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 WINE GRAPE-CULTIVATION
WINE MAKING AND
IMPROVEMENT OF WINE QUALITY

Dr. S.D. SHIKHAMANY

Vice-Chancellor
and
Dr. B. SRINIVASULU
Controller of Examinations
Andhra Pradesh Horticultural University

Published by
ANDHRA PRADESH HORTICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
Venkataramannagudem,
West Godavari District – 534 101 (A.P)

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 WINE GRAPE - CULTIVATION, WINE MAKING
AND IMPROVEMENT OF WINE QUALITY

INTRODUCTION
Historically, grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is grown mostly for wine making in the
world over. In India on the contrary remarkable success has been achieved in table
grape production and yield levels of fresh grapes are among the highest in the
world. At present in India grape is grown over an area of 60,000 ha with an annual
production of 1.6 million tonnes.

Wine has been made in India for as many as 5,000 years. It was the early
European travellers to the courts of the Mughal emperors Akbar, Jehangir and Shah
Jehan in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries A.D. who reported tasting wines
from the royal vineyards. Both red (Kandhari) and white wines (Bhokri, Fakdi, Sahebi
etc.) were produced. Under British influence in the nineteenth century, vineyards
were established in Kashmir and at Baramati in Maharashtra and a number of Indian
wines were exhibited and favourably received by visitors to the Great Calcutta
Exhibition of 1884. However, Indian vineyards were totally destroyed by unknown
reasons in the 1890s.

Grapes are unique among fruits. Ripe, they contain sufficient sugar and an
appropriate amount of acid so that when they ferment enough alcohol is produced
to make a palatable wine that is protected against imminent spoilage. Other fruits do
not possess the proper balance of these basic constituents. Hence, sugar, acid, or
water, or sometimes a combination of them must be added prior to fermentation.
Otherwise, inadequate or excessive alcohol may be formed, fermentations may stuck,
and the product could either be so acidic (tart) or so flat that it would taste unpleasant
or insipid. Minor adjustments in sugar and acid content of vinifera grapes may
sometimes be required, but not often. On the other hand, other fruits almost always
require additional steps in preparing and handling the raw material that don’t apply
to making grape wine. Hence, this publication is confined to grape wines.

Grape wine contains more glucose than any fruit. That is why glucose is called
grape sugar. Alcohol formed by fermented different sugars will have different quality.
Alcohol from glucose have antioxidants viz., polyphenols, anthrocyanidins and
resveratrol. The red wine contains anti-oxidant resveratrol in addition to polyphenols,
anthrocyanidins. Resveratrol in particular, has been demonstrated to be a potent anti-

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oxidant (about 20-50 times as effectively as vitamin C alone) and act synergistically
with vitamin C enhancing the effects of each. Resveratrol has been demonstrated to
have an anti-clotting effect that prevents the formation of thrombi or blood clots in
the blood vessels. The formation of thrombi that block small blood vessels is believed
to be a cause of heart attacks and strokes. Resveratrol has been demonstrated to have
anti-cancer effects as well.
Resveratrol has also been demonstrated to promote the formation of new
dendrites in the brain. Resveratrol and the other bioflavonoids and polyphenols are
present in large amounts in the leaves, twigs and bark of the grape vines. Thus, red
wine, which is fermented with the skins, seeds, twigs, etc. tends to contain much
larger quantities of the beneficial substances than white wine which is fermented
only from the pressed juice of the grape.
Grapevines have many natural enemies: insects, molds, bacteria, fungi, viruses
and animals such as birds that eat the sweet grapes. Certain soil-borne pests, such as
nematodes, phylloxera(wasp), phytophthora (fungus) etc may destroy the roots of
grapevines. To counter this problem, vineyards use the rootstocks from resistant
American vines .(Vitis champini, V.riparia, V.berlandieri, V.rupestris and their interspecific
hybrids etc.) and the scion cultivars from European species (V. vinifera).

Climate & Soil

Overall performance in terms of growth, yield and quality of grapes for wine
making is greatly influenced by climate & soils.
Natural factors make wine from a particular region unique, known in the wine
industry as terroir, these factors include local climate (temperature, rainfall, and
sunlight), location of grapevines (altitude and slope) and soil (structure, composition,
and water drainage). In general, a grapevine produces the best fruit when the moderate
climate provides much sunshine and cool nights without frost or hailstorms and the
soil is well drained. Grapevines grow best in sandy, chalky, or rocky soils.
A wine’s character is strongly affected by vine growing, or viticultural practices
such as training, trellising, harvesting, and pruning. Training and trellising enable the
viticulturalist to control the sun exposure to ensure the grapes ripen evenly. Grapes
harvested when they are not ripe may be low in sugar and may not ferment properly.
Overly ripe grapes have very high sugar content and produce wine high in alcohol.
Tropical vines do not show high dormant, the viticulturalist prunes the vines twice a
year. First pruning is carried out during summer every year to induce vegetative growth
and in this phase fruit bud formations occur in mature canes. The second pruning of
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matured canes is done after the rainy season to obtain fruits before the onset of
summer. As most of the wine varieties have basal fruitfulness of the canes, pruning
level is normally kept low between 4-7 buds from the base depending upon varieties.
Pruning enables the grower to control the size and shape of the vines, as well as the
number of buds that will develop the next year. Too many buds on a vine may stress
nutrient availability, reducing the quality of the future harvest.

Climate
It is the summation of weather conditions throughout the year.
Factors : i) Temperature
ii) Solar radiation, sunshine hours
iii) Rainfall, Relative humidity
iv) Wind, Evaporation etc.

Vitis vinifera grape varieties grow under wide range of climatic conditions.

Temperature : Diurnal variation with cool nights (15-18o C) and warm days (28-
32oC) is essential for successful wine grape production .Degree days that are available
during September to March 2200-2750 (Nashik), 2750-3000 (Pune, Narayangaon)
3000-4000 (Sangli, Solapur) normally influences which wine variety to grow and
the type of wine to produce. Table wine grapes are grown at 2200-2750 degree days.
Dry table wines require mild ripening period with average temperatures of 22-28oC
and low diurnal variations. Growing season length should be sufficiently long to
mature moderate to heavy crops of grapes. In areas where there is sudden temperature
drop and onset of wet weather, there are ripening problems and crop losses. Each
variety requires certain heat summation to bring its fruit from full bloom to maturity
or a given brix reading. Cool, mild temperatures increase the production of acid
(malic and tartaric )in the berries, increase the sugar acid balance and enhances the
colour in the red varieties. By contrast hot conditions during ripening period increases
the sugar level, hastens maturity, lowers the acid level of grapes and inhibits pigment
formation in red varieties. The organic constituents of wine such as alcohol, acids,
esters, colour, tannins and aldehydes do have direct bearing on the bouquet, taste
and other qualities of individual wines. The level and balance of these constituents
in the musts and wines in turn are largely determined by climate (heat summation).
High temperatures cause yield loss due to poor fruit set, moisture stress and reduces
the rate of photosynthesis. Optimum temperature for photosynthesis 25-30o C and
declines rapidly above and falling to zero at 45-50oC and also decreases rapidly below
15oC.

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Temperate effect on berry quality

i) Sugars (soluble solids): Sugar content of grapes is normally higher in hot climate
zones. The wine from such grapes may yield higher levels of alcohol, but not
necessarily a good quality wine, as high alcohol content masks other quality
components of wine. Berries in a warm climate also attain higher levels of
sugar and the wine made from such grapes will have better quality. Optimum
average temperature is 250C and the range of day temperature is 180C - 330C for
higher sugar accumulation in berries. Sugar accumulation is influenced more by
the temperature prevailing before berry softening (veraison). Temperatures of
40C for four days during the initial berry growth stage (15 – 30 days after set)
delays ripening and reduce the sugar content of berries at harvest.

ii) Effect on acid and pH : Between the two predominant acids present in grapes,
malic acid is more influenced by the temperature than tantaric acid, and the
latter contributes more to wine quality. Cool nights associated with warm day
temperatures contribute to reduced pH and increase acid levels when compared
to warm days and warm nights.

iii) Effect on colour: Colour in red grapes is mainly temperature dependent. Either
too cold or too warm conditions are associated with poor colour. The optimum
temperature range for anthocyanin synthesis is between 17 and 260C. Night
temperatures are more important that day temperatures. Cool night temperatures
of 15 – 200C promote skin colour better that the night temperatures of 25 - –
30 0C can do in Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir. Sometimes days
temperatures above 300C can also reduce the pigmentation.

iv) Effect on flavour and aroma compounds : Night temperatures above 150C or mean
temperatures above 200C during berry ripening will reduce the flavour / aroma
of the wine. Wines produced in warm regions have less varietal aroma / flavour
and are harsh mainly due to high concentrations of alcohol and phenols. It is a
belief that warm climates produce wines with less and / or different aroma /
flavour, but there is no direct and convincing evidence that a cool climate is a
prerequisite for superior quality wine. It could be inferred that under ward / hot
climates the content of free aroma compounds is low, by the fact that the free
monoterpene contents are more in cool climate.

Solar Radiation : Optimum light intensity for photosynthesis varies between 700-
1100 micro molar units (30,000 - 50,000 lux) depending upon the location,
topography, variety and training systems.

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 Both light intensity and temperature are involved in the formation of fruitful
buds during May-August. The number of bunch primordia increase with higher
light intensity and the fruitfulness of new buds depends on the daily duration of
high light intensity falling on the bud itself rather than on whole plant.
High light intensity with high temperature (>36oC) are not conducive for berry
colour development, whereas with moderate temperature (28-32o C) and high light
intensity there will be good colour development between veraison and ripening.

Rain fall & relative humidity : Generally for economical wine production a
reasonable rainfall amount of 55-65 cm annually is desirable between June- October
for recharging the subsoil with moisture.
For maximum yield, vines need at least 75 cm water with good distribution
throughout fruiting season. Avoid water stress during flowering and early berry
growth period till veraison, whereas slight moisture stress during veraison to ripening
enhances the quality of berries.

Evaporation : Evaporation is based on various climatic factors such as temperature,

day length, wind, vapour pressure and solar radiation which affects plant growth.
The actual and potential evapotranspiration is based on the amount of available
water in the root zone and the evaporative power of the air.

Soil requirements of vines

Grapes can adapt to a wide variety of soil types ranging from coarse gravelly
sands to heavy clays, shallow to very deep soils and soils of low to high fertility. Best
performance is however obtained in deep medium textured soils (loams and sandy
loams) which are low in salts and are well drained. Wine Grapes are successfully
grown under irrigation on soils that Provide 45-60 cm of root zone. However most
V.vinifera varieties are deep rooted and fully explore the soil to a depth of 6-10 feet
or more if the aeration is satisfactory and there is no obstruction to root zone.
Soil physical features such as soil colour affects the absorbance of radiant
heat. Soil texture influences water holding capacity, the nutrient status, infiltration
rate, permeability and aeration. Soil chemical properties such as pH is a measure of
degree of acidity or alkalinity where vines are tolerant to wide range of pH conditions.
The pH gives an indication of nutritional status as it is related to cation exchange
capacity (CEC). In broad terms acid soils have low CEC broadly dominated by
hydrogen, whereas alkaline soils are dominated by calcium, magnesium and
potassium. Optimum pH range is 6-6.5 for wine grapes. The quality of wine is
related to grape variety, followed by climatic area and by soil type.
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IMPORTANT WINE VARIETIES

Cabernet Sauvignon
Most of the great red wines of Bordeaux and some of the finest wines of the
New World are based on Cabernet Sauvignon. It is often blended with Cabernet
Franc and Merlot and its flavor is reminiscent of blackcurrants or cedarwood. It
demands aging in small oak barrels, and the best wines require several years of bottle
age to reach their peak.

Merlot
This variety takes second place to Cabernet Sauvignon in most premium red
wine blends. Merlot is fragrant and usually softer than Cabernet Sauvignon. It also
shows best with oak maturation, but usually requires less bottle maturation before it
is ready to drink. Merlot bottled as a varietal is becoming popular in India.

Shiraz
This grape is also known as Syrah. It makes a soft and rich wine often
characterized by smoky and chocolaty aromas. It matures faster than cabernet and is
sometimes blended with it to speed accessibility.

Zinfandel
This variety probably originated in Southern Italy as the Primitivo grape. It is
planted by only a few Indian wineries. The quality of wines have been very good,
especially when they receive enough oak maturation.

Chenin Blanc
This grape is the Cape’s most popular white variety with about thirty percent
of her vineyards producing Chenin Blanc. It produces a wide range of wines from
sweet to dry, including sparkling and still wines. Its dry wines are fresh and fruity and
Chenin Blanc’s sweet wines and botrytis dessert wines are becoming more fashionable.

Sauvignon Blanc
India now can produce international quality wines of Sauvignon Blanc as
evidenced at few wineries located in Nashik and Pune district. These microclimates
in Maharashtra are suited to the growing of this variety. The Sauvignon Blancs tend
to be dry and grassy. Its plantings have increased though it is a moderate yielder.

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CULTURAL PRACTICES

Soil preparation
All types of soil require deep trench spaced 1.8 M-3.0 M apart and oriented
towards north-south direction. Apply 2.5 tons/ha Superphosphate along with 50
tons /ha of FYM. Copius watering of the trench to get weathering & decay of the
organic matter at least 15 days in advance before planting.

Planting
Only Vitis vinifera varieties shall be used for new plantations. These varieties
should be grafted on the recommended rootstocks for wine varieties such as Salt
creek, 110 R, 1103 P, 140 Ru, 99R, SO-4, DogRidge, etc which are salt tolerant,
drought and nematode tolerant. Plant the rootstocks in the month of Feb-March in
enriched soil along the trenches. Graft the desirable scion variety in situ on rootstock
during September and October. Normally recommended spacing for most wine
varieties is 2.0 M between rows and 1.25 M between plants accommodating 4000
plants per hectare.

Training of young grafts/plants

Frame work establishment with single main stem, primary arms and cordons
require proper training system. For this recuts, topping , pinching and tipping are
followed. Training systems such as Kniffin, double cordon and trellis system are
mainly followed. Pendal system which is common for table grape is not recommended
for wine varieties. Drip irrigation / fertigation facilities will compliment quick
establishment of the vineyard.

Manuring & fertilizer application

For one hectare vineyard 250 kg sulphate of ammonia, 250 kg superphospate
and 250 kg sulphate of potash , 75 kg magnesium sulphate should be given in 3
doses after foundation pruning. The first half doses should be mixed with 40 tons
FYM just prior to pruning, second quarter dose should be given 30 days after
pruning and next quarter dose after 60 days of pruning. Subsequent nutrient
doses should be guided by soil and petiole analysis. Optimum petiole concentrations
of yielding wine grape varieties in general, should have for N-0.632 %, P-0.25%
and K-0.981%, Ca - 0.6 %, Mg – 0.4 %, S-0.1%, Zn-20 ppm,Cu-8 ppm, Mn – 25
ppm, Fe- 75 ppm and B- 30 ppm.
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Fore pruning
Early September is ideal for most of the wine varieties as they take longer
period for maturity and harvest. Most of the wine varieties have basal fruitfulness
hence the level of pruning is normally kept low; either spur pruning or short cane
pruning are adopted.

Training systems for wine grape

a) Trellis system
b) Kniffin system,
c) Telephone system
d) Double cordon

It is desirable to have trellis system among the various training systems for
most of the wine varieties grown in tropical climate with bright sunlight that may
get sun damaged on kniffin. Whereas bower system tends to delay the ripening
process and often fruits become highly acidic with poor colour development.

WINE MAKING
The two major kinds of grapes used in the production of grape wines are
native American species of grapes, or hybrids thereof, and the European species or
Vitis vinifera. A well known American grape species is Vitis labrusca; many varieties
are cultivated in the eastern United States, especially in New York. Labrusca varieties
include Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Catawba, and Ives Seedling. To varying degrees,
these grapes and the wines made from them have a noticeable aroma, commonly
referred to as “foxy,” that is partially due to the presence of the compound methyl
anthranilate. Primarily, this characteristic distinguishes these wines from those
produced elsewhere, particularly in Western Europe and California. Besides their
distinct aroma, these native grape varieties generally contain insufficient sugar to
produce a balanced table wine. Thus, in eastern wine making adding sugar or
chaptilization is permitted. These grapes also have other compositional and physical
characteristics that require specialized handling methods. Because of these factors,
as well as the more extensive interest in vinifera wines, the making of wine from
American grape species will not be covered here. However, for those interested in
making wine from American grapes, we highly recommend to refer Grapes into Wine
by P. M. Wagner.

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 Fig. 1 : Training systems for wine grape

Different training systems for wine grape varieties

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 Wine types are usually divided into classes according to their alcoholic content,
groupings that form a convenient basis for excise taxes upon alcohol. The two major
classes are table wines (9 to 14 percent alcohol) and dessert and appetizer wines (15
to 21 percent alcohol). Table wines owe their alcoholic content to the fermentation
of sugar naturally present in the grapes and to the sugar that may be added to them.
On the other hand, dessert wines obtain their higher alcoholic content from the
addition of alcohol (wine spirits).
In response to widespread interest, this guide covers the fundamentals of making
table wine that should provide the basis for more successes than failures. Making
own wine can be an enjoyable, enriching, and rewarding experience. The ability to
consistently make sound, above average, quality wines requires not only the desire to
succeed, but, at times, hard work, patience, and attention to detail.
Aside from motivation and adherence to details, two other factors can influence
the successful production of table wine at home: the amount to be produced and the
kind of raw material used. While a few gallons of sound, palatable wine can be made
easily from reconstituted grape concentrate, producing a fine quality wine is more
readily realized from larger lots, using fresh, ripe grapes. Successful production of
just 5 to 10 gallons of wine from small quantities of grapes requires considerable
technical skill, experience, and the proper equipment, owing to the larger surface-to-
volume ratio inherent in small volumes. Working with larger quantities of grapes and
larger wine volumes minimizes chances of spoilage and oxidation. Thus, we
recommend working with a minimum of about ½ ton of grapes to produce about
SO gallons of finished wine. Although these guidelines are presented with these
factors in mind, the principles covered apply equally to smaller wine making activities.
As a matter of fact, many beginners may wish to start out with one or two 5- to 10-
gallon fermentations of reconstituted grape concentrate to become familiar with
alcoholic fermentation, the adding of yeast and sulfur dioxide, and other wine making
steps.

Types of Wines

a) Based on Colour
i) White wine: White wines are made with much less skin contact, are much
lower in Phenolics than red wines. White wines vary enormously in colour
from virtually colour less to deep gold.
ii) Red wine: Red wines are actually vary in colour from dark pink to almost

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 black, with an enormous variation in the amount of blue or yellow to be
seen at the rim. Their colour depends on the grape varieties used, the
vintage characteristics, the wine’s PH.
iii) Rose wine: Wines coloured any shade of pink, from hardly perceptible
to pale red. They are rarely known as pink wines.

b) Based on residual sugar content

i) Dry wine: Dry wines are those in which there is no perceptible
sweetness. Dry wines may have as many as 10g/L residual sugar and
with high acidity.
ii) Dessert wine/Sweet wine: Sweet wines contains more than 30g/L
residual sugar.
iii) Semi dry/Semi sweet: Wines which contains residual sugar moderately
(between 10g to 30g/L residual sugar).
iv) Sparkling wine: Wine which bubbles when pumped into a glass, because
a certain amount of carbon dioxide has been held under pressure dissolved
in the wine until the bottle is unstoppered.
v) Fortified wine: Wines, which have been subject to fortification, addition
of spirits, usually grape spirit to wine, there by adding alcoholic strength
and precluding any further fermentation.
vi) Vermouth / Spicy wine: Herb - flavoured fortified wine available in
different styles and qualities but usually a much more industrial product
than wine.

Composition and Quality of Grapes and Wine

The home winemaker has a choice of three raw materials for wine: freshly
picked grapes, grape juice concentrate, or frozen must or juice. Of the three, it is
generally recognized that the first offers the greatest quality potential and the second
offers the most convenience. Both red and white grape juice concen-trate is available
from most vendors of home wine making supplies and is readily reconstituted by
diluting with water. Follow the suppliers’ directions to obtain juice of the desired
strength. Varietal concentrate or the concentrated juice of different wine grape varieties
is also available for home wine making. The obvious advantage to making wines
from reconstituted grape concentrate or frozen must or juice is that they can be
made at times other than the usual fall grape harvest.

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The best raw material: fresh grapes
Fresh, ripe, varietal wine grapes remain the best raw material for making wine.
In planning grape purchases, be aware that many growers who sell small quantities
of grapes for home wine making pick into lug boxes that hold about 50 pounds of
grapes each. Thus, 1 ton of grapes will require 40 boxes. Some growers may require
a deposit for the lug boxes or you may have to provide your own picking containers.
Make this arrangement at the time of your order; always return lug boxes clean and
dry; large plastic tubs can be substituted for wooden boxes. Depending upon the
variety and other factors, the home winemaker can usually expect that 1 ton of grapes
for white wine will yield about 100 to 120 gallons of wine; 1 ton of red wine grapes
will yield about 120 to 150 gallons of wine (the more press wine used, the higher the
yield).
Aside from the form of raw material itself, several important factors influence
wine quality. Foremost: Good wines can only be made from good grapes! Grape
quality is directly related to the composition of the fruit when it is harvested. In turn,
grape composition is influenced by climate. In cooler climates, more grape acids,
varietal grape aroma, and flavor compounds develop and, in the case of red types,
tannins and color are retained at higher, more desirable levels. These compounds are
directly related to wine quality. Table shows the amounts of certain components of
white and red wine grapes that are generally considered to be desirable for good
quality wines.

Desired sugar, acidity, and pH levels in ripe wine

Wine type Optimum sugar Titratable acidity* PH+
White wine grapes 20.5-220 Brix# 8-10 g/L 3.2-3.4
Red wine grapes 22.5-24.50 Brix 6-8 g/L 3.3-3.5

* Values expressed as g tartaric acid per L.

+ A measure of free hydrogen (acid) ions in a solution.
#
A measurement of soluble solids, roughly equal to percent sugar content.

Of interest to the winemaker are these major grape components: grape sugars,
organic acids, aroma and flavor compounds, polyphenolic compounds or tannins,
certain amino acids, and certain metallic ions, such as potassium. Fully mature or ripe
grapes contain about an equal concentration of glucose and fructose, which are the
simple sugars yeast ferment to form alcohol and carbon dioxide. Ripe grapes contain
from 70 to 80 percent water by weight.

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 Depending upon the variety, the predominant organic acids in grapes are tartaric
and malic acids. In addition to their contribution to the flavor and balance of wine,
tartaric acid is involved in wine stability, while malic acid is involved in the malolactic
fermentation (see Glossary). The complex nature of grapes and wine has been verified
by the isolation and identification of more than 400 aroma and flavor compounds
present. Such polyphenolic compounds as tannins are also important to wine flavor,
stability, and aging, particularly in red wines. Certain amino acids have been shown to
influence wine quality, but they are perhaps more important as a source of nitrogen
for yeast cell metabolism. Such metallic ions as potassium are constituents important
in wine quality and stability. Finally, while the individual and combined interactions
and contributions of these grape and wine components to wine quality are complex,
they become more understandable with study and experience.
Because climate or other factors are unreliable, it is not always possible to
obtain grapes with optimal sugar, acid, and pH. Fortunately, home winemakers are
not hampered by both the federal and state regulations that control amelioration in
commercial wine making. Sugar levels that exceed 250 Brix can be lowered by adding
water, to avoid difficulty with fermentation. The fermentation may even stop before
dryness, resulting in incomplete fermentation. However, adding water to reduce a
must’s sugar content will also lower its acidity; such a change would be undesirable in
a must already deficient in acidity. Thus, there are three options:

1. Ferment without adjustment.

2. Blend before fermentation with juice or must of the same variety that has
moderate sugar and high acidity.
3. Before fermentation add water to lower sugar content and raise acidity to taste
immediately after fermentation.
A must seriously deficient in acidity may also require acid addition before
fermentation. Selection of the most suitable action will vary according to each lot
and the winemaker’s objectives.
Must or juice sugar and acid that fall well below levels shown in table 1 should
be adjusted. A useful rule of thumb: To produce a wine of about 12 percent alcohol,
the must or juice should be between 220 to 240 Brix. Sugar is increased by adding
cane or beet sugar (sucrose). Use the following formula to calculate the amount of
sugar to add to increase the 0Brix:

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where, S = weight of sugar to be added to increase must or juice to a desired 0Brix
W = weight of grape must
B = desired 0 Brix
A = original0 Brix of grape must
For example, if you want to raise the 0 Brix of 10 pounds of juice or must
from 15 to 23, calculate the amount of sugar required as:

It should be apparent that large amounts of 150 Brix juice require proportionately
larger quantities of sugar to raise the 0 Brix to the desired level. For example, 10.4
and 104 pounds of sugar would be needed to increase the 0 Brix from 150 to 230 with,
respectively, 100 and 1,000 pounds of must or juice. Considering the high cost of
sugar, riper grapes are obviously preferable.
A less accurate method for raising the sugar content by 10 Brix is to add 1.25
pounds sugar to each 10 gallons of juice or must. Deficiencies in total acidity can be
corrected similarly. Table gives the amounts in grams (g) of tartaric acid that must be
added to each gallon (gal) of must or juice to increase the titratable acidity (TA) from
a given low level to either 6 or 8 g per liter (L). A TA of 6 g/L is considered a minimal
acid level and a TA of 8 g/L is optimal acidity, especially for white wine.

Amounts of tartaric acid required to increase

Present acid content To obtain 6.0 g/L To obtain 8.0 g/L
add to each gal: add to each gal:
(g/L*) (g) (g)
3.0 11.3 18.9
3.5 9.4 17.0
4.0 7.5 15.2
4.5 56 13.2
5.0 3.8 11.4
5.5 1.9 9.5
6.0 7.5
6.5 5.6
7.0 3.8
7.5 1.9
* Turatable acidity as tartaric acid.

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Wine making process

Ten processing operations are common to make white and red table wines.
However, they are not all performed in the same order:
1. Stemming and crushing. Stems are separated from grape berries, the skins
of which are broken to free the juice. The mixture of juice, skins, seeds, and
pulp is called must.
2. Determining sugar and acidity of the juice. Sugar content is approximately
equal to percent soluble solids (0 Brix).
3. Adding sulfur dioxide (SO2). Neededto inhibit growth of spoilage organisms
and prevent oxidation.
4. Adding pure wine yeast starter cultures. Facilitates a clean, consistent, and
complete fermentation.
5. Pressing. Skins and seeds are separated from the juice at the beginning in the
case of white wine and after some fermentation on the skins in the case of red.
6. Fermenting. Yeast converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
7. Racking wine from lees. The clear wine is separated from spent yeast cells
and other solids after fermentation.
8. Adjusting S02 content. Prevents spoilage and oxidation.
9. Aging/topping and/or clarification.
10. Bottling.

These 10 wine making steps may appear relatively easy to the experienced
winemaker. The inexperienced winemaker, however, must learn to check details, such
as topping in a timely manner, using a pure yeast wine starter culture, or properly
using S02, to avoid wine spoilage. For several reasons, good quality red table wines
are easier for the beginner to make than are white wines, mostly because white wines
are more subject to oxidation and browning. Therefore, start with red table wines to
gain experience.

The major difference between red and white wines is that, after stemming and
crushing, the juice of the must for red wines is fermented on the skins for several
days to extract their red pigments. In white wines, only the clear juice is fermented to
minimize extraction of tannins from skins and seeds. Other significant differences:

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1. White wines should be fermented at cooler temperatures than are reds to achieve
the best quality.
2. Red wines gain in quality and complexity by aging in oak barrels.
3. White wines generally are made without wood aging and are consumed when
they are relatively young; thus, they retain fresh and fruity aromas and flavors.

For both red and white wines the volume of wine made must be larger than
the total storage capacity of the aging or storage containers-glass carboys, gallon
jugs, or barrels-because additional wine will be needed to replace the volume lost to
lees after fermentation, and for topping during aging to replace wine lost to ullage or
evaporation.

Making Red wine and White wine

Ten processing operations discussed above are common to making red wines
and white wines. But the order of process varies.

Essential steps in red wine making

Press
Crush - Ferment Finish Rack

Bottle
Discard
Stem Must Ferment Age
Pomace

Essential steps in white wine making

Press
Crush - Ferment
Bottle

Discard Rack
Stem Juice
Pomace

Making rose or pink table wines

As in red table wine making, these wines are usually made from red grapes that
are crushed and stemmed. The juice is allowed to stand in contact with the skins for
only 8 to 12 hours, and pressing is done when the desired pink color has been obtained.
After pressing, fermentation and all other steps are as described for making white
table wine, including juice settling, fermentation, and storage at the recommended
cool temperatures. As with white wine, wood aging is not usually preferred and the
16
wines are bottled as soon as possible for early consumption. Alternatively, rose or
pink wines can be made by blending white and red wines. Stabilization and finishing
are performed on the blend.

Potential Spoilage and Stability Problems

Certain problems can arise even when the wine-maker follows recommended
methods. Some are best handled by preventative measures; others are generally not
considered important in wines made at home for family consumption, but may be
important to those interested in wine judgings or simply as a matter of pride or
achievement. The major potential problems, their prevention or remedy, are dealt
with next.

Acetification and oxidation

In acetification acetic acid bacteria present in wine under favorable (to the
bacteria) conditions will slowly convert alcohol to acetic acid and ethyl acetate, the
main components of wine vinegar. This undesirable change is readily prevented by
following recommended wine making practices. Specifically, judiciously use sulfur
dioxide, avoid air contact with the wine, and keep the wine at 600F (15.60C) or below.
When these measures are not followed, bacteria can become established and
acetification will start. The reaction, once under way, is irreversible! Even worse, should
this occur in wine stored in an oak barrel or cask, these containers cannot be used
again for wine making because there is no known way to sterilize the wood effectively.

Simple oxidation results from excessive or prolonged exposure of wine to air

when insufficient or no SO2 is present. Development of a brownish color and oxidized
odors and flavors is readily apparent, especially in white wines not protected from
exposure to air.

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

The distinctive “rotten egg” odor of this obnoxious compound can be detected
by smell at very low concentrations, that is, 1 ppm or even less. Its formation and
presence in wine most often arises from the reduction of elemental sulfur (residue
of sulfur dust on grapes from powdery mildew control) by the yeast, and can occur
even when the very best wine making practices are followed. As soon as the presence
of H2S is noticed, every effort should be made to remove it. Hydrogen sulfide is
often formed during alcoholic fermentation, especially near the end of it, or some
time after alcoholic fermentation when the new wine is still in contact with the yeast.

17
When it is detected, it is sometimes possible to convert the H2S back to sulfur by
adding sulfur dioxide or by vigorous aeration to volatilize it from the wine.

As mentioned in white wine making, if the juice is clarified before fermentation,

the possiblity for H2S to form from elemental sulfur is greatly minimized. Deficiency
of certain amino acids during fermentation may cause the yeast to form and
accumulate H2S. Adding diammonium phosphate at the time of yeast inoculation (1
to 2 oz/100 gal) should minimize the potential for this to occur.

Cloudiness and deposits

Under certain conditions, several naturally occurring substances in wine can

lead to development of a cloudy or hazy appearance or crystalline deposits. These
are usually of no concern to the home winemaker, but they are important to the
commercial winemaker who must satisfy consumer demands for brilliantly clear wine
free of deposits.

A common cause of cloudy appearance is an excess of certain proteins in the

wine that may, under prolonged warm storage conditions, 700 to 850F (21.10 to 29.40
C) or higher, form complex substances that remain in suspension and appear as a
haze. This cloudy appearance is readily apparent in a white or pink wine. If this kind
of instability is unacceptable to the home wine-maker, the wine can be protein (heat)
stabilized by treating it with an inert clay, bentonite, which removes some protein.
(This treatment is called bentonite fining.) The wine can be bentonite fined anytime
after the first racking and before bottling, but we recommend before barrel aging.
Usually adding about ½ ounce to 1 ounce bentonite for each 10 gallons of wine is
sufficient for most white varieties. Others, such as Riesling, Muscat, and Sauvignon
blanc, may require twice this amount for complete stability.

Very small, often needlelike crystals of potassium bitartrate (KHT) are the
most common precipitate or deposit encountered in wine stored for several days or
longer under very cool conditions, 400F (4.40C) and lower. Tartaric acid is the
predominant organic acid in most vinifera grape varieties and readily forms the salt
potassium bitartrate. The most common method for reducing excess KHT is to chill
the wine to 230 to 250F (-50 to -3.90C) and to hold it at that temperature for 2 to 3
weeks. This causes the excess KHT to crystallize and then precipitate. The wine must
then be racked carefully or filtered at the same low temperature. The process is
facilitated by adding powdered KHT, which acts as a “seed” for crystallization, and is
thoroughly mixed with the wine throughout chilling. Cold or potassium bitartrate
stability might be accomplished without refrigeration by using a proprietary compound

18
such as Koldone. The manufacturer of this material suggests that 1 ounce for every
10 gallons of wine will achieve KHT stability, and depending upon the wine being
treated, it will also reduce titratable acidity by about 1 gram per liter. If the wine is
already low in acidity, this can be an important consideration. Note also, if the wine
pH is high, using this agent could lead to calcium bitartrate instability. Therefore,
although this material may work in certain wines, it can also create other problems.

Other clarifying and fining agents

Under some circumstances using other clarification or fining agents may be
desirable. However, their use requires filtration for removal, a process possible for
those not intimidated by filtration equipment and operations. It should be mentioned
that all materials, previously discussed and those following, have been legally approved
for use in commercial wine production, and home winemakers, therefore, should be
confident they are safe.
Some wines may develop tastes considered too astringent or bitter. This is
usually related to excessive amounts of certain tannins, as when red wine is left too
long on the skins and seeds. Gelatin treatment has been successfully used to reduce
astringency and is used in very small amounts, that is, 4 to 8 ounces per 1,000 gallons.
Adding egg whites has also been used to “soften” wines that taste “rough.” Because
they are proteins, do not use either agent after a wine has been previously protein
stabilized. Alternatively, gelatin and/or egg white can be followed by bentonite fining.
Excessive amounts of certain polyphenolic compounds in white wine can lead
to browning or cloudiness. One treatment for browning calls for the polymeric resin
polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP), also known as Poly-Clar AT. This adsorbent resin
is expensive, but is added in very small quantities, and is removed by racking or
filtration. Poly-Clar AT will probably remove more tannin than gelatin and does not
need to be followed with bentonite fining.
Activated carbon or charcoal is useful in removing undesirable odors and flavors
and off-color in white wines. However, it can impart other off-tastes and/or remove
desirable components, and therefore should be used cautiously. From 1 to 20 lb/
1,000 gal (120 to 2,400 mg/L) are usually added directly, followed by about 2 lb/
1,000 gal (240 mg/L) of bentonite, and finally by racking or filtration.
Other clarifying agents, such as Klear-Mor and Sparkeloid, may be helpful
with wines difficult to clarify just before bottling. Again consult your home wine
shop. Further information about fining agents may be found in The Technology of
Wine Making (see Selected References).

19
Wine filtration
Most persons making wine at home would not want to go to the expense or
effort involved in wine filtration, and by and large it is not necessary. However,
advances in filtration technology offer the serious home wine-maker reasonably
affordable small-scale equipment and relatively simple techniques. Filtration facilitates
wine clarification, can follow fining or aeration, and can also remove yeast and/or
bacteria.
Depending upon the objective, there are three major kinds of filtration that
relate to the size and amount of particles to be removed from the wine: rough, tight
or polish, and microbiological. For home wine making there is now available a series
of cartridge-type filters of several sizes, designed to meet the needs of all three
objectives. Sheet or pad filters are less expensive. Both are either gravity-flow (quite
slow) or pressure-flow (rapid). Rough filters are used to hasten wine clarification,
thus reducing the number of rackings, or to filter wine from fining agents, such as
bentonite lees. They may involve using a filter aid, such as diatomaceous earth (DE).
Tight filtration media, used to polish filter wines before bottling, will remove most
yeast cells. It is necessary to polish filter a wine before using a “microbiological” or
membrane filter to remove yeast and bacteria—this latter application is useful to the
wine-maker who does not want the malolactic fermentation. Further information on
filters, filter housings, their use and prices, can be obtained from suppliers listed at
the end of this publication.

Analyzing Juice and Wine

Several constituents in grape juice and wine must be measured to help the
winemaker make decisions throughout wine making. For example, knowledge of the
soluble solids (0Brix) content of a given juice will indicate whether adding sugar may
be necessary. Know-ing the amount of sulfur dioxide in a wine, as well as its pH, can
serve as the basis for determining the amount that may be needed for adjusting SO2.
A paper chroma-tograph without a developed malic acid spot, but show-ing a lactic
acid spot, can be evidence that a particular wine had undergone malolactic
fermentation (see malic acid analysis below). Although it is possible to make wines
without analysis, consistent production of sound, superior quality wines is enhanced
considerably with accurate analytical data.

Wine acidity and pH

Because of their importance, the acidity and pH of grapes and wine are
discussed first. Earlier, the acid composition of grapes was said to directly affect
20
wine quality and pH also played an important role in wine quality and stability. As
previously mentioned, grapes and wine owe their acid composition and taste primarily
to the presence of tartaric and malic acids, (lactic acid replaces malic in wines that
have undergone malolactic fermentation). These fruit acids are defined as weak acids,
compared with such strong mineral acids as sulfuric and hydrochloric. In solution,
strong acids tend to dissociate or yield their hydrogen ion (H+) com-ponent nearly
completely; weak acids dissociate only about 1 percent or less of their hydrogen ions.
Aqueous solutions owe their acidity or alkalinity to the ratio of hydrogen ion content
to hydroxy 1 ions (OH-). Thus, such acid solutions as wine have more H+ ions than
OH- ions. Since the pH of most table wine ranges from 3.1 to 3.6, it should be
evident from the foregoing that very small numerical changes within this pH range
actually reflect significant changes in wine acidity. Finally, it should be stressed that
pH can profoundly affect microorganisms (low pH inhibits ace-tic acid bacteria and
malolactics), the ratio of free to bound S02, both protein and KHT stability, and wine
color and flavor.

Soluble solids (°Brix)

Grape juice soluble solids are composed mainly of glucose and fructose and
hence are approximately equiv-alent to the percent sugar by weight, or grams sugar
per 100 grams of solution expressed as °Brix. The °Brix of juice, must, or wine can
be determined with a hydrome-ter or a refractometer; the refractometer cannot be
used to measure the soluble solids content of wine because the presence of alcohol
interferes with the reading. Be-cause hydrometers can be used in juice or wine, a
series of hydrometers covering the following or similar °Brix ranges are recommended:
19° to 31°B; 9° to 21° B; 0° to 12°B; and -5° to +5°B. Negative °Brix values (those
less than zero) are due to the presence of alcohol, which depresses the specific gravity.
Hydrometers are usually calibrated at 68° F (20° C) and require using a correc-tion
factor when used in juice or wine of a different temperature. Use a good quality
mercury bulb chemical thermometer, one of the newer probe types, or a remote
sensor thermometer with a temperature scale range of 20° to 220°F or -10° to 110°C
with one-degree scale divisions and a precision of ±1°, to measure the temper-ature
of the sample. Add or subtract the appropriate correction factor to the hydrometer
reading as given in table 6.

Testing for soluble solids in juice. Fill the hydrometer cylinder with a juice sample
previously clarified by allowing suspended matter to settle. Grasp the hydrom-eter
stem and gently lower the hydrometer into the juice with a slight spinning motion.
Make certain the hydrometer does not rest on the bottom or cling to the sides of the
cylinder and make a reading to the nearest 0.1 °Brix after the hydrometer is freely
21
floating and at rest. Add or subtract the appropriate temperature cor-rection to obtain
the final value.

Reducing sugars
Hydrometers are not only used to determine the sugar in juice before
fermentation, but they are neces-sary for monitoring fermentation progress. Near
the end of fermentation, when readings are less than -2° Brix (remember, minus
readings occur due to the alcohol) and remain so for several days, the wine should be
analyzed for reducing sugar (fermentable sugar) content to determine if the wine is,
in fact, dry. A very simple and rapid tablet test (Dextrochek) can measure the sugar in
the range of 0.1 to 0.2 percent. The test should be replicated at least twice. Because
the tablets decompose rapidly when exposed to air or moisture, they should be kept
tightly sealed. It is difficult to read the color end-point in cloudy wine; therefore, the
sample should be filtered or a sample allowed to clarify by settling for a few days in a
refrigerator. Red wines are also impossible to test without first removing the pigment.
Decolorize the wine by adding about 1 gram (0.03 ounce, 1 to 2 teaspoons) activated
carbon to 50 ml of wine, mix, filter or settle, and proceed with the test.

Titrable acidity
As indicated in the Introduction, the titratable acid-ity (TA) content of grapes
and the wine is important to quality. Analysis for TA involves titrating a standard
dilute sodium hydroxide (alkali) solution against a small juice or wine sample to a
color change end-point of an indicator dye solution. Titration kits for determining
TA, complete with detailed instructions, are available from home wine making shops.
With care and practice, reasonably accurate and useful results can be obtained. The
calculated values are expressed as tartaric acid in grams per liter. Note that the accuracy
of the titration depends upon the strength of the standardized sodium hydroxide
solution which, when exposed to air, loses its strength by reacting with carbon dioxide.
Utilize this solution quickly or replace it with a fresh supply, daily if needed, to ensure
accurate results. Accuracy can be checked by titrating against a known standardized
solu-tion of dilute hydrochloric acid, which should be part of the kit.

Total and free sulfur dioxide

As previously discussed, 502 is required to prevent oxidation and growth of
undesirable yeast and bacteria. The usual amount added to sound crushed grapes is
50 to 100 ppm. Addition of 75 ppm S02 to most musts is sufficient to prevent oxygen
uptake by polyphenoloxi-dase enzymes, which promote browning. During

22
fer-mentation some S02 is oxidized to sulfate (SO?) and some is bound with such
compounds as acetaldehyde.

Malic acid
It can be very important to determine whether the malolactic fermentation
has occurred, and the wine is therefore biologically stable. If fermentation has occurred
or has been definitely inhibited, the wine can be safely bottled. Paper chromatography,
a technique for qualita-tively determining organic acids, is universally employed in
detecting malolactic fermentation, specifically the pres-ence or absence of malic acid.
The method is simple, relatively inexpensive, and reliable. Actually, many wine-makers
find this analysis fun to do. Again, home wine shops provide kits that contain
equipment, chemicals, and instructions. A few words of caution: For best results,
work in a clean, dry place and handle the chro-matographic paper with clean dry
hands to avoid con-taminating the paper. Also, since the solvent is flammable and
the fumes noxious and irritating, the air-drying process should be performed outdoors
or in a well ven-tilated area, such as near an exhaust fan. (A stove hood exhaust might
help, but don’t leave the burners on!)

Evaluating Wine Quality

Perhaps the most important and essential tools available to winemakers are
their senses. With sight one can critically examine a wine’s appear-ance; with smell
detect pleasing and not-so-pleasing odors; with taste perceive desirable and undesirable
flavors Thus, sensory analysis not only is the ultimate test for evaluating wine quality,
it is the best method for controlling quality throughout wine making.
Commercial winemakers have the formidable task of properly and reliably
evaluating wine quality, as well as developing and applying an understanding of
con-sumer taste preferences. Fortunately, hobby winemakers need only be concerned
with pleasing their own tastes. Even so, certain skills are helpful, such as the ability to
recognize volatile acidity, or tartness (acidity levels) and sweetness or lack of sweetness
(is the wine dry or slightly sweet?). Practical methods for sharpening these kinds of
tasting skills are given in How to Test and Improve Your Wine Judging Ability.
The ability to evaluate the overall quality of a wine is largely based upon the
taster’s previous experience. All judgments of wine are subjective, influenced by the
memory of wines previously tasted. Thus, wine quality is easier to recognize than it
is to define. A winemaker’s ability to recognize wine quality can be enhanced by
frequent, regular tasting of many different wines. In addition, it is helpful, especially
for the inexperienced, to taste wines, using a standardized and systematic meth-od.
23
Various kinds of score cards or scoring systems have been developed for this purpose.
Moreover, a score card is a permanent record of the sensory analysis that can be
used to compare subsequent tastings of either the same wine or other wines. One
such scorecard, used for many years to evaluate wine quality, is the so-called “Davis
20-point scale,” developed in the Department of Viticulture and Enology at the
University of California, Davis.

IMPROVEMENT IN WINE QUALITY

It is a belief among the consumers, propagated by the classic wine countries,
that wines made in hot climate are of poor quality. This is more a commercial
propaganda than a reality. Although some quality parameters of grape that contribute
to wine quality are affected by growing grapes in hot climate, it is not impossible to
minimize the loss of quality components by suitable cultural and vinification processes.
It is essential to understand as to what are the quality components of grapes that
matter for the wine quality; how are these affected in hot climate leading to poor
quality wine and what are the ways to arrest such deterioration in grape quality in hot
climate to safeguard and promote wine industry in hot climate zones.

Grape composition and wine quality

The composition of grapes determines the quality of wine. Many quality
components are carried over from grape juice into wine and a few undergo reactions
to farm compounds that are distinctive to wines. Grape juice contains sugars, organic
acids, phenolics, aroma compounds, vitamins, minerals and nitrogen compounds.
Alcohol content in wine is directly dependant on the sugar content of berries. Higher
sugars give body to the wine. While vitamins, minerals and nitrogenous compounds
are essential for yeast growth and fermentation, the basic flavour of a wine is formed
form the relative contents of sugars, acids, phenolics, and ethanol.
Phenolics contribute to the astringency/bitterness of wine, and are also
responsible for the most of the colour. Six types of phenolics are found in grapes,
namely, catechins, procyanadins, anthocyanins, flavonols, hydroxycinnamates and
hydroxybenzoates. The difference between red and white grapes (wines) is due to the
presence of different types of phenolics. The simple phenolics, namely the
hydroxycinnamates and hydroxybenzoates occur in the pulp of the berry and so
occur in it is generally accepted in alphazones (cool climates) that, as the fruit exposure
to sunlight increases, the fruit composition and wine quality improve.
In warm regions (San Joaquin valley) it was true with the clusters located on
the north or after noon shaded side of the canopy. But in case of clusters located on
24
the south or afternoon exposed side of canopy, berry colour was most negatively
affected by excursive sunlight exposure with increasing temperatures.
It was concluded that canopy management practices that provide high amounts
of diffused light in the fruiting zone, rather than direct sunlight exposure, are best
suited that warm regions. Training and trellising systems, row orientation and canopy
management practices should be considered carefully in order to avoid prolonged
fruit exposure to direct sunlight in such regions.
Both red and white wines. The other more complex phenolics collectively known
as “flavanoids” occur in the skin and seeds; hence more in red wines.
Flavouring compounds in combination with the specific volatile aroma
compounds present in different grapes will give the wines made from them the district
aroma (Bouquet-as quite often called). More that 100 volatile compounds have been
indentified in wines all over the world. The most important volatiles in grape are the
monoterpenes present in minute quantities (less than 4 ppm). These give a range of
odours in different classes, viz; floral, spicy or fruity. The monoterpenes exist in both
free volatile form and as bound glycosides. The glycosides are not volatile and so do
not contribute to aroma. They as the slowly hydrohysed in the acid conditions of the
wine and contribute to aroma as the wine ages. In addition to terpenes, other volatiles
also contribute to aroma, such as methoxy pyrazines contributing to district
‘Sauvignon” aroma in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc; and methyl
anthranilate contributing to ‘foxy’ aroma in labrusca grapes.

Means to obtain good quality wine in hot climate

It is true that regions with long ripening period are required to produce superior
wines? It is not true that many wines of quality are produce from ward to hot climates?
During the tasting and judging of the Indian wines at the International Symposium
on grapes held at Baramati, the wine tasters from France, Germany and Israel opined
that the wines from Sauvignon Blanc and Pinot Noir were comparable to that wine d
made in classical wine counties in cool climates. Then where is the catch? To get an
answer, the quantitative changes in the composition of grapes grown in warm / hot
climate needs to be critically analyzed and compared with the quality components of
grapes grown in cool climate with reference to their contribution to wine quality. The
sugar content will be high, acids content will be low and pH will be high (more that
3.6), phenols and anthocyanin contents will be low and the free aroma compounds
will be low without any change in the bound aroma compounds in hot climate. When
wines made from grapes ripening during warm during season in a cool region are
better why cannot be grapes ripened in cold season in hot region make good wines?
25
i) Viticultural Practices: Wine quality predominantly depends on grape composition.
It is said that ‘‘the best quality wines are made in the vineyard but not in the
winery”. This means grape composition contributes more towards wine quality
than vinification. In addition to macroclimate (climate of the zone contribute
by latitude and altitude) and mesoclimate (climate of the location contributed
by topography, slope aspect of slope, temperature, wind, rain, sunshine and
relative humidity), grape composition depends on the microclimate (variation
in humidity, temperature and light in the vine canopy) caused by viticultural
practices, such as row direction, vine spacing, training system, shoot positioning,
time of pruning, shoot thinning , leaf removal and other canopy and
management practices. Grape composition is also determined by the soil
structure, depth, nutrient and water management. Vine vigour and crop load,
primarily the variety and rootstock will also contribute to the composition of
grape. In addition to grape composition, the stage of harvest, vinification
techniques and aging of wine contribute to wine quality. Factors contributing
to wine quality are schematically presented in fig-4. Is it not possible to overcome
the ill effects of hot climate on wine quality, by favourably adjusting all other
contributory factors towards wine quality? If yes, let us discuss on the scope
of improving wine quality by various means in hot climate.
High sugar content in berries in hot climate is not a disadvantage, so long as
the high temperatures do not reduce the total acids content below 0.7 per cent, increase
the pH above 3.6 and adversely affect the pigmentation. A brix content of 22 + 10B
is adequate for making good wine. In the event of high sugar and high pH coupled
with low acids and pigments, developing dense canopies by allowing about 20 shoots
/ m length of row, retention of lateral shoots, avoiding training to vertical trellises,
shoot positioning, reducing the number of leaves / bunch and increasing the number
of clusters / vine are recommended. These is one more myth that higher yields
reduce the wine quality. So long as leaf / fruit ratio is maintained and the berry size
is controlled, one need not worry about quality deterioration due to higher yields.
East – west row direction, closed spacing of wines, and shoot positioning to cover
the clusters facing South will help maintain the levels of total acids and berry pigments
in desirable range.
In hot climates, the contents of phenols and anthocyanin pigments will be
low; particularly when the night temperature goes above 150C and the mean
temperature above 200C. So is the case with flavour/aroma compounds, particularly
the free aroma compounds. Berry composition will be ideal for good wine making, if
the ripening occurs within these temperature limits, say night temperatures between
100 - 120 C and day temperature between 280 - 300 C. As every variety require a specific
26
 Fig. 2 : Environmental and viticultural inputs into grape composition and
wine quality

(Source : D.I. Jackson and P.B. Lombard. 1993

number of heat units for its ripening to attain 22 + 10B, slow ripening at low
temperatures is essential. While exposure to light is not undesirable, exposure to high
temperature is undesirable. Hence location of vineyards on high altitude sites is
desirable, because the full light is available at reduced temperatures. Location of
vineyards in the eastern side slope of the hill is advantageous for quality wine making.
It is possible to synchronize the ripening period with low night temperatures
around 100C and day temperatures around 300C (February) in tropical Indian
conditions and high altitude locations of the Deccan Plateau by pruning for fruiting
in August/September depending upon the head unit requirement of the variety.
Success in producing the quality wines lies basically in matching variety to
terrior and it also very important to produce quality wines in hot climate. Average
temperature being < 200C, the duration of availability of period with ideal temperature

27
viz., the ideal temperature of minimum high temperature < 150C is the point of
consideration. For quality wine, different varieties recommended for different duration
periods are as follows:
25 – 30 days : White wine varieties i.e. Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc
30 – 35 days : Zinfandel, Shiraz
35 – 40 days : Cabernet Sauvignon,
> 40 days : Merlot
Foremost thing is the matching of variety with the temperature increase pattern
after berry set. Because the skin contains a high concentration of most aroma/flavour
and phenols, the berry surface area to volume ration is important in determining the
concentration of these quality components. This ratio will be ‘one’ when berry
diameter is 6 mm, increasing berry diameter above 6 mm reduce the ratio. There is
specific ratio for each variety. Ingenuity of viticultural practices lies in maintaining
the desirable small size of the berry and achieving the higher yield/unit area.
Foremost consideration to maintain the wine quality in hot climates is to retain/
maintain the levels of free aroma compounds. Free aroma compounds are volatile
and their contents reduce if the day temperatures exceed 350C without affecting the
levels of bound aroma compounds. The ratio of bound to free aroma compounds
vary between 1 to 4 in different grape varieties. Bound aroma compounds were found
to increase with phosphorus nutrition to Cabernet Sauvignon vines. Ruggeri rootstock
which accumulates less chloride that Salt Creek rootstock was found to increase the
concentration of aroma compounds in Cabernet Sauvignon wine under saline water
irrigated conditions.
Variation in ripening of bunches on a vine or in a vineyard is also a problem
under tropical conditions. Selected harvest of fully ripe bunches with 21 - 230B is
essential. It is also essential to chill to grapes overnight at 100C before crushing to
obtain better flavour.
ii) Vinification techniques: It is an essential option to release the bound aroma
compounds in the grape into wine during the process of fermentation. As said
earlier, the bound aroma compounds are bound by glycosides. They can undergo
acid or enzyme hydrolysis, releasing free volatiles and potentially increasing
aroma, sometimes typical to the grape variety. Normally the wine yeast is added
to the grape must/juice for fermentation. The standard wine yeast is Saccharomyces
cerevisiae var. ellipsoidens. Different strains of this yeast are used by different
wineries, namely Red Star, Burgandy strain, Tokay strain, Champagne strain,
Levuline ALS strain, etc. Different species of Saccharomyces yeast are also being
used for alcoholic fermentation of wine. These yeasts produce the majority of

28
 important wine aroma compounds during alcoholic fermentation. However,
their capacity to produce these compounds vary. Identification of a suitable
species and strain of yeast for the variety and terroir can go a long ways in
increasing the free aroma compounds in wines in hot climate. â-glycosidase
enzyme can hydrolyze the glycosidic bonds and release the bound aroma
compounds. Two different approaches have been followed by the utilization
of these enzymes (i) Direct addition of enzymes to the must / juice and (ii)
inoculation of must with the enzyme producing yeasts / organisms. The activity
of glycosidase enzymes is generally inhibited even by small concentrations of
glucose and therefore must be added after the completion or at the end of
fermentation. Their activity is not inhibited by the alcohol content , but can be
removed from wine by precipitation with tannin phenols. They must not be
used in the presence of bentonite, which will also remove them from the wine.
Sometimes they release bound phenol glycosides which may increase the
bitterness of some white wines. So care must be exercised while adding the
glycosidase enzymes to must/ juice to release the bound compounds. Addition
of glycosidase enzyme to must at the end of fermentation increased the
concentration of free aroma compounds, namely terpenes, volatile phenols,
C-13, norisoprinoids and aromatic alcohols at the expense of glycosidically
bound aroma compounds. The lactic acid bacteria oenococcus oeni can also
hydrolyze the aroma precursors in wine during malolactic fermentation and
improve the wine aroma.
iii) Post-fermentation treatments: The bound aroma compounds also slowly hydrolyse
in acid conditions of the wine and contribute aroma during the aging of wine.
Heat can accelerate the aging process of wine. Post-fermentation thermal
storage reduced the bound aroma compounds and increased the volatile free
aroma compounds. The storage temperature and duration have to be
standardized for different varieties grown in different terroirs.

SUMMARY

Table grapes are grown successfully in India. Certain pockets are also suitable
for successful cultivation of wine grapes. Quality wines are produced in vineyards
not in winery. Important cultural practices suggested for producing good quality
wine from grapes grown in tropical regions of the country are:
1. Select the locations where the days are available with minimum temperature
< 150C and the average < 210C in winters.

29
2. Match the variety to the location depending upon the number of such days
available in the winter; viz.,
25 – 30 days : White wine varieties i.e. Sauvignon Blanc, Chenin Blanc
30 – 35 days : Zinfandel, Shiraz
35 – 40 days : Cabernet Sauvignon,
> 40 days : Merlot
3. Grow the vines in elevated areas at least 600–1000 m above msl.
4. Plant on the eastern aspect of slope with East-West row direction.
5. Train the vines to short arm V trellis with foliage wires facilitating drooping
of shoots to cover the bunches to protect from sun burn.
6. Time the pruning to synchronise ripening with maximum available length of
suitable whether.
7. Thin out shoots retaining three shoots per cane.
8. Thin out the flower clusters retaining only five clusters on each cane with
more than 8 mm diameter and three clusters in thinner canes.
9. Restrict irrigation to only 8000 ltrs/acre/day from berry set to harvest.
10. Position the shoots on the Southern side of the vine canopy, at colour break
stage.
11. Monitor the sugar and acids content every alternate day from 20 days after
colour break.
12. Harvest during cool hours.
13. Harvest when T.S.S. content shows 22 ±10B and harvest selectively the clusters
having 22 ±10B.
14. Chill grapes overnight at 100C before crushing.
15. Add the most efficient and suitable species of saccharomyces yeast.
16. Add β-glycosydase enzyme after fermentation, but before clarification to
release the bound aroma compounds.
17. Subject the wines to thermal storage adding oak chips for 20 days at 45oC
before cellar storage to improve aroma.

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Equipments for grape wine Making

Crusher 1 Stemmer & Crusher 2

Presses

Fermenters

5
 Important Wine Varieties

Cabernet Sauvignon Merlot Shiraz

Chenin Blanc Sauvignon Blanc