Module 1 The self and mainstream social psychology

//THE SELF// - James (1890), Cooley (1902), Mead

(1934) analyzed how someone develops
- The self is often studied by philosophers
a social self through making sense of
and scholars for being central to our
interactions with others
lives and a part of describing ourselves
- Decades later, self fully emerged as a
- Earliest writings (Upanishads, 6th
topic in social psychology
century BCE texts with early
- Gordon Allport (1950s)
Hinduism/Eastern religion concepts)
 Introduced self-image, self-
- Plato (428-348 BCE), Aristotle (348-322
actualization, self-affirmation,
BCE)
leading to more constructs.
- Upanishads – self is a part of the reality
Nothing about self.
of the nature and organization of life
 Constructs helped describe self-
The Principles of Psychology esteem, self-actualization
(related processes and
- William James, 1890
elements)
- Mainstream self-interest!
 Too many elaborations!
- Together combine introspection and
1. A proliferation of self-related constructs
reflection on social participation
- Too many constructs bro, where’s the
a. I
actual self?
 At center of introspection and
- Leary and Tagney (2003) identified at
reflection on experience
least 5 common uses for self with no
 Made sense of the past,
overlap
present, and future world
- No universally accepted definition of
encounters
self! It’s murky.
 Renders encounters coherent
2. The self as a social categorizer
and allowed for continuity of
- More defined, theoretical, social
being
identity theory (SIT) in self-
b. Me
categorization theory (SCT)
 Known through his/her
- SIT
interactions with others
 Focuses on how people are
 Collection of social selves
identified socially through social
 Person is a social being
identities adopted at different
 Social self number = number of
times
people who have a different
 Identities have recognizable
image of you in their mind!
features in the social landscape
Social psychology – seeks to study how people  Age, nationality, gender, other
make sense of themselves daily respective to characteristics
others, and how they negotiate meanings of  People acquire social identities
their social experiences through psychological
processes:
 1. Social categorization - Emphasizes interaction, language,
2. Social identification meaning-making
3. Social comparison - Attitudes, cognitions, group relations
 Commonalities more than are worked out in interaction instead of
standing out properties of individuals
 Arguments: 1. Macro approaches
1. Need to maximize self- - How broader patterns in social
esteem leads to adoption of structures/practices shape interactions,
social identities, Ideologies are produced and
advantageous comparisons reproduced in language, inequalities are
2. SIT developed in SCT to exposed in social practice for liberation
specify when/how people - Post-structuralism, discourses in a
identify themselves using specific time make certain forms for
social identities instead of people to take up and occupy
personal identities. - Selves are outcomes of prevailing
3. People see themselves as discourses and patterns of social
MEMBERS of a social group relations
than as unique individuals! 2. Micro approaches
Depersonalization. - Ethnomethodology – how people make
 SIT and SCT explore the sense of their lives daily by practical
consequences of intra-group reasoning
and inter-group relations. - Conversation analysis – how people
 Self is seen as default when no organize turns in talking, lexical
identities are available, seeking items/forms, relevance to interaction
out convenient categorizations - Discursive psychology – how people
3. Dualist and essentialist theories of the construct/negotiate psychological
self concepts in interaction
- Individual and society are separate - How people talk/interact, and the
though may intersect temporarily action orientation of discourse
(dualist) - Discourse is a medium for people to do
- Psychological processes and properties things, not occurring from elsewhere
are essential features (essentialist) - Discourse is never neutral!
- Other people’s view of self are - Goffman – self is not a property, but
individually located outcomes of something PERFORMED/PRESENTED in
cognitive processes interaction with others to guide
impression formed of them
Critical approaches to the self
- Social life before thought process,
- Critical perspective, focuses on how instead of theorizing thoughts and
people live their lives in a social world, connecting it socially
no separation
Constructing the self
- Social psychology is a product when
people behave socially 1. Constructing an inner self
 - Perceptions create opinions - Having medical conditions could mean
- People account for the actions they do, they can construct themselves in a way
are conscious of other perceptions that warrants support or help
- Justifying actions through creating an - Survivor image for victims of domestic
entity (God, with personality) who told violence
her to do the right thing - Fraudulent emails presenting
- Selves constructed in reference to themselves as in need of help
qualities, culture, perceptions of things - Email? Can be a self?
outside the self, how they might - Promoting dangerous behaviors online
interact with ME, like a mirror, for the community and the self, like
reflections suicidal behavior, SA, rape, drugs,
2. Constructing a self as known eating disorders
- Speakers have a stake in how they
Conclusion
describe themselves
- Claims on inner self invoke knowledge - Self is not just a property, a feature, a
only known by the speaker separation from society. We need a
- Construct selves both internal state and critical approach!
with elements known to others, can’t
//ESSENTIALISM VS. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM
be too introspective or unknown/out of
IN THE STUDY OF HUMANITY//
nowhere!
- Being diagnosed with something and Classical essentialism
hearing about the symptoms and
- Underlying constant true
opinions influences you
forms/essences over time
- Gender specific separated
- Discontinuity between forms instead of
impressions/responses
a continuous variation
3. Criticizing others
- discourse of the self could lead to Modern essentialism
criticizing other people
- Phenomena are natural, inevitable,
4. The self in discourse
biologically determined
- self and other selves are constructed to
- Examples: sociobiology, evolutionary
accomplish something specific
psychology, genetic/brain research,
Current trends endocrine research
- internet provides construction and Social constructionism
reconstruction, the digital self!
- Reality is socially constructed,
- Concealed selves, privacy from
emphasizes importance of language in
discrimination and possible deceit, need
interpreting experience
for verification
- Online, the discrimination of selves is Essentialism
harder and millions of people could
gang up on you through cancel culture - Plato (428-348) origins, a triangle
due to safe anonymity always has the form of a triangle
 regardless of angle or side length, it is gradual changes through generations
not a circle via genetic endowment (natural
- Phenomena are a reflection of a finite selection, good adaptation)
number of fixed/unchanging forms - Darwin’s sexual selection: members of a
(eide or essences for Thomists in the gender (usually males) compete for
Middle Ages) mating, preferential choice from a
- Constancy and discontinuity are gender (usually females) for opposite
properties of essences, difference and gender
unchanging from other essences - Sexual strategies theory
(classical essentialism)  David Buss, short and long-term
- Foundation for positivism (scientific mating strategies (sex vs.
verification possible, logical and marriage), different adaptive
mathematical proofs for any problems in both
philosophical system, rejects a. Attraction
metaphysics and theism), Darwin - Mating preferences are from evolution,
rejected the concept of essentialism maximize reproductive success/fitness
due to evolutionary theories - Men sexual strategy is more short-term
mating strategy than women (long-
Popper (1962)
term)
- Truly scientific theories describe - Men prefer fertile (express through
essences, the realities lying behind physical attractiveness), clear skin, no
appearances lesions, clear eyes, lustrous hair, youth
- Scientists can establish the truth of - Higher pathogen resistance for cross-
theories culture mating (wo/men)
- Theories are just hypotheses, - Short term strategies for women allow
conjecture and not knowledge assessment of potential long-term mate
that provides resources/industriousness
Modern essentialism
to rear offspring
- Irvine (1990) b. Sexual orientation
- Sexual orientation not seen as
Theories
evolutionary, bi/homo not favored for
1. Evolutionary theories reproduction
- Sociobiology – application of - Hormones and sexual preferences may
evolutionary biology to understanding be the cause
social behavior of animals/humans - Inclusive fitness – reproductive success
(Barash 1977) of oneself and close relatives,
- Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975, homosexuals may contribute to fitness
E.O. Wilson), The Evolution of Human of siblings, nieces, nephews through
Sexuality (1979, Donald Symons) rearing, promoting continuity of homo
- Evolutionary theory – all living things 2. Biological theories emphasizing
acquired their present forms through proximate causes
- Proximate causes – hormones impact masculine identity, female can continue
behavior to be close for feminine identity
- Ultimate causes – evolution and - Cultural determinism in essential
circumstances leading to trait evolution qualities in fe/males from childhood
a. Genetic influences on human and infancy, absentee father in early
sexuality relationships, ignores diversity in
- Genetic influence on sex orientation for human experience
wo/men, but not complete genetic 5. Summary: essentialism
determination - Sexual phenomena (gender and sexual
- Xq28 on X chromosome causes orientation) reside in a person in the
homosexuality, mothers pass to sons, form of hormones, personality traits,
increased effect in maternal uncles, not etc.
a replicated study
Social Constructionism
b. Brain factors
- Neuroanatomical differences, sexually 1. Defining social constructionism
dimorphic nucleus (SDN) and interstitial - Reality is socially constructed
nuclei of anterior hypothalamus (INAH- 2. The constructionist paradigm
1, -2, -3) conducted on animals, not a. Our experience of the world is
conclusive study ordered
c. Hormones - Discrete events/actions in the world in
- Hormone imbalance for homos, low specific order, an objective reality
estrogen/testosterone in lesbians and b. Language provides a basis on which
gays, maybe differences in we make sense of the world
gonadotropins FSH and LH, not - Classify events and people to order
conclusive them, interpreting new experience
3. Are biological theories essentialist c. The reality of everyday life is shared
- Two underlying forms: hetero and - Similar events, persons, actions, order
homosexuals (intersubjective), reality is distinguished
- Change over time and environmental from dreams (not connected with
conditions ignored by sociobiologists others)
and evolutionary psychologists, - Language makes our experience
essentialism not clear available to others (connection!)
4. Cultural essentialism d. Shared typifications of reality
- Essentialism in this context is the POV become institutionalized
that wo/men differ through - Shared typification become
socialization, women are equal habitualization, predicts behavior, social
to/superior to men control perpetuates habit
- Women are relational, men are - Institutionalized roles, reciprocal
independent typifications, conduct in certain
- Initial close intense bond between contexts
mother and infant must be destroyed e. Knowledge may be institutionalized
by male to make separate, independent at the level of society/subgroups
 - Certain groups have subknowledge, - Unlike essentialism, sexuality varies by
conflict between groups possible culture, patterns of homosexual
behavior reflect value systems and
Internally, constructionism applies to internal
social structure of different societies in
phenomena, emotion, responses reflect
which they are found (Blackwood,
membership in the community
1993)
3. The social construction of sexuality - Variability in sex culture leads to
- Sexuality grounded in biological drives, inconsistency for sociobiological and
but biology cannot dictate where, evolutionary models
when, with what object person engages - Sexual fluidity combats constancy in
with sexually essentialism
- Sexuality is not a universal 4. The social construction of gender
phenomenon in all history and culture, - Gender is a process external to the
sexuality comes from culture, by individual and interactions between
defining things as sexual, and learning people by language and culture
definitions/scripts by societal members 5. Summary: social constructionism
- The primary significance of birth, sexual - Language is a mechanism where culture
initiation, impotence, frigidity, influences behavior/thought
memarche is that they are marked by - social constructionism represent
others (social significance) complexity within a single culture
- Sexuality is not an essence, not a instead of uniformity
biological quality (Foucault) - consistent with variation across
- Each institution has an instructional societies over time
system in sexuality (Gagnon 1990)
Conclusion
a. Attraction
- Mating results from socialization, 1. Criticisms of essentialism and social
subculture relative to mate selection constructionism
- Education, attractiveness, intelligence - Constancy (fluidity) and discontinuity
universally preferred, age and virginity challenged (one behavior varies across
depend on culture cultures)
- Essentialists say no universal standards - Limit: little room for individual initiative
for attractiveness, evolutionary or creativity, oversocialized concept of
theorists say it is for reproductive the person, biology still impacts thought
purposes, but some people don’t want and behavior
anything to do with fertilitiy! - Limited explanatory/predictive power
- Evolutionary psychologists say certainty due to emphasis on variability
of paternity is a major concern in men, 2. Conjoint approaches
preference for virgins in long-term - Interactionist theories! (additive
mating, but bride’s family place greater influences in reality)
value on female virginity 1. Love occurs when person is
b. Sexual orientation intensely physiologically aroused
 and if person applies a particular - Post-modernism is anti-essentialist and
cognitive label (love) to sensations rejects the concept of self, offers little
2. Biocultural approaches, sexual compared to what exists in
desire is biologically driven but its interactionism
expression is socially constructed - Convergence of postmodernism and
3. Can there be true conjoint approaches? symbolic interactionism unlikely, but
- Biology is not essentialism immediately, former can enhance the latter
nor social influence to constructionism
Power and the Self
- Essentialism relies on true essences, we
can know these directly and objectively - Postmodern and poststructural critics
- Constructionism is the opposite, proclaimed the death of self
humans always engage in socially - The idea of people having a self with
constructing reality essential nature and independent
- Distinct categories vs. diversity, conjoint consciousness is a political artifact of
unlikely the European Enlightenment
- Foucault: self is the direct consequence
//THE SOCIOLOGY OF THE SELF//
of power, power regimes bring self into
- An emerging sociological approach to existence by imposing disciplinary
the self focuses on power, reflexivity practices (surveillance, measurement,
and social constructionism. assessment, classification of body,
- Power – Foucault, corrects symbolic institutional settings, etc.)
interactionism (Mead) - The self is coerced into existence as a
- Reflexivity – Mead, agency and political mechanism of control
action - Stuart Hall – no true self, because self is
- Social construction – guides empirical constructed within discourse and not
analysis outside of it, self deconstruction
- Non-human objects play a role in self- challenges essentialism
construction - Rose – genealogy of subjectification,
localized attempts to make meaning
Introduction
- Cushman – no universal transhistorical
- Study of self developed due to attention self, just local selves, no universal
towards poststructuralsm, cultural theories for self just local
studies, feminism, queer theory - The self is constituted within relations
- Individualization of social life, of control, embedded within
proliferation of roles, emergence of knowledge/discourse systems (power)
“identity projects”, where social - Foucauldian tradition eliminates
location and personal meaning become universal self and
a matter of effort and conscious choice agentic/knowledgeable actor
- Symbolic interactionism (like languages) - If actors are subjects in discourse, how
is irrelevant to self studies, but most are they liberated through organized
research remains the concern of those resistance and political intervention?
working with it Modernity creates individuals!
 - Reflexivity needed to see self as a - Taylor – private and public experience is
knowledgeable, problem-solving agent not culturally universal but affected by
historically limited modes of self-
The self as a reflexive process
interpretation, modern approach to
- Modernism cannot distinguish generic identity rose because religious, political,
self from particular identities, symbolic economic, familial, intellectual, artistic,
interactionists think selves are reflexive etc. practices converges and reinforced
properties of social interaction, not each other to produce it
biological - Generalizing the public person sweeps
- Reflexive – both subject and object over shifting/multidimensional and
- Reflexivity and neopragmatism cultural meanings of self
emphasize a universal/transhistorical - Self-construction vary over social
self categories
- Identity as a concept is universal, but - Globalization
that does not mean there is one  dispersion of capital, people,
common fixed identity, social action information and culture across
needed with language to form self international borders,
- Schwalbe – self is reflexive and accelerated by communication
regulates the acting, agentic organism tech and travel
- Perinbayanagam – humans have a  colonization, disruption,
sophisticated system of signs and elaboration of local culture
gestures  identity confusion in
- Resistance is possible with reflexivity, in adolescents due to disruption
the form of power of traditional practices and
- Pragmatists and postmodernists are at perspectives
odds, but both agree self is a social  global media culture, migration
construction increase, bicultural identities,
- Symbolic interactionism failed to hybrid identity (conflicting,
understand that power relations dynamic relationship)
constitute to self  oppositional identities,
resistance to globalization,
The self as social construction
religious fundamentalism
- Mead’s “me” – bounded, structure, and
Resources for self-construction
“I” – fluid, agentic, creative response
- Self-concepts, social production of self - symbols, communication strategies are
- Cahill corrects social constructionism diverse resources, including storytelling,
through the public person, a unique self cultural narratives, political ideologies,
is made in the image of the public roles, identities, features of the body
person (cultural tool kit)
- storytelling – conversational activity
The sociological context of self-construction
depending on situation, audience,
competence, narratives are culturally
 structured products of language used Nonhuman objects as apparatuses of self-
early in socialization construction
- Brunner – autobiographies sustain
- Cetina
stability and predictable understanding
 untying identities accompanies
of the world
expansion of object-centered
- Snow and Anderson – homeless make
environments mean to
fictive storytelling for positive self-
situate/stabilize selves
understanding
 new communication tech
- Fictive storytelling not sustained in
allows access to wide range of
larger community / cultural narrative,
“generalized others”, altering
leads to ridicule/exclusion or private
how identity is constructed
bolstering, promotes shared storytelling
- Altheide – tech influence establishes
- Corporal body can be a resource (SRS,
media communities, media tech can
cosmetic surgery, body art, fashion)
separate body from self and hide it
- Denzin – power is hidden in tradition,
(Waskul)
popular culture, interpersonal relations,
- RPGs, talk show guests, increased
storytelling is based on cultural
surveillance and self-regulation,
understandings, drawing from media
commodification of identity
representations
- Social roles/identities are resources Products of self-construction
- Stryker’s identity theory – identities are
- Qualities of self observed at level of the
distinct parts of the self defined by
subject and conceptualized as a variable
meanings and expectations associated
in the explanation of individual
with roles and network positions
behavior
 Positions – elements of a social
- Self concepts promote unity, stability,
structure, associated with
conformity but not the sociological
behavioral expectations
principles of social construction
 Internalized social roles become
- Self is not a bounded quality of the
part of the self, role identities
person
guide behavior
- Reflexivity – the capacity to reflect
- Structural approach in symbolic
one’s actions, thoughts and feelings, is
interaction recognizes dynamic/open-
universal
ended self-meanings but not
- Products of social construction are built
historical/cultural construction
on psychic and corporal experiences of
- Stryker and Burke
reflexivity
 commitment to relationships
shapes cognitive prominence of Module 2
identity and behavior
//FOUCAULT, FEMININITY, AND THE
 cognitive/behavioral processes
MODERNIZATION OF PATRIARCHAL POWER//
align meanings of identity with
self and action
- New discipline arose due to new - Men stretch everywhere and are more
conception of political liberty, one that relaxed, women walk in short strides
controls/regulates the body and with heels and men swing arms with
economy/efficiency of movement farther strides, women must smile
- Disciplinary practices increases utility of more and look down / looks
the body and augments forces somewhere else under male scrutiny,
- Political anatomy and mechanics of cannot look wherever she wants,
power produces docile, subjected, smiling in women’s jobs, men touch
practiced bodies requiring women’s bodies more
uninterrupted coercion - Men in couples can just steer women
- Body-object articulations, mechanisms - Women are hairless on soft supple skin
of control in relation to body (student- (electrolysis kills hair roots), skin care
desk, soldier-rifle) products, black women can use fade
- Body rigidly controlled the same way as creams to even skin tone, strict
its space (factory whistle, school bell) rules/techniques in using products
- State of conscious and permanent - Skin-care discipline varies when
visibility implies control of the mind, exposed to pollution, heated rooms,
individualism and heightened self- cold, stress, harsh weather, sun,
consciousness lie in self-surveillance as medication, exercise, boating,
a product of controls imposed swimming
- Foucault is blind to the bodies of - Makeup rules also strict, feminine body
women, or femininity, in the face of produced, a woman’s unpainted face is
power defective
- Styles of feminine figure vary over time, - Poor women without resources cannot
power abundance and massiveness in maintain their body correctly, seen as
female body is met with distaste shameful
- Articles of dieting influence slimness - Disciplines are not race/class-specific,
ideality, dieting disciplines the body’s woman must be object/prey for man,
hunger, the body’s needs become an women perceive their body as
enemy (anorexia nervosa and bulimia perceived by another (patriarchal
developed) Other)
- Exercises and tape on the forehead - A woman’s body must not display the
(tugs at face everytime there is a frown, things we admire in men
reminder to relax face), women more - In spite of making the most of what
conscious than men about food, weight, they have to maintain figure, activity is
body ridiculed/dismissed as being interested
- Women more restricted than men in in “trivial” things like clothes and
movement and live spatiality, women makeup, does little for status and more
feel constricted, a loose woman violates for sexuality
norms, woman make themselves seem - In groups of men, superiors can sit
small, narrow and harmless, taking little more relaxed and touch subordinates
space and being tense more
- People who appeared in clothes of the femininity replaced religious tracts of
other sex could be arrested, subjected the past, visual media important
to harassment, media and school - Foucault: induced in many women is a
reinforce gender differentiation state of conscious and permanent
- Disciplines can be imposed as visibility that assures the automatic
inegalitarian and asymmetrical, but also functioning of power
voluntary - The individual is the product of
- Transformation of feminine body may gestures, discourses, power
be: rite of passage into adulthood, - Hegemonic femininity slowly being
adoption/celebration of aesthetic, rejected, enhancing striking non
announcing economic level/social feminine features for the new female
status, a way to triumph in competition aesthetic
for men/jobs, opportunity for - Peter Dews accuses Foucault of ignoring
narcissistic indulgence the “libidinal body” – with impulses of
- No formally identifiable disciplinarians, spontaneity and pleasure, locus of
sanctions still present despite lack of resistance
formal public sanctions (either from
//WALANG RAPE SA BONTOK DOCUMENTARY//
others or from personal shame)
- Discipline can bring development of Module 3
power, and feminism questioning
//SPACE AND THE COLLECTIVE MEMORY//
patriarchies could deskill the woman
(compliance has rewards) - August Comte – mental equilibrium is
- Defeminizing the body means due to the fact that physical objects do
desexualization, annihilation of the self not change (mental permanence of
- Feminism is incoherent when images)
liberation/equality of rights is - Mental illness – break of contact
demanded yet maintain conventional between thought and things, cannot
standards of feminine body display recognize objects
- In modern society, there are invasive - Physical surroundings bear an imprint
apparatuses of power that change the on us and others, attachment to
mind of resistors instead of the body, objects, familiarity
power became even more anonymous, - Objects are the subject of
less regulations for women evaluation/comparison, provide insight
- Divorce, access to paid work outside the into new directions of fashion/taste,
home, increasing secularization of reflect customs and social distinctions
modern life, patriarchy still had bodily - Items reflect owner, owner recognizes
sanctions when resisted (duties for world through items
God) - When we grow tired of an item, the
- Women no longer required to be docile item seems to age
or chaste, or restrict activitiy to home - People become enclosed in the
discipline not for violent and public framework that has been built (objects,
sanction anymore, images normative furniture, etc.), person becomes part of
 the environment (upon moving homes, to contract obligations independent of
person misses old home/environment), physical location
cultural/historical attachment to spaces - Economic groups are based on positions
- Each portion of a space corresponds to of production, nor space (characteristics
aspects of the structure and life of what of people, not space)
is most stable in their society - Religious groups – inner man
- Physical attachment to locale emphasized, invisible bonds
- Family grows/shrinks – both group and - Localized groups – do not take into
physical surroundings change account spatial configuration
somewhat (death, marriage, etc.) - People living in one place does not
suffice for discovery/recollection of
The Stones of the City
group they belong to
- Cities remain constant despite many - Legal system in places, serf to soil and
events happening within them, stones then urban relocation, customs in
and buildings do not change areas, tax systems for territories,
- Great upheavals shake society without properties
altering cities - Law in its applications must disregard
- Life goes on like nothing happened, the local circumstances, but collective
immobility of spaces makes us calm thought is bound to these
- Habits are likened to physical spaces circumstances (law is irrelevant)
resisting changing forces - Transaction and commitment involves
- Even if stones moved, relationship land (offices, auctions)
between stones and men are not - Factory framework helps keep track of
altered wage contracts, conflicts, laws, rules,
customs
Implacement and Displacement: The Adherence
- Legal relationship and actions connect
of the Group to its Location
with images of places for specific
- Demolition affects the habits of people functions (memory applies to all
and troubles them members)
- Usually, equilibrium is sought after, old - City districts distinguished by poverty
spots reappear after district remodeling and wealth, home and workplace are
- Demolished remains of buildings are separate
not removed, stores are reestablished - Religion is rooted in land (holy places),
in the same spot before remodeling tombs with inscriptions

Groups without an apparent spatial basis: legal, Insertion of the collective memory into space
economic, and religious groups
- Frameworks cannot necessarily make a
- Family – under the same roof picture
- Legal relationships are based on - No space is less real than the other,
individuals having rights and being able spaces of one group of people may
differ from the other
Legal space and the memory of laws - Material objects gain value only when a
price is assigned
- Legal properties, fixed land and unfixed
- Economic memory, market space, price
possessions
stability, then it fluctuated (money
- An individual or several individuals
plummets, prices rise), stock market,
acquire property rights only when their
trades between people, memory must
society grants existence of relationship
be of most recent prices
between them and object
- Sellers relationship are with buyers,
- People constantly change, relationships
though they share one function with
are not permanent (how can you verify
other sellers as a group
previous affairs without a remembrance
- Buyers can only evaluate goods if the
of said affairs?
seller gives the price
- Signs and symbols are not arbitrarily
- The price is changing, the object is not,
related to objects
illusion is you pay for a price
- Legal space – a permanent space
representing the nature of the object
allowing memory to recover
instead of a complex set of evaluations
remembrance of legal rights at issue
- Negotiations under fact that seller
- Will refers to intentions resulting from
knows true price and is masking it or
legal character and unchanging as long
buyer is making him forget the true
as the legal situation remains
price
unchanged
- Buyer must stabilize prices enough to
- People joined together to manage
allow customers to make purchases,
possessions form a group of legal
society must persuade people that it is
personality that is unchanging as long
not changing in some aspects
as contract remains, even if original
people left Religious Space
- People endure because things do
- Religious or sacred spaces, finite
- Slaves had a legal status (obligations
boundary from common places
and no rights), could be aware he is a
- Spaces consecrated to religion or
slave upon entering master’s quarters,
occupied by religious communities
location calls for subordination
declines due to major activities of social
- Insolvent debtors may not go out on
life
the streets
- The physical space reminds people of
- Master-slave image, slave quarters and
their beliefs, religion must be stable
master’s bed
through objects, symbols, must refuse
- Traveling to foreign areas makes us feel
to change amidst other changing
the passing between legal zones
institutions, equilibrium, space
Economic Space decorated for devotion
- Images of God, idols, saints, vestments,
- Prices are labels, no relationship
temples
between object appearance and price,
decided by reigning opinions of group
 - Masses of faithful gain impression of - overview of significance of adolescent
mystery from images, some faithful not development in shaping body image,
allowed to enter most sacred areas relationship between body image and
- Religious geography/topography – adolescent weight status, and
Crusaders localized places where the consequences of negative body image
Gospel’s events would have taken (but
Weight status and body image perceptions in
places would be much farther in reality)
adolescents: current perspectives
- Religious memory needed in order to
evoke events connected with places, - interest in body image related research
relocation apparent is tied with public health concerns on
- Stations of the cross, re-enactment of weight status, physical inactivity,
people far from Jerusalem, a symbolic obesity, eating disorders, health
image of the actual event consequences
- The collective thought of a group of - Body image – how we feel, think,
believers has the best chance of perceive, act towards our bodies
immobilizing itself and enduring when it - Negative perceptions – associated with
concentrates on places obesity, physical inactivity, eating
disorder development
Groups represent space, space represents
- Body image changes over time,
groups
adolescence is a critical period for
//ADOLESCENT IDENTITY FORMATION AND health body image development
RITES OF PASSAGE – see report//
Adolescence as a critical period in body image
Module 4 development

//WEIGHT STATUS AND BODY IMAGE - Appearance-oriented culture usually

PERCEPTIONS IN ADOLESCENTS: CURRENT targets teens, media can reinforce
PERSPECTIVES// dissatisfaction and negative perceptions
in teen
Abstract
- More time spent exposed to
- adolescence is a pivotal stage in appearance-specific media, more
development of positive or negative dissatisfaction, weight-based teasing
body image, influences are stronger for from loved ones, family, friends
appearance, weight status, body shape increases this as well (slim body figure
- weight status ranges from obese (95th or muscularity)
percentile) to underweight - Weight control encouragement from
- influences: media, peers, these cause parents results in higher weight
internalization of pressures to conform concerns in children, mothers dieting
to socially prescribed body ideals influence disordered eating behaviors
- fat talk, body shaming, weight-related for girls
bullying cause dissatisfaction/negative - Peers – comparisons, teasing, criticism,
body perceptions modeling or appearance discussion,
social conflict or exclusion
 - Body image affects perceived assessment of body, fat talk from
attractiveness for other potential mothers promotes daughters body
romantic partners dissatisfaction
- Adiposity and hip widening which is - Bullying more frequent in overweight
common in women during puberty is and obese, associated with higher
against the thin ideal body shape, men dissatisfaction, results in depression
pressured to be taller and muscular and sadness, lower self esteem
- Greater dissatisfaction for late-maturing
Weight status, body image, and the impact on
or late bloomers
health behaviors – interaction between weight
- Adolescence, identity formation, body
status and body image cause physical inactivity,
image, perceptions, those who identify
eating disorders, and dysfunctional exercise
with traditional gender roles invest
more in media-based body ideals 1. Physical inactivity
- Other demographic or social factors can
The relationship between adolescent weight
affect body image and physical activity
status and body image
- Overweight and obese avoid physical
- Bigger body mass index (BMI) means activity, normal weight people exercise
higher weight concerns, predicts longer
dissatisfaction in early adulthood, - Physical inactivity influenced by
internalization is important in this a. Individual barriers – lack of fitness
relationship associated with excess weight
- Internalization – degree to which b. Social barriers – exclusion, teasing
someone adopts sociocultural body c. Physical barriers – no gym privacy
ideals, this predicts dissatisfaction - Despite no difference in physical
- May be contradictory, girls with higher activity, those with lower self-esteem
BMI, stronger comparisons, greater and lower physical activity self-efficacy
pressure to weight loss, poorer physical have lower cardiorespiratory fitness
ability perceptions and higher self- and upper body strength
esteem are satisfied with their bodies - Lower physical activity has higher
- In boys, poorer physical self-concept teasing in boys, higher dissatisfaction
and pressures for muscle gain predict and criticism in girls has lower physical
satisfaction more than BMI activity, dissatisfaction did not affect
- Multiple factors can determine body boys
image - Stronger psychosocial consequences for
- Weight concerns – worrying if body is females
too fat or not muscular enough, - Literature promotes positive effects of
perceptions of body unacceptability physical activity yet the youth avoid it
- Perceived pressures may outweigh and experience weight concerns,
internalization influence of body ideals pathogenic weight control behaviors,
to predict body image stigma
- Social comparison is rampant in teens, 2. Eating disorders and dysfunctional
perception more strongly influences exercise
- Dissatisfaction influences eating fractures and pressure sores, social
disorders (psychosocial variables are isolation, impaired relationships, poor
locus of control and perfectionism), concentration
influenced by body dysmorphia,
Practical implications
depression, low self-esteem
- Negative body image is diagnostic - Schools and communities focus on
feature for clinical eating disorders weight loss and obesity prevention,
- Anorexia nervosa – severe restriction of results in eating disorders that
food intake to unhealthy levels resulting emphasize self-acceptance and health
in caloric deprivation at every size, only fat is bad
- Bulimia nervosa – binge eating and - Eating disorders must be tackled too,
compensatory purging (vomiting, avoid unrealistic weight goals, critical
laxatives, diuretics, obligatory excessive weight comments, we should strive to
exercise that involves guilt, compulsion, increase satisfaction, change body
rigidity) to counteract excessive caloric perceptions and mindset
intake - Social media with good messages can
- Binge eating disorder – without purging, influence 12-13 year old especially
associated with shame and harsh self- - Lasting effects are not guaranteed in
criticism these programs, programs for
- Dieting and pathogenic methods to adolescent boys are less frequent than
purge food, unintended health girls
consequences, addictive quality in - Some initiatives received negative
purging for temporary emotional relief feedback, media and programs must be
- This disrupts nearly every bodily tested at small scale first
system, highest mortality rate in teens, - Cognitive dissonance and body
associated with high suicide risk and acceptance! Better than just education,
self-harm behaviors programs must be tailored to the
- Bleeding, cardiovascular problems, demographic
amenorrhea (lack of menstruation),
Conclusion
gastrointestinal problems, tooth decay,
reduced bone density, impaired colon //THE INFLUENCE OF THE BODY IMAGE
function, electrolyte imbalances PRESENTED THROUGH TIKTOK TREND VIDEOS
- Ideal body never actualized since teens AND ITS POSSIBLE REASONS//
obsess over the next flaw constantly
Abstract – how tiktok enhances body
- Exercise addiction, exercise abuse,
stereotypes and body shaming, impacts on
exercise dependence, overexercise,
society, using commenters and users
quality of exercise affected by
psychological mindset Introduction
- Dysfunctional exercise indicates relapse
- Media influences the youth,
of eating disorders, leads to fatigue,
stereotyped body imaging, unhealthy
mood disturbances (irritability,
depression), overuse injuries like stress
 weight control behaviors higher in - Tags and influencers hopping on trends
women spreads stereotyping more
- User reviews, psychology and sociology,
social media as an accomplice of 2. Gender stereotypes
physical shame phenomenon, unreal - Models online serve as comparison for
bodies are goals through videos women when assessing their own
- Purpose is to suggest healthier internet appearance, reinforcing normative
behavior, suggest how body image heterosexualized performances of
should be perceived on social platforms feminine and masculine desirability,
normalizes women’s sexualization
Tiktok users’ opinions on body shaming
- Men present their body image as
- Social platforms flooded with unrealistic sexualized and romantic objects, posing
ideal bodies, tiktok users are used to techniques in social networks are
unrealistic body image videos, what influenced by advertising trends
bodies look like to make them attractive - Sexualization and stereotyping of
- Transformation/transition videos of appearances (femininity/masculinity)
makeup and hair, from soft to confident on social media is unfriendly to
and sexy, face full of acne and transgender, LGBTQ, etc., the minority
pretending to be overweight at first 3. Younger generation, future of society
- Tiktok users have no fitness awareness - Social media influences youth more
but want the perfect body, fat talk in than traditional media,
comments messages/images are more targeted
- Tiktok stars struggle with body and might come from trusted friends
criticisms, one challenge is criticized for for credibility
self-deception and spreading targeted - More media message exposure means
elements that humiliate the body, more risk of influence, and less clear
saying “don’t judge me” warrants messages from supportive adults
judging - Children might participate in harmful
trends, eating disorders, weight loss,
Potential threats of negative body imaging to
unhealthy behaviors
society enforced by tiktok
Reasons why tiktok is capable of influencing
1. Steretoyped discrimination, bullying,
netizens’ opinions on body imaging
job losses
- Stereotyped visual structure of body - Algorithm gives more similar content to
contributes to hierarchical binary value reinforce ideas, tiktok is divided into
judgement system of good and bad communities for sense of belonging
human images - Influencers talk about
- Slim figure, flawless face, skin tone, hair fitness/eating/dressing habits, users
influence body satisfaction question themselves and compare,
- Men and women build women value raises anxieties on life, dissatisfaction
based on appearance and physical - Advertised standards should not be
characteristics instead of personality suitable for everyone’s body shapes and
 needs, people might overexert identity, demonstrate relationship
themselves between society and self
- Influenced internet groups somehow - reduced to mere fashion accessories
show similar diet problems and body because of commercialization and
image probem (peer infection accessibility , removed of
phenomenon) countercultural nature and antifashion
- Appearance comments from friends segments
strengthen relationship between
Tattoos, self-concept, and the body experience
physical dissatisfaction and eating
disorders, peers are strong influences - usually tattoos are for rebellion, self-
expression, visual display of personal
Conclusion
narrative
- Tiktok impacts value judgment system, - Modern use is to compensate for
causes serious social problems feelings of inadequacy (therapeutic
- People should observe algorithm and claims, control over emotions/body)
cliques on the platform - Younger people deem tattoos as a way
- Short video forms of media are more to have a stronger identity or self-image
consumable in shorter amounts of time - Self-expression, self-identification,
- The consequences of published content uniqueness, then confidence (tattoos
must be understood and users need to and body image)
consciously collect different opinions to - Body image – how we perceive our
avoid information cocoons and negative bodies, inaccuracy generates negative
impacts emotions and coping mechanisms
(depression, eating disorders)
//PAINTED BODIES: REPRESENTING THE SELF
- Tattoos are a coping mechanism,
AND RECLAIMING THE BODY THROUGH
studies show results of self-acceptance
TATTOOS//
and body appreciation, lower
Introduction appearance anxiety and dissatisfaction
- Tattoos seen as deterrent to self-harm
- Tattooing has long been associated with
or eating disorders (tattoos express
rebellion and social deviance
body care)
- Now a socially acceptable form of
expression, historical stigma detached, Tattoos and the female body
concept of tattoos develops over time
- Women see tattoos for appearance
- Art and fashion industry! More women
enhancement to challenge hegemonic
are getting inked, most 30-35 years old,
constructions of femininity and the
most interest found in college students
association of tattoos to masculinity
(independence from authority, parents)
(ironically through feminine symbols,
- US rite of passage: visiting the tattoo
reinforcing meekness and gender roles
parlor
which is against the whole point)
- Tattoo might have psychological
- Tattoos seen as diverging from
meaning for wearer, can mask one’s
conservative gender ideals for women
 - Tattoos help women renounce - Previous studies lack psychological
victimization, objectification, wellbeing and body image effects
consumerization for the commodified - Therapeutic effects of tattoo against
body as the exotic other rigid social appearance expectations,
- Tattoos reclaim body for victimized reconcile ourselves with our overly
women of abuse, disease, trauma critical self-destructive views

Conceptual framework Method – social media Facebook and Reddit,

students form south-central US university,
- Appearance ideals and expectations are
survey through website, no financial website
transmitted through sociocultural
channels (media, peers, family, peer 1. Survey – demographic questions, body
pressures), pressures on body shape, image measures (body shame, body
weight, appearance cause surveillance, body part dissatisfaction),
internalization and constant monitoring sociocultural factors affecting
of the body appearance (investment in appearance,
- Social comparison theory (SCT) – degree of pressure felt, how much they
emphasizes comparison with others, incorporate societal attitudes), ANOVA
acknowledgement of dissatisfied and multiple regression
responses by others, promotes 2. Focus groups and face-to-face
psychological distress interviews – throughout 1 year, short
- Comparison and internalization of survey with demographic info, tattoos
ideals defines degree of succumbing to description (number, placement,
social pressure, might resort to design), motivation for it, views on body
harmful/destructive behaviors
Findings
(disordered eating, surgical
interventions, self-injury) to align - Participants want to project specific
cultural ideal with perceived self-state, impression of themselves, reminder of
deeply affected by body who they are or want to be, for others
shaming/dissatisfaction to inquire about
- Self-discrepancy theory – people are 1. Commemoration and coping – mark
motivated to match self-concept with events in life and had a connection to
ideal standards, negative self-image the body usually
triggers need for improvement - Communicate inner emotions, physical
reminders of collective past events
Current study inquiry
- Creates interest and dialogue
- Purpose is to examine use of tattoos for - Celebratory
negotiating body image and self- - May allow for reflection on potentially
concept painful experiences and personal
- Do individuals with tattoos experience growth/empowerment
their body differently than people - Reflect on specific events and
without? How does motivation for emotional states like depression, and
tattoos relate to self-presentation? the positive affects created by tattoo
2. Extensions of the self and redefining the - Pain associated with tattoos is
self – communicate or negotiating therapeutic, hiding behind tattoos,
identity reconnecting with body, reflects bad
- Tattoo design and meaning in the act of times
tattooing can be passed to individual, - Women being concerned with their
therefore people are more likely to body looks might influence them to get
choose design congruent with positive tattoos on wrist, side of ribs, pelvic
self-image and the identity they want to area, hip etc. (places of femininity)
project to others
Conclusions
- Most tattoos at 18, rites of passage,
autonomy from disapproval and - Tattoos are a quick fix for seeking
parents instant self-completion
- Social media to research tattoo designs, - Women adopt observer’s perspective
celebrity emulation to reduce self-state on their own bodies
discrepancies - Reclaiming of body, death of former
- Correlations of pathological aspects identity for new one, identity with
between celebrity worship and poor tattoos
body image, celebrities are positive - Body modifications can limit sense of
deviants people want to emulate body alienations from sexual violence
- People discussed designs with tattoo and abuse
artists before, but now we just show - Tattoos raise need for uniqueness but
images of celebrity tattoos hoping to not appearance investment, tattoos not
become like them defined by attractiveness or grooming
3. Reclaiming the body, emotional pain, habits
renegotiating the self – taking control of - Fashion accessories, emulating
body celebrities, sense of belonging
- Higher body monitoring in those with - Appreciate the body, seek acceptance,
tattoos, tattooed body was more support and comfort with their bodies,
desirable than nontattooed body sexual assertiveness, gender identity
- Tattoos redefine feminine beauty, no
//BODY IMAGE AND SELF-ESTEEM//
longer for working class males, but
women may also reinforce gender roles Introduction
by putting tattoos on highly sexualized
- Body image and self-esteem are
areas of body (self-objectification is
interconnected, especially significant
higher on women with tattoos)
during adolescence and puberty,
- Some people promote self-acceptance
affecting individuals from childhood to
and enhance satisfactory body parts
old age.
with tattoos, others draw attention
- Previous research primarily focused on
away from problematic areas in body
children and adolescents, but recent
- Tattoos could also be put in places you
studies extend to older age groups.
are more comfortable with
 - Poor body image correlates with overall vary across cultures and encompass
low self-esteem in early adolescents, multiple factors.
influencing physical, social, and - Body image is considered malleable and
academic self-concepts, as well as influenced by external factors like peers
susceptibility to eating disorders. and media, emphasizing the importance
- Addressing body image issues in health of education and intervention programs
and educational settings is crucial, given for promoting positive body image.
the adverse outcomes observed in - General self-esteem reflects an
children and adolescents. individual's overall sense of self-worth,
- Factors influencing body image during influenced by factors such as gender,
adolescence include self-esteem, age, and pubertal stage.
gender, media messages, and - Self-esteem is characterized by
peer/family pressure or support. sustained liking of oneself and
- Self-esteem is affected by body image, expressed in three ways: global self-
weight, academic performance, and esteem, feelings of self-worth, and self-
sports participation, with heavier body evaluations
weight often predicting lower self- 1. Global or trait self-esteem, which
esteem in girls. remains relatively stable over time,
- Positive self-esteem is essential for the way people generally feel about
young people's mental health and social themselves
behavior, fostering contentment with 2. State self-esteem, which are self-
their bodies and serving as a protective evaluative reactions to events
factor. - Self-esteem also involves domain-
- Body image, dissatisfaction, and self- specific evaluations, where individuals
esteem are lifelong concerns, with may have high self-esteem in certain
lower self-esteem increasingly linked to areas (e.g., athletics) and low self-
discontent with body size or shape esteem in others (e.g., academics),
across ages and genders. termed domain-specific self-esteem.
- Given body image's role in self-concept,
Measurement of Body Image and Self Esteem
the relationship between self-esteem
and body dissatisfaction is - Body image, a facet of physical self-
understandable. esteem, is assessed through perceptual
and subjective components.
Definitions of Body Image and Self-Esteem
- Perceptual component, known as size
- Body image encompasses perceptions, perception accuracy, involves
beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and participants estimating their body size
behaviors about one's body, including by matching distances or selecting
self-perceptions and attitudes. schematic figures.
- Traditional definitions highlight the - Perceptual distortion may involve
dissonance between ideal and inaccurate judgments about one’s own
perceived body size, known as body body size
dissatisfaction, but attractiveness ideals
 - Children exhibit high accuracy in protective factor against negative body
estimating body width, with research evaluations.
indicating precision up to 0.01% using - Low self-esteem heightens vulnerability
techniques like video projection. to body image issues, with a strong
- Subjective component evaluates association observed between self-
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with body esteem, self-concept, body image, and
appearance and function by comparing body dissatisfaction in Western
actual and ideal body sizes. cultures, especially during adolescence.
- Figural scales, such as the Contour - Self-concept and self-esteem develop
Drawing Rating Scale, assess children's dynamically from preschool through
body satisfaction by selecting adolescence, influenced by new
silhouettes depicting current and ideal experiences and information, with
sizes. positive self-esteem serving as a
- Questionnaires like Mendelson and mediating factor between body image
White's Body-Esteem Scale measure and psychological well-being.
body satisfaction among children, while - Children and adolescents with high self-
various validated tools assess body esteemed are generally happier with
image attitudes in adolescents and themselves and are able to recognize
adults. characteristics that require
- Harter's Perceived Competence Scale improvement
for Children includes importance ratings - Body image concerns, eating problems,
to gauge the significance of different and weight loss behaviors pose
self-concept dimensions, influencing significant threats to the physical,
overall self-concept. social, and psychological health of
- Self-report measures like Rosenberg children and adolescents, emphasizing
Self-Esteem Scale and Coopersmith the importance of fostering positive
Self-Esteem Inventory assess self- self-esteem during development.
esteem in adults, offering high face - Studies show a strong link between low
validity, strong psychometric self-esteem, negative body image, and
properties, and practicality for diverse depression among adolescents, with
contexts and populations. neuroticism traits such as anxiety and
obsessive-compulsive tendencies also
Associations between Self Esteem and Body
correlated with negative body image.
Image
- Recent research suggests that higher
- Body image concerns are prevalent self-esteem correlates with lower body
among young people, impacting dissatisfaction, particularly in
individuals regardless of gender and adolescent boys, indicating that positive
age, from children to young adults. self-esteem may protect against
- Individual personality attributes, sociocultural pressures related to body
particularly self-esteem, play a crucial dissatisfaction.
role in shaping body image attitudes,
with positive self-concept acting as a
 - Little gender difference in the 1. Pubertal status
correlation of self-esteem with body - Adolescence, particularly puberty,
image variables poses challenges for young people,
- In adult populations, lower self-esteem especially young women, who are
predicts greater body dissatisfaction, susceptible to low self-esteem and
with positive self-esteem enhancing dissatisfaction with body shape and
body satisfaction and vice versa, weight.
suggesting reciprocal influences - Body image concerns may emerge
between self-esteem and body image. before puberty, encompassing issues
- Social comparisons play a significant related to eating habits, physical
role in body dissatisfaction, with activity, and body image perceptions.
positive self-esteem development - Research suggests that as females
linked to improved body image and progress through puberty, their body
resilience against media-driven body satisfaction tends to decrease,
ideals and eating problems. attributed to normative increases in
- Women are more affected by social body fat that deviate from societal
pressures regardless of self-esteem. ideals.
Adult women younger or equal to 31 - Conversely, puberty brings changes in
had the strongest relationship between males, such as muscular development,
self-esteem and body dissatisfaction which align more closely with societal
- Women 35-65 place high importance on ideals, potentially leading to increased
appearance with high body body satisfaction among young males.
dissatisfaction and disordered eating, - Studies highlight associations between
women counteract the effects of aging self-concept, weight, pubertal
as they grow older, older men get development, and gender, indicating
declining self-esteem as they grew that higher weight students and
older due to no counteracted effects postmenarcheal females tend to have
- Identity balance – sense of self remains lower self-concept scores, with puberty
stable even as they incorporate exerting differing effects on the self-
information about their aging into that esteem of males and females.
sense of self - Pubertal development may be more
- While body image and self-esteem are important than age in influencing self-
prominent concerns for children, concept of adolescents, particularly for
adolescents, and adults, research on females
older adults is limited, yet findings 2. Body size and weight
suggest a significant relationship - Body weight, especially being
between self-esteem, appearance overweight, consistently predicts low
esteem, and body image satisfaction in self-esteem in both female and male
aging populations. children and adolescents.
- Studies show that heavy weight status
Associations with Pubertal Status, Body Size,
adversely affects various aspects of
Ethnicity, Culture and Sport
young girls' self-concept, leading to
 consistently lower self-esteem women perceive themselves and their
compared to lower weight girls. bodies based on race and ethnicity.
- Research focusing on preadolescent - African American women may have
children below 12 years old indicates an protective factors that contribute to
inverse relationship between self- higher body satisfaction regardless of
esteem and measures of body weight, size or shape, leading to higher self-
BMI, overweight, or obesity, particularly esteem and lower body dissatisfaction
among young girls. compared to other racial/ethnic groups.
- Heavier young girls or those perceiving - Cultural differences in emphasizing or
themselves as overweight and de-emphasizing appearance as a basis
experiencing low weight satisfaction for self-evaluation may impact body
may face a higher risk of developing low image and self-esteem.
self-esteem. - While certain ethnic cultures may
- Contradictory findings exist, suggesting promote healthier perceptions of
that in underweight adolescent girls, women's bodies, recent findings
body dissatisfaction and self-esteem indicate that body dissatisfaction is a
may be unrelated. global issue affecting various cultures
3. Ethnicity and culture and ethnic groups.
- Culture encompasses values, beliefs, - Some traditional cultures, like Fijian or
attitudes, and practices accepted by a Pacific Islander populations and
group or community, influencing the Indigenous Aboriginal populations of
development of body image. Australia, may also experience pressure
- Different cultural groups may have towards Westernized body ideals,
varied perspectives on bodies, shapes, although there is less available data on
weight, and ideals of attractiveness. these populations.
- Risk factors for weight and eating 4. Sport
pathology are observed across various - Numerous global studies have
ethnic groups, with women migrating to highlighted higher general self-esteem
Westernized countries exhibiting similar and physical self-esteem among youth
body weight dissatisfaction and eating engaged in sports or physical activities.
behaviors as local-born women over - Participation in physical activity during
time. childhood and adolescence is linked to
- Sociocultural risk factors, such as increased self-esteem and physical self-
cultural messages, contribute to eating esteem in both genders.
disturbances, with more acculturated - Various sports and physical activities,
individuals often facing stereotyped, such as swimming, creative dance,
negative, and unachievable body image baseball, karate, and martial arts, have
ideals. been associated with higher global self-
- Ethnicity and culture significantly esteem and greater physical self-
influence body image and self-esteem, esteem in children and adolescents.
with differences observed in how - Conversely, low self-esteem and high
body dissatisfaction, especially among
 females, are correlated with less positive self-concept, which is crucial
frequent participation in physical for general child health.
activity. - Schoolteachers play a pivotal role in
- Physical activity contributes to conveying critical information and
improvements in self-esteem and body values to students, making them
image, although the effects may vary important figures in the prevention and
between genders. For example, while treatment of eating disorders and
male participants in a physical exercise childhood obesity through health
program showed significant education.
improvement in body image - Well-planned and evaluated school-
perceptions after 6 weeks, similar based health education programs can
effects were not observed in females. positively impact body image, eating
- Motives for sports participation, behaviors, attitudes, and self-image
particularly weight-related motives, are among adolescents, fostering a safe and
linked to body dissatisfaction and lower health-promoting environment.
self-esteem among adolescent girls. - It's crucial to avoid programs that may
- Physical attractiveness plays an inadvertently harm students,
important role among men in early particularly heavier weight teenage girls
adulthood, but is more relevant to who are vulnerable to body image
women’s self-esteem later in life concerns and low self-esteem. Focusing
- Sports provide a platform for solely on weight may exacerbate
adolescent males to discuss their body negative body image.
image, with attributes they admire - Some programs normalize and
about their bodies often associated glamorize eating disorders and
with sporting ability and success, disturbances and introduce people to
thereby potentially enhancing both harmful methods of weight control
body image and self-esteem. (laxative abuse and starvation),
- The relationship between body image especially if teachers transfer negative
and self-esteem varies based on factors beliefs and attitudes to students
such as age and gender, with physical including weight prejudice and
attractiveness being more relevant to teachers’ own poor body image,
men's self-esteem in early adulthood teachers should have no prejudice
and to women's self-esteem later in life. against student body size
- Self-esteem plays a central role in the
Interventions to improve body image via
mental health of young people,
promotion of self esteem
contributing to contentment with their
- Promoting a healthy body image is bodies and serving as a protective
essential for overall adolescent health, factor against mental health issues and
influencing self-image, psychological negative social behavior.
well-being, participation in physical - Educational approaches like the
activity, and prevention of dangerous "Everybody's Different" program
dieting behaviors. It contributes to a promote self-acceptance, respect, and
 tolerance while challenging unrealistic - Dissonance activities, online
body ideals. These interventions have discussions, student-centered
shown significant improvements in interactions, media literacy
body satisfaction and self-esteem - Programs aimed at raising self-esteem
among adolescents. should incorporate positive feedback
- Health education must shift focus from and avoid competitive elements to
negative and problem based issues to foster a supportive environment
positive messages of building self conducive to positive self-perception.
esteem, healthy eating, regular physical Such interventions can be conducted in
activity various settings, including schools and
- Media literacy programs aim to educate clinical counseling techniques, and have
young people about unrealistic body shown effectiveness in improving body
standards perpetuated by the media, image and self-esteem among
empowering them to challenge these adolescents and adults alike.
stereotypes and reduce internalization
What we know about the links between the
of the thin ideal. Such programs
body image and self-esteem – summary of
(BodyThink) have shown promise in
issues in program success
improving body satisfaction and self-
esteem. - Prevention of eating disorders, child
- School-based interventions, such as life obesity, and body image problems
skills promotion programs and physical remains a complex challenge, with no
activity-focused initiatives, have been definitive conclusions on the most
successful in improving body image effective strategies. However, trends in
satisfaction, self-esteem, and reducing program outcomes suggest potential
dieting attitudes among adolescents. risks of inadvertently causing harm,
- Protective strategies should prioritize highlighting the need for careful
non-appearance domains to enhance planning and consideration of
self-esteem, particularly among heavier unintended adverse effects.
weight girls, encouraging them to value - Health educators and professionals
various aspects of themselves beyond must recognize the pervasive emphasis
physical appearance. Positive self-image on thinness and appearance in Western
could reduce perfectionism and love societies and strive to implement
what is already there. strategies that focus on non-
- Interventions employing physical appearance domains to prevent
activities and non-competitive negative body image and low self-
approaches have been effective in esteem.
improving self-concept among - Adolescents and young adults who
adolescents. Cooperative physical express overly negative evaluations of
activity programs have shown particular their appearance should be considered
promise in enhancing physical self- at risk of lowered self-esteem,
concept. emphasizing the importance of
adopting cooperative, interactive,
 student-centered educational techniques with broader educational
approaches to build self-esteem and interventions to improve self-esteem
improve body image. and body image effectively.
- Interventions focusing on self-esteem - Self-esteem and body image programs
improvement have shown promise in have the potential for far-reaching
preventing eating problems and body positive impacts on future generations
image concerns among young adults, of young people, including students and
including those working in health and clients in educational and health
education professions. settings.
- Developing self-esteem and body image
Module 5
among teachers and youth health
workers can be an effective way of //THE TEENAGE BRAIN: PEER INFLUENCES ON
fostering a stronger sense of self in ADOLESCENT DECISION MAKING//
future generations.
Abstract
- Various factors, including age, gender,
puberty, body weight, and involvement - Recent research has advanced our
in sports and physical activity, influence understanding of adolescent risk
the self-concept of children, behavior, shifting focus from age
adolescents, and young adults. differences in risk perception to the
- Successful programs to improve self- influence of social and emotional
esteem among these groups often factors on decision making.
emphasize positive self-appraisal, - Studies suggest that adolescent risk-
media literacy, and are delivered in taking propensity arises from a
noncompetitive, supportive developmental mismatch between the
environments. early remodeling of the brain's
- Educational initiatives aimed at socioemotional reward system and the
preventing body image concerns and gradual strengthening of the cognitive-
eating problems in young people should control system.
integrate a strong self-esteem - During adolescence, increased peer
component, media literacy, and positive interaction may sensitize the reward
input from teachers, parents, and the system to respond to the rewarding
community. aspects of risky behavior, contributing
- Weight loss and better body image to heightened risk-taking tendencies.
alone cannot change or improve self- - Over the teenage years, the maturation
esteem, attitudes, awareness, of the cognitive-control system enables
education and self-love matter too adolescents to better coordinate
- Preventive interventions must exercise emotions and cognition, leading to
caution to avoid inadvertently causing improved self-regulation even in
harm, particularly among vulnerable emotionally charged situations.
children and adolescents. - This development is reflected in
- Interventions among young adults adolescents' increasing capacity to
should combine individual counseling resist peer influence as they gain better
 control over their decision-making risky behaviors when in the presence of
processes and become more capable of peers, while adults tend to offend
evaluating risks and rewards alone.
independently. - Affiliation with delinquent peers is a
strong predictor of delinquent behavior
Introduction
in adolescence, attributed to peer
- Adolescents are known to engage in socialization and friendship choices.
more risk-taking behaviors compared to - Experimental studies have directly
children or adults, including compared the behavior of adolescents
experimentation with substances, and adults when making decisions
reckless driving, and involvement in alone versus in the presence of peers.
crime. - In one study, adolescents engaged in
- Traditional research on adolescent risk- significantly riskier behavior when
taking focused on cognitive immaturity tested with peers compared to when
but there were no distinctions between tested alone, while adults showed no
adolescents and adults in terms of risk difference in risk-taking behavior based
perception and decision-making on social context.
abilities.
A neurodevelopmental model of peer
- Contrary to lab-based studies where
influences on adolescent decision making
adolescents often exhibit risk-averse
behavior, real-world scenarios suggest - Adolescents exhibit a heightened
that peer influence plays a significant susceptibility to peer influence, which is
role in adolescent risk-taking. attributed to maturational changes in
- While alone, they may be less inclined brain structure and function occurring
to take risks, but in the company of throughout the second decade of life.
friends or peers, engaging in risky - A neurodevelopmental model proposes
behaviors becomes more appealing. that the presence of peers primes a
- Adolescents spend considerable time in reward-sensitive motivational state
peer contexts, and recent research among adolescents, increasing
suggests that the presence of peers preferences for short-term rewards of
fundamentally alters their decision- risky choices over long-term safe
making processes and propensity for alternatives. Assumptions for this
risk-taking. model:
1. Adolescents' decision-making
Peer Influences on Adolescent Risk Behavior
process involves both cognitive and
- Adolescent risk behavior appears to be affective input, with affective states
influenced significantly by peer context, influencing decision processing
with adolescents showing lower even when unrelated to the choices
resistance to peer influence compared under evaluation.
to adults. - Incidental affective influences – the
- Observational data suggests that anticipated emotional outcome for a
adolescents are more likely to engage in
 behavior influences one’s cognitive supporting cognitive control (like lateral
assessment of its expected value prefrontal and anterior cingulate
- Approach sensitization – neural cortex, for tests needing response
responses to positively valenced inhibition).
socioemotional stimuli (do not reach - Cognitive efficient self-regulation
conscious awareness), these sensitize mature in a gradual linear pattern
approach responding to unrelated throughout adolescence, planned
incentive cues problem solving, continued gains in
2. Adolescents have tronger bottom- response inhibition, flexible rule use,
up affective reactivity in response impulse control and future orientation
to socially relevant stimuli – driven occur during adolescence
by puberty-related increases in - Adolescents' difficulties with cognitive
gonadal hormones and oxytocin control may contribute to challenges in
neurotransmission. evaluating social affective, and cognitive
- Social bonding, heightened attention to factors relevant to decision-making,
positive social stimuli (from oxytocin particularly when social and emotional
neurotransmission) considerations are salient.
- Peer relationships are highly salient - Adolescent immaturity in functional
during adolescence, with adolescents integration of neural signals from
spending more time interacting with specialized cortical and subcortical hub
peers, showing a peak in affiliation regions
motivation, and exhibiting
Identification of mechanisms underlying peer
hypersensitivity to social stimuli.
influences on adolescent decision making
- Puberty increases interest in opposite-
sex relationship, adolescents have - A series of behavioral and neuroimaging
heightened approach motivation when experiments compared adolescent and
exposed to positively valenced peer adult decision-making in various social
stimuli (facial expressions, social contexts to understand adolescents'
feedback) in decision-making susceptibility to peer influence.
3. Adolescents are less capable than 1. Peers bias identification in
adults of top-down cognitive adolescent decision making by
control of impulsive behavior, with modulating responses to incentive
cognitive capacities supporting cues as predicted by approach-
efficient self-regulation maturing sensitization hypothesis
gradually over adolescence. 2. Disrupting inhibitory control
- Structural and functional brain 3. Altering both processes
maturation (like increased axonal - Stoplight game, go/no-go game,
myelination) during adolescence is gambling game
linked to improvements in cognitive - Late adolescents exhibited increased
control, although adolescents risk-taking propensity and stronger
demonstrate relatively inefficient preferences for immediate rewards in
recruitment of neural circuitry the presence of same-age peers
 compared to when completing tasks cues, which undermines their capacity
alone. to inhibit approach behavior.
- Peer observation influenced - Adolescents' sensitivity to the reward-
adolescents' decision-making even sensitizing effects of social stimuli may
when the peer was anonymous and not further undermine their capacity to
physically present, suggesting that the inhibit impulsive responding.
presence of peers increases risk-taking - Further research is needed to
behavior. understand the neurodevelopmental
- Individuals with relatively low self- dynamics underlying adolescents'
reported resistance to peer influence susceptibility to peer influence and to
and high sensation seeking are translate this understanding into
particularly susceptible to the peer effective prevention programs.
effect on risk-taking. - Ongoing studies are examining age
- Brain imaging studies showed that differences in the influence of social
adolescents, but not adults, took cues on neural activity underlying
significantly more risks when observed reward processing and response
by peers. This was accompanied by inhibition. Additionally, researchers are
greater activation of brain structures investigating whether conditions like
implicated in reward valuation, such as alcohol intoxication exacerbate the
the ventral striatum and orbitofrontal influence of peers on risky decision-
cortex, in the presence of peers. making.
- The degree of ventral striatum - Initial steps are being taken to explore
activation in both adolescents and whether targeted training to promote
adults in the peer condition was earlier maturation of cognitive-control
inversely correlated with self-reported skills could reduce the influence of
resistance to peer influence, indicating peers on adolescent decision-making,
that peer presence accentuates risky with the ultimate goal of improving the
decision-making by modulating activity efficacy of risk-taking prevention
in the brain's reward-valuation system. programs.

Conclusions and future directions Module 6

- The effect of peers on adolescents' risk- //VOLUNTEERING AND ITS SURPRISING

taking behavior is mediated by changes BENEFITS//
in reward processing during
//CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL CLASS AND OTHER
adolescence, although the distinction
ESSAYS//
between risk-taking due to heightened
arousal of the brain's reward system //VOLUNTEERING AND ITS SURPRISING
versus cognitive control immaturity is BENEFITS//
somewhat artificial.
//IDEOLOGICAL COALITIONS AND THE
- Studies have shown that adolescents
INTERNATIONAL PROMOTION OF SOCIAL
exhibit elevated ventral striatal activity
ACCOUNTABILITY//
in response to positively valenced social
Abstract - This raises questions about whether
social accountability mechanisms
- International aid agencies are
inherently promote democratic forces
increasingly emphasizing social
and outcomes or if they could be used
accountability in reform programs,
by elites to bypass democratic politics.
which involve various mechanisms
- The examination of who supports social
through which officials are accountable
accountability, why, and the
to the public.
implications for political authority is
- These mechanisms are being promoted
crucial in understanding its potential
not only in emerging democracies but
outcomes.
also in authoritarian societies.
- Social accountability can possibly be
- The political regime effects of
attractive for the liberal and moral
promoting social accountability are
values compatible with
examined by considering who supports
authoritarianism.
it, why, and the implications for political
- While the potential for political
authority.
cooptation through accountability is
- By focusing on case studies from the
acknowledged, there has been limited
Philippines and Cambodia, it is
examination of the ideologies and
suggested that accountability
interests associated with accountability
mechanisms are influenced by liberal
concepts.
and/or moral ideologies favoring
- The cases of the Philippines and
hierarchical structures.
Cambodia, both part of the Asian
- These ideologies often prioritize
Network for Social Accountability,
nonconfrontational state-society
provide an opportunity to compare the
partnerships, emphasizing technical and
impacts of accountability mechanisms
administrative processes that may limit
on different political regimes.
reform possibilities by marginalizing
- Despite differences in the presence of
independent political action crucial for
democratic forces, both countries have
democratic politics.
experienced the subordination of social
Introduction accountability mechanisms to liberal
and/or morally based ideas, preserving
- Since the mid-2000s, accountability has
existing power structures and limiting
been a central aspect of governance
critical evaluation of reform agendas.
reform supported by international aid
- Accountability privileges
agencies, with social accountability
nonconfrontational state-society
being a significant focus.
partnerships, limits political reform
- Social accountability encompasses
possibilities, replaces independent
various civil society activities aimed at
collective political action
holding public officials accountable, a
- Social accountability can be attractive
concept promoted by aid agencies not
to actors seeking new modes of
only in emerging democracies but also
authoritarian governance, often under
in authoritarian regimes.
the guise of democracy, particularly in
 the context of globalized market participation, social foundations for
economies. democratic transitions can be laid
- The discussion explores the significance event before electoral institutions
of social accountability for democracy exist.
and identifies democratic, liberal, and 3. Social accountability involves the
moral ideological rationales for it. right to know, question and
- Historical and structural factors shaping participate, to better services, to
the adoption of social accountability in stop corruption, end poverty,
the Philippines and Cambodia are demand commitments are
examined, followed by an analysis of respected, the cornerstone of good
major initiatives in these countries. governance, prerequisite of
- The discussion highlights the broad effective democracy
appeal of social accountability - Social accountability is less
techniques to coalitions across various confrontational in making demands
ideologies and political regime types,
including authoritarian and democratic
systems. - The unorganized majority must be
incorporated into the new state-society
Social accountability and political regimes
relationship, since they are most reliant
- Social accountability mechanisms on government services and least
encompass a wide range of activities, equipped to hold government officials
including monitoring, auditing, and accountable
direct involvement of social actors in - Social accountability initiatives in Latin
state-based bodies. America have been seen as essential for
- These mechanisms blur the distinction scrutinizing power and promoting
between horizontal (within the state) political competition necessary for
and vertical (state-citizen) democratic consolidation.
accountability, raising questions about - The transformative potential of social
their political regime implications. accountability lies in its ability to lay the
- Three key arguments regarding the groundwork for democratic transitions
political significance of social through collective action and
accountability are identified: innovations in accountability and
1. By complementing and participation.
supplementing existing - International aid agencies emphasize
accountability institutions between citizens' rights and empowerment,
elections, social accountability is framing social accountability as crucial
essential to the scrutiny of power for good governance and effective
and political competition required democracy.
for emerging democracies to - Accountability forges links between
consolidate unorganized majority and wide
2. Through collective social action and sociopolitical movements, but also
innovations in accountability and obstruct link formation where
 substantive content and permissible through legal and constitutional means,
political conflict is narrowed emphasizing market values and efficient
- However, there are tensions between resource allocation.
democratic arguments for social - Moral approaches to accountability are
accountability and its technocratic and diverse, drawing on religious, cultural,
nonconfrontational approach promoted or philosophical authority to define
by institutions like the World Bank. correct conduct. These approaches may
- The emphasis on local service delivery promote social conservatism or radical
and partnerships with governments change depending on the prevailing
may bolster citizens' authority as interpretation.
consumers but may undermine - Moral rationales for accountability are
collective political action and reinforce flexible and can be harnessed to
neoliberal governance. support or oppose both liberal and
- Differences in the desired form and democratic forms of accountability.
purpose of social accountability - Hybrid rationales combining liberalism
highlight underlying ideological notions, with morally based ideologies have
warranting further examination. emerged in countries like the
Philippines and Cambodia, leading to
Ideological bases of accountability
nondemocratic outcomes.
- Three ideological rationales for - The political significance of these
accountability are identified: ideological rationales lies in their
democratic, liberal, and moral, each influence on coalitions within and
differing in their conception of political between nations, shaping the success
authority in the state-civil society or failure of attempts to promote social
relationship. accountability through international aid
- Democratic accountability emphasizes initiatives.
citizens' authority over state power and
The social accountability context
the mechanisms needed to hold state
actors accountable, whether through - Historical and structural factors,
sanctions or explanation and particularly the Cold War legacies and
justification. the repression of civil society, have
- For those thinking that democracy shaped the form and potential of social
under capitalism constitutes unequal accountability movements in both
power distribution, class-based and Cambodia and the Philippines.
other independent collective political - During martial law in the Philippines
action is needed to protect and advance under Marcos and the violence of
individual citizen’s rights forced collectivization in Cambodia, civil
- When democracy challenges market society organizations were severely
values, liberals may be at odds with repressed, leaving few independent
them associations.
- Liberals prioritize individual autonomy - The closing stages of the Cold War saw
and the limitation of state power changes in both countries, with mass
 mobilizations against Marcos in the these historical and structural factors,
Philippines and the withdrawal of the with profound effects on their
Vietnamese army in Cambodia, leading ideological framing and political
to opportunities for civil society re- impacts.
emergence. - Estrada exploited the lack of effective
- Foreign aid and constitutional collective organizations advancing
guarantees supported the re- people interests by populist means
emergence of civil society, but in both
Philippine social accountability: anticorruption
countries, civil society organizations
and procurement reform
faced challenges such as fragmentation,
urban bias, and dependence on foreign - The Philippines, alongside India, has
funding. been recognized as a leader in social
- Political parties lacked meaningful accountability in the Asia-Pacific region,
social bases or reform agendas, with with Filipino trainers and activists
ideological divisions hindering the exporting knowledge and capacity-
formation of coherent democratic building efforts to countries like
forces. Cambodia.
- NGOs lacked significant memberships - The passing of the Government
and were urban-based, they prioritized Procurement Reform Act (PRA) in 2002
foreign funding increasingly fragmented was a significant achievement for social
into multiple communities and non- accountability in the Philippines,
communities, and Catholic Church establishing partnerships between civil
remained a dominant force society and the state in public sector
- Repression of activist trade unions, contract awards.
journalist, NGOs restricted freedom of - While the PRA advanced democratic
criticism of government policies notions of accountability, its
- In both countries, elite conflicts over implementation phase often focused on
state power persist, with concepts of technical and administrative tasks,
democratic reform often co-opted by limiting critical evaluation of the reform
elites to entrench existing power agenda.
hierarchies. - The Transparency and Accountability
- Revolutionaries hindered coherent Network (TAN) played a key role in
collective democratic forces in post- promoting social accountability
Marcos Philippines associated with the PRA, while the
- The role of the Church in political Coalition Against Corruption (CAC)
mobilizations in the Philippines and the monitored compliance with the act.
resurgence of the Cambodian People's - Ideological divisions within civil society
Party reflect the absence of effective regarding corruption's root causes and
collective organizations to advance the solutions influenced the
interests of labor and the poor. implementation of social accountability
- Social accountability movements have mechanisms, with a focus on moral and
emerged in the 2000s, influenced by
 technical aspects rather than structural - Ehem! Program – geared towards
reform. changing mindsets of people who are
- Portraying anti corruption as the tolerant or supportive of corruption
primary solution has ideological effects, - Catholic activists involved in social
considering if socioeconomically accountability watchdog mechanisms
disadvantaged groups have adequate and CAC criticisms of authority over
political representation corruption, democracy must be
- The involvement of the Church in social morally/spiritually based and centered
accountability efforts increased during on anti-corruption
the PRA's implementation, emphasizing - While PRA opened up avenues to
moral education and civic duty to increase accountability, practical
address corruption. demands consume a disproportionate
- Concerns about cooptation by the civil society effort in technical rather
government and restrictions on than political exercises
monitoring corruption under the PRA - Better designed governance institutions
raised questions about the must not blunt market competition and
effectiveness and integrity of social the market must curb corruption
accountability mechanisms.
Social accountability in Cambodia: from
- PRA 2003, shifting from the rights of the
anticorruption to decentralization
poor to technical concern of monitoring
compliance with detailed/complex - Social accountability's primary influence
regulations and processes in Cambodia is seen in government
- Despite opening avenues for increased decentralization reforms. Cambodia’s is
accountability, the PRA's emphasis on donor-driven rather than affected by
technical compliance and market- business interests.
oriented solutions marginalized - Anticorruption efforts have not been a
alternative reform priorities and focus of social accountability in
constrained political contestation and Cambodia, unlike in the Philippines.
imagination. - Social accountability initiatives in
- CAC – coalition against corruption Cambodia are primarily donor-driven,
- TAN – transparency and accountability with limited involvement from business
network groups.
- GPPB – government procurement policy - The Cambodian People's Party (CPP) is
board crucial for political stability and
- PWI – procurement watch inc. business interests, hindering
- BAC – bids and awards committees anticorruption agendas.
- Procurement – process which - Subsistence sectors were affected post-
government acquires goods and cold war as investors were favored in
services from commercial businesses the economy, businessmen made large
- Is procurement efficient and based on donations to party-sponsored
good quantification process? development projects in exchange for
preferential treatment, boosting
 support for CPP and outstripping state government control rather than
development budgets empower citizens.
- Economic reforms during the 2002- - NGOs participating in government-led
2008 boom led to significant wealth initiatives face limitations on criticizing
inequality in Cambodia. the government.
- The CPP, under Prime Minister Hun Sen, - The DFGG risks reinforcing the divide
awarded land and resources to between acceptable and unacceptable
supporters, boosting party support. forms of criticism, particularly regarding
- Cambodia's political model combines resource governance.
prédation with neo-patrimonialism,
Conclusion
limiting regulatory regimes and
anticorruption efforts. - Democratic values in social
- The World Bank's Demand for Good accountability movements are
Governance (DFGG) program aims to contingent, not necessary, as shown by
promote accountability but faces cases where activists are co-opted into
challenges regarding its impact on technical monitoring mechanisms.
corruption. - Liberal ideologies can intersect with
- PECSA, launched by the World Bank, socially conservative moral rhetoric to
focuses on training civil society form nondemocratic coalitions for
organizations in social accountability social accountability.
techniques. - Social accountability can inadvertently
- The Cambodian government rebrands make political struggles over issues like
DFGG as the "Local Good Governance corruption less effective by rendering
Project" to align with decentralization nondemocratic rule more efficient.
efforts. - Cold War authoritarian legacies have
- Decentralization is a key focus of left fragmented civil societies in some
Cambodia's development strategy, cases, preventing authority from
aiming to promote "democratic naturally migrating to disadvantaged
development" at the local level. groups.
- The CPP's development model - Social accountability mechanisms can
emphasizes delivering tangible benefits become tools for authoritarian forces,
to communities to maintain political reinforcing hierarchies of power and
support. existing elites' political authority.
- The Cambodian government's approach - In the Philippines, social accountability
to development reflects a mix of reinforces the power of the Church and
socialist and nationalist ideologies. deems the source of problems as
- Despite rhetoric of democracy, political discourses of human fallibility
authority in Cambodia remains (tendency to make mistakes) instead of
concentrated in elite hands. political injustice.
- Social accountability mechanisms in - In Cambodia, social accountability
Cambodia may serve to reinforce promotes an image of the ruling party
as a benevolent mediator between
 elites and masses, enhancing party all rights in relation to each other rather
legitimacy. than in isolation.
- This study acknowledges the - Marshall's argument presents
democratic potential of social citizenship as a unified concept with
accountability but highlights its interdependent civil, political, and
limitations in fostering independent social rights, challenging the idea of
collective political action. tension between these elements.
- The extent to which citizens can shape - Political rights exercise requires civil
reform agendas through social rights, political rights require social
accountability depends on the interests rights, civil rights are predicated on
and ideologies dominant within social and political rights, etc.
coalitions. - Criticisms of Marshall's work often
focus on empirical arguments and
//MARSHALL-ING SOCIAL AND POLITICAL
overlook the theoretical and normative
CITIZENSHIP: TOWARDS A UNIFIED
aspects, which this paper seeks to
CONCEPTION OF CITIZENSHIP//
address.
Introduction - Marshall's framework has been
criticized for its focus on class to the
- The author analyzes Thomas Humphrey
exclusion of other axes of inequality like
Marshall’s “citizenship and social class”
gender and ethnicity, but some forms of
for 3 reasons:
group rights may still align with his
1. Marshall's work on citizenship and
conception of citizenship.
social class receives widespread
- Equality status takes on different forms
attention despite its size, leading to
in different spheres, citizenship is not
a need for re-examination.
unitary but unified
2. Marshall's analysis of citizenship is
- Citizenship is not one size fits all, a
invoked from different perspectives
contingent set of accommodations of
in the context of the perceived
the underlying principle of equality of
decline of the welfare state, with
status
both left and right attempting to
- Citizenship is contested where different
appropriate his arguments.
spheres ground equality and different
3. Citizenship rights are often viewed
facets of citizenship are prioritized over
in isolation from one another,
others,
neglecting the interconnectedness
- Reassessing Marshall's analysis could
of civil, political, and social rights
contribute to debates about welfare
emphasized by Marshall.
reform and citizenship, particularly in
- Welfare state – governing in which
the context of conflicting ideologies
state/established group of institutions
such as workfare.
provides basic economic security for its
citizens Empirical and Normative Arguments in Marshall
- Marshall's conception of citizenship as
- Citizenship encompasses both
unified highlights the need to consider
normative and empirical aspects,
 referring to both a legal status and the contingent upon both civil rights
associated rights and obligations. (individual freedoms) and social rights
- Marshall's account of citizenship (such as education and material well-
development in Britain outlines the being).
introduction of civil, political, and social - The right to freedom of speech means
rights over different historical periods. nothing if you lack the right to
- While there is debate about the education and thus have nothing
empirical accuracy of Marshall's substantial to say
periodization, his argument also carries - Citizenship, therefore, entails a complex
normative implications, particularly relationship of rights, forming a unified
regarding the importance of social concept, although not necessarily a
rights in citizenship. harmonious one.
- Marshall argues that an ideal citizenship - The precise nature of the relationship
includes civil, political, and social rights, between rights is not predetermined,
with the development of citizenship and some rights may be more strongly
rights aimed at mitigating class connected than others.
divisions. - This argument aligns with classical
- Marshall's conception of citizenship can discussions of citizenship, which
be seen as an ideal type, providing a emphasize the socio-economic
framework for social and political prerequisites for effective political
change towards a fuller measure of participation.
equality. - While historically such arguments
- Marshall advocates for a unified sometimes restricted citizenship to
conception of citizenship, where all those with a certain socio-economic
three types of rights are necessary for standing, Marshall's argument can be
full membership in the community. turned around to suggest that ensuring
- Marshall's argument for the unity of a basic level of socio-economic well-
citizenship rights can be justified being is necessary for democratic
practically, as the effective exercise of citizenship participation.
one type of right often requires the - Marshall's unified conception of
presence of others, and theoretically, citizenship highlights the
based on the underlying principle of interconnectedness of rights across
equality of status. different spheres, suggesting that rights
and obligations in one sphere have
Practical Interconnections of Citizenship Rights
implications for others.
- Marshall presents a practical argument
Equality of Status
for viewing citizenship as a unified
concept, emphasizing the - Marshall's theoretical argument for the
interdependence of civil, political, and interconnectedness of civil, political,
social rights. and social elements of citizenship is
- The exercise of political rights, such as rooted in the principle of equality of
participation in the political process, is status.
- Marshall views citizenship as primarily argued as not coherent towards
concerned with equality of status rather equality of status.
than equality of outcome, emphasizing - Marshall acknowledges these tensions
that citizens should be equal in their and suggests that citizenship evolves
rights and obligations. toward ideal images rather than
- He suggests that the development of universal principles, guiding
citizenship rights in each sphere reflects development without necessitating
the advancement of the principle of uniformity.
equality of status, with civil rights - He presents a normative conception of
ensuring legal equality and political citizenship as unified in practical
rights expanding to include all free and dependency and principle but
equal individuals. This is equated with acknowledges the tensions and
liberty. contradictions within its different
- If all men were free and equal, then elements.
saying only some are politically free is - Marshall's conception of citizenship is
contradicting characterized by "mutual or interactive
- Because social rights conflicted fragility," suggesting that while unified,
citizenship or freedom of contract, they it contains mutable tensions that are
were only granted once people gave up contingent on social settings.
the status of citizen. Social rights
Criticisms of Marshall
interfered with civil rights of people
making their own contracts. - Marshall's work has faced criticism,
- Citizenship holds that all men have particularly regarding its normative
equal status in civil and political spheres claims, but many of these criticisms
- Social citizenship was defined by stem from a misunderstanding of
Marshall as a universal right to real Marshall's concept of citizenship.
income not proportionate to market - Critics argue that Marshall presents
value of the claimant citizenship rights in a purely
- Initially, social rights faced challenges, complementary manner, overlooking
particularly regarding conflicts with civil the tensions between civil, political, and
rights such as freedom of contract. social rights. However, Marshall actually
However, Marshall argues that social acknowledges conflicts, particularly
citizenship eventually prevailed, with between citizenship and social class
social rights reflecting equality of status instead of within citizenship itself.
in the social sphere. - Marshall contends that citizenship and
- Critics have argued against Marshall's social class are intertwined, with
assertion of harmony between civil, citizenship rights shaping the nature of
political, and social rights, pointing out social class. Therefore, tensions
tensions inherent in their interplay, between citizenship and social class can
especially regarding their relationship be viewed as tensions within citizenship
with the market economy. They are itself.
 - Another criticism revolves around - Marshall's unified conception of
Marshall's perceived neglect of the role citizenship suggests that changes to one
of struggle in the development of facet of citizenship will affect other
citizenship rights. While Marshall does facets. In terms of welfare reform, the
not provide a detailed account of key question is whether social
struggle, it is implied in his work as a citizenship can be reformed in
product of negotiation and accordance with principles of equality
compromise. of status.
- Marshall does not view citizenship as - Proponents of welfare reform,
following a teleological path but rather particularly from the new right, have
as a constantly evolving concept. He reclaimed Marshall's arguments to
acknowledges that the relationship emphasize duty and obligation
between citizenship and market alongside rights. They argue that
considerations fluctuates over time. workfare-style policies align with
- Critics also argue that Marshall's Marshall's emphasis on balancing rights
analysis ignores inequalities arising with duties.
from differences such as gender or - Marshall did not focus on the duties
cultural background. However, accompanying citizenship, only
Marshall's framework allows for emphasized rights
extensions to the status and content of - Workfare and duty mitigates equality by
citizenship through negotiation and separating the non-working, since the
compromise. nonworking are thought of as
- Reappraising Marshall's work provides a undeserving of rights
theoretical framework for analyzing - However, critics argue that workfare-
contemporary developments in style policies break with Marshall's
citizenship and welfare, offering conception of citizenship. Such policies
analytical insights into the restructuring violate the principle of equality of
of citizenship in modern society. status by separating out non-working
- Special representation rights for individuals as less than full members of
disadvantaged groups and multicultural society. Additionally, workfare
rights for immigrant and religious introduces conditionality to welfare
groups and self-government rights for benefits, undermining the notion of
national minorities concern inclusion to rights inherent in citizenship.
promote equality - Marshall's view suggests that rights
precede obligations, and any
Concluding Remarks: Workfare, Welfare Reform
corresponding obligations arise after
and Unified Citizenship
rights are claimed. Therefore, policies
- Reassessing Marshall's work in the like workfare, which condition benefits
context of contemporary debates about on specific actions, may not align with
welfare reform sheds light on the Marshall's framework.
relationship between the state, welfare, - Rights precede obligations
and citizenship.
 - Marshall's normative arguments about experiences, and lack of acculturation
citizenship emphasize its unified but to host culture.
dynamic nature, suggesting that social - Both groups experience self and social
rights are necessary for a stigma attached to mental disorders,
comprehensive conception of alongside concerns for loss of face,
citizenship. Welfare reform, if not shame, and adherence to Asian values
that consider mental illness
careful, may undermine social
unacceptable.
citizenship rights and negatively impact
- Filipinos' sense of resilience and self-
other facets of citizenship.
reliance serve as barriers to seeking
- Properly understanding Marshall's
help, with special mental health care
arguments can help highlight the utilized only as a last resort or in severe
importance of questions surrounding cases.
welfare reform and provide a - Facilitators of help-seeking include
perspective for examining them. perception of distress, influence of
social support, financial capacity, and
Module 7
previous positive experiences with
//FILIPINO HELP-SEEKING FOR MENTAL HEALTH formal help.
PROBLEMS AND ASSOCIATED BARRIERS AND - The review confirms low utilization of
FACILITATORS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW// mental health services among Filipinos,
with mental health stigma identified as
Abstract the primary barrier, while resilience and
self-reliance serve as coping strategies,
- The systematic review aims to
particularly highlighted in qualitative
synthesize evidence on behavioral and
studies.
attitudinal patterns, as well as barriers
- Social support and problem severity are
and enablers, in Filipino formal help-
cited as prominent facilitators of formal
seeking.
help-seeking among Filipinos.
- Using the PRISMA framework, 15
studies conducted in 7 countries on Introduction
Filipino help-seeking were appraised
through narrative synthesis. - Mental illness ranks as the third most
- Filipinos worldwide exhibit reluctance common disability in the Philippines,
and unfavorable attitudes toward with an estimated 6 million Filipinos
formal help-seeking despite high rates living with depression and/or anxiety,
of psychological distress, preferring to making it the country with the third-
seek help from close family and friends. highest rate of mental health problems
- Barriers to formal help-seeking cited by in the Western Pacific Region.
Filipinos in the Philippines include - Suicide rates in the Philippines are
financial constraints and inaccessibility approximately 3.2 per 100,000
of services, while overseas Filipinos face population, potentially higher due to
challenges related to immigration underreporting or misclassification of
status, lack of health insurance,
suicide cases.
language difficulties, discrimination
- Government spending on mental health - While many studies have focused on
in the Philippines is only at 0.22% of Filipino migrants, studying help-seeking
total health expenditures, with a attitudes and behaviors of local Filipinos
shortage of health professionals in the is essential, as it may inform those living
mental health sector. abroad.
- Overseas Filipinos also experience - The review aims to examine commonly
elevated mental health problems, with reported help-seeking attitudes and
12% of Filipinos in the US suffering from behaviors among local and overseas
psychological distress, higher than the Filipinos with mental health problems
US prevalence rate of depression and and expound on the most commonly
anxiety. reported barriers and facilitators
- Factors such as long periods of influencing their help-seeking.
separation from families and different
Methods
cultural backgrounds contribute to
mental health challenges among - The review aims to synthesize available
overseas Filipinos, including data on formal help-seeking behavior
acculturative stress, depression, and attitudes of both local and overseas
anxiety, substance use, and trauma. Filipinos concerning their mental health
- A significant barrier to achieving well- problems, as well as commonly
being and improved mental health reported barriers and facilitators.
among both local and overseas Filipinos - Formal psychological help-seeking
is their reluctance to seek psychological behavior is defined as seeking services
help, with help-seeking rates lower than and treatment from trained and
those found in general US populations recognized mental health care
and other minority Asian groups. providers, including psychotherapy,
- Studies on help-seeking in other counseling, information, and advice.
countries can be a basis for - Attitudes on psychological help-seeking
improvement in the Philippines. pertain to the evaluative beliefs
- Existing studies on Filipino psychological individuals hold regarding seeking help
help-seeking have mainly focused on from these professional sources.
factors such as stigma tolerance, loss of 1. Eligibility criteria
face, and acculturation factors, with - Inclusion criteria encompassed studies
few systematic reviews conducted to addressing either formal help-seeking
date. behavior or attitude related to mental
- This systematic review aims to critically health, along with discussions on
appraise the evidence on behavioral barriers or facilitators of psychological
and attitudinal patterns of psychological help-seeking.
help-seeking among Filipinos in the - Filipino participants or those of Filipino
Philippines and abroad, examining descent were required, with multi-
barriers and enablers of their help- cultural or multi-ethnic studies needing
seeking. at least 20% Filipino participants and
 disaggregated data on Filipino - Ten bibliographic databases were
psychological help-seeking. searched, including PsychInfo, Global
- All types of study designs, including Health, MedLine, Embase, EBSCO,
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed- ProQuest, PubMed, Science Direct,
methods, were considered. Scopus, and Emerald Insight.
- Full-text peer-reviewed articles - Search terms used included variations
published in scholarly journals or book of "help-seeking behavior," "utilization
chapters, without any publication date of mental health services," "barriers to
restrictions, were eligible for inclusion. help-seeking," "facilitators of help-
- Articles could be written in either seeking," and terms related to mental
English or Filipino and had to be health issues, combined with "Filipino"
available in printed or downloadable or "Philippines."
format. - Filters were applied to select only
- Multiple articles derived from the same publications from peer-reviewed
research were treated as one journals.
study/paper. - Additionally, Google Scholar and
- Exclusion criteria comprised studies websites of Philippine-based
where the reported problems publications were searched using
prompting help-seeking were medical, specific terms related to Filipino mental
career or vocational, academic, or health help-seeking.
developmental disorders unless - A total of 3038 records were obtained,
associated with a mental health which were then screened for relevance
concern. based on titles and abstracts, resulting
- Studies discussing general health- in 162 potentially relevant studies.
seeking behaviors were excluded. - Full-text papers of these potentially
- Studies not from the perspective of relevant studies were obtained and
mental health service users, such as reviewed for eligibility by two
counselor's perspective, were not reviewers, with any disagreements
considered. resolved by a third reviewer.
- Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and - Fifteen relevant studies published in
other forms of literature review were English were included in the review and
excluded. assessed for quality.
- Unpublished studies, including - Among these studies, there were seven
dissertations and theses, clinical with multiple publications, and a core
reports, theory or methods papers, paper was selected based on having
commentaries, or editorials, were also more comprehensive key study data on
excluded. formal help-seeking.
2. Search strategy and study selection - The results of the literature search are
- The search for relevant studies involved presented using the PRISMA diagram.
three methods: electronic database - A protocol for this review was
searching, hand-searching, and web- registered at PROSPERO Registry of the
based searching. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination
 of the University of York, with the ID: inclusion in the review, with five
CRD42018102836. receiving strong quality ratings.
3. Data extraction and quality assessment - Two mixed-methods studies that did
- Data extracted by the main author were not meet minimum quality ratings for
crosschecked by a second reviewer to quantitative designs were excluded as
ensure accuracy and reliability. sources of quantitative data but were
- A data extraction table with thematic included in qualitative data analysis due
headings was prepared and pilot tested to meeting minimum quality ratings for
for two quantitative and two qualitative qualitative designs.
studies to ensure data comparability. 4. Strategy for data analysis
- Extraction included study information - Due to substantial heterogeneity in
such as authors, publication date, participant characteristics, study design,
location, setting, study design, and and measurement tools, a narrative
measurement tools used. synthesis approach was used for data
- Socio-demographic characteristics of analysis to interpret and integrate
participants, such as sample size, age, quantitative and qualitative evidence.
and gender, were also extracted. - A methodological limitation of the
- Overarching themes on psychological studies was the lack of agreement on
help-seeking behavior, attitudes, what constitutes formal help-seeking,
barriers, and facilitators were identified with some including traditional healers
and extracted. and others limiting it to professional
- Quality assessment of the studies was health care providers. Data extraction
conducted separately by two reviewers and analysis focused only on utilization
using criteria including relevance to the of professional health care providers.
research question, transparency of - Text data were coded using both
methods, robustness of evidence, and predetermined and emerging codes and
soundness of data interpretation and then tabulated, analyzed, categorized
analysis. into themes, and integrated into a
- Design-specific quality assessment tools narrative synthesis.
were employed, such as the Critical - Exemplar quotations and author
Appraisal Skills Programme Qualitative interpretations were used to support
Checklist and the Quality Assessment the narrative synthesis.
Tool for Quantitative Studies. - Identified 3 themes on barriers and
- For studies reported in multiple facilitators of formal help-seeking:
publications, quality assessment was 1. Psychosocial barriers/facilitators
conducted on the core papers only. encompassed social support,
- All papers assessed for qualitative study perceived severity of mental illness,
design met minimum quality awareness of mental health issues,
assessment criteria, with ratings self-stigmatizing beliefs, treatment
ranging from fair to good. fears, and individual concerns.
- Eleven out of 13 quantitative studies 2. Socio-cultural barriers/facilitators
met minimum quality ratings for involved perceived social norms
 and beliefs, social stigma, influence by the focus of five studies on Filipino
of religious beliefs, and language women.
and acculturation factors. - Studies were conducted in community
3. Systemic/structural and economic settings, health or social center-based
barriers/facilitators included settings, and one in a university.
financial or employment status, 2. Formal help-seeking behaviors
accessibility, availability, and - Twelve studies investigated formal
affordability of the healthcare help-seeking behaviors among Filipinos,
system, and ethnicity, nativity, or with eight conducted in community-
immigration status. based settings and four in center-based
settings.
Results
- Nine studies focused on formal help-
1. Study and participant characteristics seeking among overseas Filipinos, while
- The 15 studies spanned from 2002 to three examined local Filipinos'
2018 and were conducted across behaviors.
various countries, including the US, - Quantitative community studies
Philippines, Australia, Canada, Iceland, revealed varying rates of formal help-
Israel, and Norway. seeking among the general Filipino
- Data extracted from studies in the population, ranging from 2.2% to
Philippines focused on local Filipinos' 17.5%. Qualitative studies supported
help-seeking behaviors, attitudes, and these findings, indicating instances
barriers/facilitators, while studies in where participants did not seek help at
other countries focused on overseas all.
Filipinos. - Rates of formal help-seeking tended to
- Nine studies were quantitative, mostly be higher in crisis centers and online
cross-sectional, with one cohort study, counseling settings, with engagement
while four studies used mixed methods rates ranging from 10.68% to 100%
and two were purely qualitative. among specific populations.
- Quantitative studies primarily used - Local Filipinos exhibited a formal
research-validated questionnaires, psychological help-seeking rate of
while qualitative studies employed 22.19%, while rates among overseas
semi-structured interviews and focus Filipinos were lower, ranging from 2.2%
group discussions. to 17.5%. Both groups tended to seek
- Participants ranged from 17 to 70 years professional help only as a last resort,
old, with an overall mean age of 39.52 preferring support from family, friends,
(SD 11.34). Sample sizes varied widely, or lay networks.
from 10 to 2285 participants in 3. Attitudes towards formal help-seeking
quantitative studies and 10 to 25 - Thirteen studies explored participants'
participants in qualitative studies. attitudes toward seeking formal help,
- A majority of participants (59%, highlighting a preference for family and
n=3012) were female, likely influenced friends over mental health specialists
 and other professionals, even when health insurance, and precarious
already receiving help from them. employment conditions.
- Seeking professional help typically 2. Self-stigma was characterized by
occurs in conjunction with other fear of negative judgment, shame,
sources of care or is reserved for severe embarrassment, being labeled as
mental health problems. 'crazy', self-blame, and concerns
- In the absence of social networks, about loss of face.
individuals tend to rely on themselves. 3. Social stigma was associated with
- Community-based studies revealed concerns about the family's
negative attitudes and low stigma reputation or the negative portrayal
tolerance towards formal help-seeking of one's cultural group.
among Filipinos. - Among overseas Filipinos, adherence to
- However, studies conducted in crisis Asian values of conformity to norms
centers presented contrasting findings, was highlighted as a barrier to help-
with some showing positive attitudes seeking in quantitative studies, while
towards help-seeking, particularly perceived resilience, coping ability, or
among users of online counseling. self-reliance were noted in qualitative
Filipinos in crisis centers still preferred studies.
receiving help from religious clergy or - Additional barriers for overseas Filipinos
family members, with mental health included inaccessibility of mental health
units being the least preferred setting. services, immigration status, religiosity,
- Filipino women did not believe in language barriers, experience of
disclosing their problems to others. discrimination, lack of awareness of
- Both local and overseas Filipinos mental health needs, self-reliance, and
exhibited negative attitudes towards fear of being a burden to others.
help-seeking, although later-generation - Conversely, local Filipinos consistently
Filipino migrants, acculturated in their cited the influence of social support as a
host countries, tended to have more hindrance to help-seeking.
positive attitudes towards mental - These attitudes included viewing
health specialists. This finding was mental illness as a sign of personal
primarily observed in quantitative weakness or failure, resulting in
studies, while qualitative studies concerns about loss of face and fear of
highlighted the general reluctance of negative judgment.
both overseas and local Filipinos to seek - Filipinos expressed reluctance to seek
help. professional help due to fear of being
4. Barriers in formal help-seeking labeled or judged negatively, as well as
- All 15 studies investigated various concerns about fueling negative
barriers to psychological help-seeking, perceptions of the Filipino community.
with common barriers including - Additionally, overseas Filipinos feared
1. Financial barriers stemmed from that having a mental illness could
the high cost of services, lack of impact their jobs and immigration
 status, particularly those in precarious socio-economic status, geographic
employment conditions. location, and range of mental health
4. Facilitators in formal help-seeking problems was considerable.
- All 15 studies explored facilitators of - Although the prevalence of mental
formal help-seeking, although identified health problems appears high among
enablers were relatively few. Filipinos, both local and overseas, the
- Commonly cited factors promoting rate of help-seeking remains notably
help-seeking included low. This trend mirrors findings from
1. Perceived severity of the mental studies among other immigrant
health problem or awareness of populations, such as Chinese
mental health needs immigrants in Australia.
2. Influence of social support (such as - Informal sources of help, particularly
supportive family and friends or from family and friends, are widely
witnessing others seeking help) utilized among Filipinos, with
3. Financial capacity. professional services typically sought
- Studies on overseas Filipinos frequently only as a last resort. Even among those
cited financial capacity, immigration accessing specialist services, informal
status, language proficiency, lower support remains integral.
adherence to Asian values, and stigma - Variations in help-seeking patterns
tolerance as facilitators of help-seeking. between local and overseas Filipinos
- Studies on local Filipinos highlighted are influenced by differences in
awareness of mental health issues and healthcare systems, with overseas
previous positive experiences with Filipinos often navigating through
seeking help. general medical services due to the
- Among those receiving help from crisis gatekeeper role of general
centers, previous positive experiences practitioners.
with mental health professionals were 1. Prominent barrier themes in help-
reported to encourage formal help- seeking
seeking. In community-based studies, - Overseas workers are also more
the positive influence of encouraging influenced by tolerance of the stigma
family and friends and higher related to mental health, which means
awareness of mental health problems they are more positive towards seeking
were noted as facilitators of help- help
seeking. - Barriers to help-seeking among Filipinos
include social and self-stigmatizing
Discussion
attitudes toward mental illness,
- This systematic review represents the financial constraints, lack of awareness
first comprehensive analysis of of mental health issues, and practical
psychological help-seeking behaviors barriers such as accessibility to mental
among Filipinos, encompassing both health services.
barriers and facilitators. The diversity of - The cultural context of Filipinos'
participants in terms of age, gender, reluctance to seek help is multifaceted,
 encompassing attributions of mental (folk healers are sought for religious
illness to supernatural causes, rituals)
misconceptions about mental health, - People think mental illness is temporary
and concerns about loss of face or 4. Level of spirituality
shame. - Both hindrance and facilitator,
- Overseas Filipinos less acculturated to preference for clergy instead of
their host country hold these professionals, religion can predict
stigmatizing beliefs of being a burden greater sense of wellbeing which
- Lack of mental health facilities, services, decreases need for mental health
professional due to less government services
funding ($154 only for acute episodes 5. Concern on loss of face or sense of
of mental disorders per hospitalization), culture
lack of health insurance and financial - Avoid being called “crazy”, hiya (sense
barrier as overseas Filipino of propriety) to save from deviation of
- Employment is a barrier, individuals socially acceptable behavior to avoid
prefer to work instead of check up, lack shame
of familiarity with new healthcare - Seek help to avoid embarrassing the
system in host country family, or not seek help to avoid being
- “hindi ibang tao” (one of us, insider, for judged by the family
family and friends) vs. “ibang tao” 6. Presence of social support
(doctors and professionals), self- - Family can deter from seeking actual
resilience in Filipinos after trauma, help, family can also support or
calamity and resulting self-stigma on motivate one to seek help, friends are
mental health role models for seeking or avoiding help
2. Prominent facilitator themes in
help-seeking
- Factors promoting help-seeking are less Research implications of findings
emphasized, help warranted only when
- Gaps that need further research:
it has disabling effects (somatic or
1. Operationalization of help-seeking
behavioral symptoms, occupational
behavior as a construct separating
dysfunction)
intention and attitude – Attitudes
- Prevents early interventions,
interpreted as actual behavior, bias
maintaining normalcy in the situation is
present, terms should be
a coping mechanism, initial denial
operationalized
- Longer stay of OFWs, more positive
2. Studies on actual help-seeking
outlook, language proficiency, higher
behavior among local and overseas
acculturation and familiarity, less
Filipinos with identified mental
barriers
health problems – Needs more data
3. Cultural context of Filipinos’
on healthcare use
reluctance to seek help
3. Longitudinal study on intervention
- Mental illness associated with
effectiveness and best practices –
superstitious or supernatural causes
 more rigorous and conclusive - Lack of awareness of available services
findings is a significant barrier, particularly
4. Studies triangulating findings of among overseas Filipinos, suggesting
qualitative studies with quantitative the need for competency training in
studies on the role of resilience and utilizing the healthcare systems of host
self-reliance in help seeking – countries, possibly in collaboration with
quantitative studies with pathway other migrants and ethnic minorities.
analysis can help - Philippine consular agencies in foreign
5. Factors promoting help-seeking – countries can play an active role in
less known about facilitators service delivery for overseas Filipinos,
providing support for those
Practice, service delivery and policy implications
experiencing trauma or facing
- Cultural nuances underlying help- immigration-related constraints that
seeking behavior among Filipinos, such hinder access to specialist care, instead
as their relational orientation, should of solely resorting to repatriation acts.
inform culturally appropriate
Limitations of findings
interventions for mental health and
well-being, and improve access to - A significant limitation of studies in this
health services. review is the use of different
- Interventions aimed at improving standardized measures of help-seeking,
psychological help-seeking should leading to incomparable results, as
target friends and family as significant these measures were primarily
influencers in changing attitudes and Western-based inventories with limited
behaviors, encouraging them to support cultural validation for Filipino
individuals in seeking help from mental participants.
health professionals. - The lack of cultural adaptation may
- Psychoeducation initiatives promoting hinder the appropriateness and
mental health literacy and reducing applicability of foreign-made tests in
stigma can serve as preventive and capturing the true essence of the
treatment strategies, positively Filipino experience and perspectives
influencing help-seeking behaviors. regarding help-seeking.
- Structural changes are needed to - Most studies relied on non-probability
overcome economic and practical sampling methods, limiting the
barriers in Filipinos seeking help for generalizability of their results to the
mental health problems, with newly broader Filipino population.
enacted laws on mental health and - Studies also failed to measure the
universal healthcare in the Philippines specific type of assistance or support
potentially driving significant policy sought by Filipinos, such as
changes, including increased psychoeducation, referral services,
expenditure for mental health supportive counseling, or
treatment. psychotherapy, and whether these
interventions were effective in
 addressing their mental health - Little attention is given to how happy
concerns. individuals contribute to a healthy
- Access to grey literature, including economy, highlighting the need to
unpublished theses and dissertations, explore the relationship between
especially those from the Philippines or happiness and economic well-being.
other countries not available online, - Diener's Subjective Well-being (SWB)
was limited, potentially excluding serves as a benchmark for measuring
relevant research from the review. happiness, with studies showing that
- Some studies on multiethnic individuals reporting high SWB levels
populations with Filipino participants tend to lead longer, healthier lives with
did not provide disaggregated data, better social relationships and
limiting the scope and inclusion of productivity.
relevant studies in this review. - Good mental health, defined as the
ability to cope with life stresses and
Conclusions
function productively, varies across
- The review confirms the low utilization cultures, values, and traditions,
of mental health services among emphasizing the importance of
Filipinos regardless of their locations, understanding diverse perspectives on
with mental health stigma identified as mental health.
a primary barrier. - Mental health significantly impacts the
- Resilience and self-reliance were cited economy, with economic decline
as coping strategies, particularly in increasing the likelihood of mental
qualitative studies, and may play a illness and mental health problems
significant role in addressing issues of leading to decreased economic activity
non-utilization of mental health and productivity.
services. - The field of mental health economics
- Social support and problem severity (MHE) is crucial for identifying ways to
emerged as prominent facilitators in improve mental health and mental
help-seeking behaviors among Filipinos. healthcare production and
- Structural, cultural, and practical consumption, yet there are currently no
barriers and facilitators of psychological studies on Philippine MHE, highlighting
help-seeking differed between overseas the need for further research in this
and local Filipinos, highlighting the area.
complexity of this issue across different - Initiating discussions on MHE in the
contexts. Philippines is essential to address both
economic and mental health crises and
//PHILIPPINE MENTAL HEALTH ACT: JUST AN
promote the well-being of all Filipinos.
ACT? A CALL TO LOOK INTO THE BI-
DIRECTIONALITY OF MENTAL HEALTH AND The state of mental health in the Philippines
ECONOMY//
- Philippines, over 7000 islands, over 120
Introduction languages, numerous religions,
colonized and occupied since 1545,
 independence in 1946, one of only 2 - >3.6 million suffer from at least one
Christian-majority countries in far east mental, neurological, substance use
- Cultural beliefs contribute to the stigma disorder, suicide rate are 3.2 per
surrounding mental illness in the 100000 population, higher rates male
Philippines, leading to shame and (4.3/100000) than female (2/100000),
rejection within families and unrealistic underreported results as suicides can
expectations about the severity and be classified as undetermined deaths
recovery of mental disorders. 1. Depression – 154 mil
1. Familial problems – family rejects or 2. Schizophrenia – 1 mil
disowns family member suffering from 3. Substance use – 15.3 mil
mental disorder because they believe it 4. Suicide/year – 877000
can be inherited - Employment and education levels are
2. Unrealistic pessimism and optimism – significantly impacted by mental
mentally ill will certainly suffer from disorders, particularly among
severe functional impairment or would individuals diagnosed with severe
overcome psychological suffering by conditions (people with schizophrenia
themselves are most affected, transfer payments
3. Oversimplified chronic course – people are primary income) , resulting in lower
with no mental illness expect full employment rates and reliance on
recovery from those with illness in short transfer payments (especially at 25 to
term (applying an acute model) 52 years old)
- Despite recent legislation addressing - Low employment rate with disorder,
mental health, the Philippine even lower after diagnosis
government allocates only a 5% of - Economic pressures and high
healthcare expenditure to mental expectations from family and society
health services, resulting in a significant contribute to unhappiness among
shortage of psychiatric facilities and Filipinos, prompting many health
professionals. professionals to migrate abroad for
- 7.76 hospital beds 0.41 psychiatrists per higher salary, greater employment
100000 people, less than western opportunity, more respect and quality
pacific countries with similar status of practice, exacerbating healthcare
(Malaysia, Indonesia), government does worker shortages and diminishing the
not provide economic support for quality of healthcare services
organizations involved in domestically.
formulation/implementation of mental 1. 29% doctors, 24% midwives, 51%
health policies and legislation nurses, 61% physical therapists
- Mental illness is third most common 2. Longer waiting times, less health
disability in the Philippines. 6000000 professional, poor quality helath
with depression and anxiety, third services, overtime work
highest rate of mental disorders in
A happy northwestern Europe
western pacific
 - Northwestern European countries - Mental health is integral to improving
prioritize mental health as a crucial disadvantaged economies, as positive
component of overall well-being, mental and emotional states contribute
contributing to their high levels of to overall well-being and productivity.
happiness - Socioeconomic factors like poverty,
- The happiness of Nordic countries is poor education, unemployment, and
attributed to their societal systems, high debt affect happiness and mental
which emphasize security, free health, with economic crises leading to
education, and a healthy work-life increased suicide and substance abuse.
balance, rooted in a culture of - Financial crises in the Philippines have
humanitarianism. historically affected trust in the banking
- Kindness towards multicultural system and overall economic stability
neighborhoods, leading to innovation (1980s and 1990s, the “lost decade”),
and development, economic growth necessitating policy reforms and
and reconversion of cities structural changes. Bank earnings
- The government in these countries recovered in 2000s.
plays a significant role in fostering - Policy reforms that enhanced economy
societal well-being, with independent sectors, and severe/shifting weather
court systems combating corruption patterns and disease become a source
and ensuring effective reforms. of downside risk to the financial system,
- Northwestern European countries psychological impacts of economy
consistently score high in World issues can be counteracted with policy
Governance Indicators due to their measures and social welfare to help
transparent, trustworthy governments low-wage earners who are more prone
and utilization of digital tools to to psychological distress, more
optimize management, service delivery, investments on health and education
overall state capacity. - Migration due to economic hardships
- Collaboration between governments further exacerbates mental health
and citizens is facilitated through issues among Overseas Filipino Workers
national websites, promoting (due to language barriers, immigration
transparency, citizen participation in status, lack of insurance,
policymaking, and feedback on public discrimination), highlighting the need
services. for comprehensive mental health
- Health is a top priority in these promotion strategies.
countries, with robust public services, - The European model of mental health
including healthcare and disability promotion (from countries like Finland,
services, supported by the government Denmark, Switzerland, Iceland,
to ensure the well-being of their Netherlands, Norway, Sweden,
citizens. Germany, and Austria), prioritizing
mental health as a fundamental
The Philippines and northwester Europe – a
component of public health, offers
comparison
valuable lessons for the Philippines in
 addressing economic and mental health - The Philippine Mental Health Act
challenges. remains largely symbolic, lacking
- Distrust in the Philippine government, significant implementation and impact
exacerbated by financial crises, on mental healthcare provision.
contributes to disunity and hampers - Cultural norms and social stigma
effective governance, contrasting with contribute to the misperception of
the trust and social cohesion observed mental illness in Filipino society,
in Northwestern Europe. hindering effective mental health
- Northwestern European countries promotion and economic development.
prioritize mental health services and - A shift in societal attitudes towards
policies, with significant investments in mental health is needed, moving away
psychiatric care and comprehensive from romanticized notions of Filipino
mental health action plans contributing resiliency towards a more nuanced
to favorable well-being indicators. understanding of mental illness and
- Mental health problems are recovery. Mental disorders are not
underdiagnosed in the Philippines due illusions.
to a lack of mental health providers and - Mobilizing mental health professionals
facilities, highlighting the urgent need to develop policies, and provide quality
for investments in research, workforce services is essential for addressing
development, and evidence-based stigma and improving mental health
practices. outcomes
- European countries have made strides 1. Educate families to listen and
in addressing mental health through comfort instead of castigate
research-based interventions, Mental 2. Attention must be given to
Health Action Plan, community mental adolescent mental health, with
health services, and technological targeted interventions for suicide
innovations like e-Mental Health, prevention and response strategies
providing a model for improvement in tailored to youth concerns.
the Philippines. 3. Mental health services should be
- European expenditure per capita is evidence-based, drawing from
higher in Europe than in other medical and scientific research to
countries, 77% countries in Europe have establish a comprehensive care
standalone mental health laws, 64% system that meets the
updated since 2013 psychological, psychosocial, and
- Undeveloped laws and policies in neurologic needs of Filipinos. Family
Philippines, outdated practice members can also participate in
guidelines and inappropriate curricula, research to develop policies.
lack of research, health workers cannot 4. Legislative review of the Mental
fully use their skills Health Act is necessary to identify
and address any shortcomings in
Discussion
mental health legislation,
 particularly concerning suicide and - Mapasaya ang kapwa, lilipas din yan,
substance abuse. ngumiti kahit may problema, magiging
- Collaboration between stakeholders in matatag sa buhay, kung hindi ukol,
academia, government, and industry is hindi bubukol, sumanib ang masamang
vital to promote mental health espiritu (wrong diagnosis associated
economics as a discipline and explore with spiritual reasons)
the interconnectedness of mental - Mental illness as a sign of personal
health and the economy. weakness, Filipinos report only if the
- By prioritizing mental health, fostering illness has disabling effects
happiness, and improving social - Do not negate the importance of
relationships, the Philippines can albularyos! But mental health is an
mitigate the effects of financial crises, issue of wellbeing, not of spirit.
governance issues, and low - Dasal lang, ipagpasa-diyos na lang,
productivity, leading to economic religious coping mechanisms due to lack
growth and reduced reliance on of awareness and education towards
migration for livelihood. mental illness
- Mental health economics is under - Nandito ako palagi para sa iyo, network
discussed in the context of the of reliance, friends and family, these are
Philippines untrained people who must only listen
instead of give suggestions, then refer
//BAKIT MARAMING PINOY ANG HIRAP
them to a professional
HUMINGI NG TULONG PARA SA MENTAL
- Lack of accessibility of mental health
HEALTH?//
centers, lack of support from
- 3.6 million Filipinos suffer from mental government, people think mental issues
and neurological disorders are like the flu and will go away soon
- 88 out of 100000 cases reported - Only 2 mental hospitals in the country
- Anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, have 92% occupancy rate, mostly in
depression, bipolar disorder, paranoia, NCR and major cities in the region
obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), - 2-3 mental health workers per 100000
behavioral and emotional disorder, Filipinos, lower than WHO standard of
post-traumatic stress disorder, eating 10 psychiatrists per 100000 population
disorder, psychosis - 3-5% of country’s health budget is
- 3 out of 10 Filipinos suffer from allocated for mental health
emotional problems, stress, sadness - Mental health act – RA 11036, need
- The stigma surrounding mental health funding for large scale training for
issues prevents Filipinos from going to community health workers, youth
therapists, patient blaming in the workers, school organization leaders for
household and community, Filipinos support when other professionals are
save the face, people tend to hold busy with cases
things to themselves until the issues - National center for mental health
worsen (NCMH), 10544 calls in first half of
2021, each individual can be vulnerable
//COPING ORIENTATION TO PROBLEMS  High score indicates
EXPERIENCED INVENTORY (Brief-COPE)// physical/cognitive efforts to
disengage from stressor
- Coping – effort used to minimize
 Low scores indicate adaptive
distress associated with negative life
coping
experiences
- Low scores mean:
- Scoring – average score of each
1. Respondent does not feel they have
subscale’s items, average score of each
many stressors to cope with (life is
coping style is also possible
stress free)
- Can be used to graph coping strategies
2. Lack of reflective capacity or
over time (for multiple administrations
resistance to disclose personal
of the test), degree of change in
information
strategies
3. Not many coping skills
- Primary coping styles are determined
- Facets of coping reported:
by one’s scores on three subscales:
1. Self-distraction (1, 19, avoidant)
1. Problem-Focused Coping (items 2,
2. Denial (3, 8, avoidant)
7, 10, 12, 14, 17, 23, 25)
3. Substance Use (4, 11, avoidant)
 Use of informational support,
4. Behavioral Disengagement (6, 16,
planning, positive reframing,
avoidant)
active coping.
5. Emotional Support (5, 15, emotion-
 High scores indicate
focused)
psychological strength, grit,
6. Venting (9, 21, emotion-focused)
practical approach to problem
7. Humor (18, 28, emotion-focused)
solving, predictive of positive
8. Acceptance (20, 24, emotion-
outcomes.
focused)
2. Emotion-Focused Coping (items 5,
9. Self-Blame (13, 26, emotion-
9, 13, 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27,
focused)
28)
10. Religion (22, 27, emotion-focused)
 Venting, emotional support,
11. Active Coping (2, 7, problem-
humor, acceptance, self blame,
focused)
religion
12. Use of Informational Support (10,
 High score indicates emotion
23, problem-focused)
regulating coping strategies,
13. Positive Reframing (12, 17,
high/low scores not necessarily
problem-focused)
associated with ill/psychological
14. Planning (14, 25, problem-focused)
health
3. Avoidant Coping //PERCEIVED STRESS SCALE//
(1,3,4,6,8,11,16,19)
- One person may perceive a set of
 Self-distraction, denial,
experiences with low stress, another
substance use, behavioral
may experience the same things with
disengagement
high stress
 - Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, 1983), for
how different situations affect
perceived stress
- Frequency in thinking or feeling a
certain way in the last month
- Scoring: 0-13 low stress, 14-26
moderate stress, 27-40 high perceived
stress
- Reverse scores of questions 4, 5, 7, 8,
before adding everything

//PROGRAMS, POLICIES AND PUBLICATIONS OF

THE WHO ON MENTAL HEALTH//

//PHIL MENTAL HEALTH ACT RA11036//

//HEAR OUR VOICES – MENTAL HEALTH IN A

DEVELOPING WORLD DOCUMENTARY//

Module 8

//THE BIG FIVE CAREER THEORIES//

//UNDRR WEBINAR ON RISK COMMUNICATION

TO PREVENT SPREAD OF COVID 19 DISEASE//

//EDUCATION, ATTITUDES AND CAREER INTENT

IN THE PHILIPPINES//

//DISASTER REHABILITATION//

//RESILIENCE AND DISASTER TRENDS IN THE

PHILIPPINES//

Module 9

Module 10