas temperature using an electrical
circuit.
2. Heat Loss Measurement – The rate of heat loss due to gas flow is monitored.
3. Velocity Calculation – Using King’s Law, the flow velocity is derived from the
power needed to maintain the wire temperature.
Q=A+BUn

Measurement of Moisture in Solids and Wood

Moisture content measurement is crucial in industries such as wood processing,
construction, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and food production. Accurate measurement
ensures product quality, prevents defects, and enhances durability.

Methods of Moisture Measurement

1. Oven Drying Method (Standard Reference Method)
 The sample is weighed before and after drying in an oven at a controlled temperature
(usually 100-110°C).
 The weight loss represents the moisture content.
 Advantages: Highly accurate, widely accepted.
 Disadvantages: Time-consuming, not suitable for real-time monitoring.
2. Electrical Resistance Method
 Based on the principle that moisture affects the electrical resistance of a material.
  Uses two electrodes inserted into the solid or wood.
 Advantages: Quick, portable, and suitable for field measurements.
 Disadvantages: Affected by temperature and wood type.
3. Capacitance (Dielectric) Method
 Measures changes in dielectric constant caused by moisture.
 Non-invasive sensors detect moisture levels through a solid surface.
 Advantages: Fast, non-destructive, and suitable for production lines.
 Disadvantages: Less accurate for non-uniform materials.
4. Infrared (IR) Moisture Sensors
 Uses infrared radiation absorption by water molecules to determine moisture content.
 Advantages: Non-contact, works well for conveyor-based measurements.
 Disadvantages: Expensive, affected by surface conditions.
5. Karl Fischer Titration (For High-Precision Analysis)
 A chemical method that reacts water with Karl Fischer reagent to determine moisture
content.
 Advantages: Highly precise, used in laboratories for low-moisture materials.
 Disadvantages: Requires chemicals, not suitable for large-scale monitoring.

Applications
 Wood Industry: Ensures proper drying before processing and prevents warping.
 Construction: Prevents structural damage caused by excess moisture.
 Agriculture: Determines water content in grains, soil, and crops.
 Pharmaceuticals: Ensures correct moisture levels in drugs and powders.
 Food Industry: Prevents spoilage and ensures consistency in products like flour and
sugar.

LEVEL MEASUREMENT USING RESISTIVE TAPES

Resistive tape level measurement is a technique used to determine the level of liquids
or granular solids in tanks, silos, and other storage containers. It operates based on changes in
electrical resistance along a conductive tape or strip.
.

Principle of Operation
 A resistive tape consists of a long, flexible strip embedded with resistive
elements.
 One end of the tape is connected to an electrical circuit, while the other end is
either open or grounded.
 As the liquid or material level rises or falls, it makes contact with different
points on the tape, changing the effective resistance.
 The resistance change is measured and converted into a corresponding level
reading.

Types of Resistive Tape Level Sensors

1. Continuous Resistive Tape Sensors
 Provides a continuous level reading by detecting resistance variations along the
length of the tape.
 Suitable for applications requiring precise and real-time monitoring.
2. Discrete (Step-Wise) Resistive Tape Sensors
 Uses segmented resistive elements that provide step-wise level readings at
fixed intervals.
 Less accurate than continuous sensors but more cost-effective.
Advantages of Resistive Tape Level Measurement
 Simple and cost-effective compared to other electronic level sensors.
 Works for both liquids and bulk solids in tanks, silos, and bins.
 Low maintenance due to minimal mechanical components.
 Reliable for high and low-level detection in industrial applications.

PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS

The piezoelectric transducers work on the principle of piezoelectric effect. When

mechanical stress or forces are applied to some materials along certain planes, they produce
electric voltage. This electric voltage can be measured easily by the voltage measuring
instruments, which can be used to measure the stress or force.

The physical quantities like stress and force cannot be measured directly. In such cases the
material exhibiting piezoelectric transducers can be used.

The stress or the force that has to be measured is applied along certain planes to these
materials.

The voltage output obtained from these materials due to piezoelectric effect is proportional
to the applied stress or force.

The output voltage can be calibrated against the applied stress or the force so that the
measured value of the output voltage directly gives the value of the applied stress or force. In
fact the scale can be marked directly in terms of stress or force to give the values directly.

Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers

Every devise has certain advantages and limitations. The piezoelectric transducers offer
several advantages as mentioned below:
1) High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response that means the
parameter changing at very high speeds can be sensed easily.
2) High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect the events of
microseconds and also give the linear output.
3) High output: They offer high output that be measured in the electronic circuit.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Magnetostrictive transducers are similar to piezoelectric transducers and are based on the,
application of the magnetostriction phenomenon. They are converters of mechanical energy
into magnetic energy and are also known as magneto-elastic transducers.

The phenomenon is reversible and the devices developed convert energy from one form to
another.

The natural of the transducers can be as high as 10 KHz and are very much used as
transmitters (senders) and receivers in vibration and acoustic studies.

The transducers possess very high mechanical input impedance and are suitable for
measurement of force and hence acceleration and pressure. They can measure large forces,
both static and dynamic.

They are rugged in constructional features and when used as active transducers, the output
impedance is low.

Nickel and nickel-alloys are frequency mostly used.

It is the basic non-linearity in the B-H characteristic which is responsible for its limited
scope of application, especially when high accuracy is desired.

Magnetostriction Phenomenon
Certain ferromagnetic materials are considerably affected in their magnetic properties
when they are mechanically stressed. This phenomenon is known as "magnetostriction"
(Villari effect) and is particularly significant in nickel and nickel- iron alloys. The shape and
size of the B – H characteristic and the B - H loop is sufficiently altered when the material is
subjected to tensile compression or shear stress.

The B – H characteristics of nickel and nickel-iron (Ni, 68%) alloy are presented in figure
below shows the effect of increasing tensile stress on the materials. Similarly, the
magnetization characteristic is affected and it is observed that the permeability increases with
increase in tensile stress in the case of nickeliron alloys and decreases in the case of pure
nickel.
 B-H characteristics under different stress values (a) For nickel (b) For Nickel-lron alloy

The change in the shape of the B - H loop alters the remnance Br of the material.
When Br and permeability decrease with increase-in stress, it is known as "negative
magnetostriction".

Characteristics of a nickel sample (a) For H variation (b)For superposed cyclic torsion .

The percentage of nickel in the nickel-iron alloy has considerable influence on the
characteristics. The materials are sensitive to the polarity of stress and hence the transducers
enable measurement of alternating forces.

Some ferrite materials such as 'Ferroxcube B' exhibit magnetostriction of considerable

degree but due of their brittleness, they are not used. Fig, (a) shows the variation of B with
stress at different values of H and Fig. (b) shows the effect of superposition of cyclic torsion
on tensile stress for the case of a nickel sample.

Hall Effect Transducers

Hall effect sensor is a device that is used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic
field. It consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the
magnetic field. This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly
proportional to the magnetic field strength. For an excitation current I and magnetic field
strength B, the output voltage is given by VD.

The conductor in Hall effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as
opposed to a metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a
given size.

On common use of the device as a proximity sensors, the magnetic field is provided by a
permanent magnet that is built into the device.

The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes close to any ferrous metal
object or boundary.

The Hall effect is also commonly used in keyboard pushbuttons, in which a magnet is
attached underneath the button. When button is depressed the magnet moves past a hall-effect
sensor.

The induced voltage is then converted by a trigger circuit into a digital output. Such
pushbutton switches can operate at high frequencies without contact bounce.

PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS
Photoelectric transducers use the effect of visible radiations and produce photoelectric
effect. These transducers generate an output signal depending on either the emission or
absorption of the incident light on the photo sensitive material. For position sensing purpose,
photoelectric sensors are preferred. They will produce a pulse based on a modulated light
beam which is broken or reflected by the target.

Due to the intensity of the incident light or radiation of suitable wavelength on the surface
of the photo sensitive material, there will be ejection of electrons from the surface of the
material and further generation of electrical signal proportional to the intensity of light. This
effect is called photoelectric effect.