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Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB
Edition 1 Jaan Kiusalaas Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Jaan Kiusalaas
ISBN(s): 9780521852883, 0521852889
File Details: PDF, 7.75 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB®

Numerical Methods in Engineering with MATLAB ® is a text for engineer-

ing students and a reference for practicing engineers, especially those
who wish to explore the power and efficiency of MATLAB. The choice of
numerical methods was based on their relevance to engineering prob-
lems. Every method is discussed thoroughly and illustrated with prob-
lems involving both hand computation and programming. MATLAB
M-files accompany each method and are available on the book web
site. This code is made simple and easy to understand by avoiding com-
plex book-keeping schemes, while maintaining the essential features of
the method. MATLAB, was chosen as the example language because of
its ubiquitous use in engineering studies and practice. Moreover, it is
widely available to students on school networks and through inexpen-
sive educational versions. MATLAB a popular tool for teaching scientific
computation.

Jaan Kiusalaas is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Engineering

Science and Mechanics at the Pennsylvania State University. He has
taught numerical methods, including finite element and boundary el-
ement methods for over 30 years. He is also the co-author of four
other Books—Engineering Mechanics: Statics, Engineering Mechanics:
Dynamics, Mechanics of Materials, and an alternate version of this work
with Python code.
NUMERICAL METHODS IN
ENGINEERING WITH
®
MATLAB
Jaan Kiusalaas
The Pennsylvania State University
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521852883

© Jaan Kiusalaas 2005

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2005

isbn-13 978-0-511-12811-0 eBook (NetLibrary)

isbn-10 0-511-12811-8 eBook (NetLibrary)

isbn-13 978-0-521-85288-3 hardback

isbn-10 0-521-85288-9 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . vii

1. Introduction to MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3. Interpolation and Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

4. Roots of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

5. Numerical Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

6. Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

7. Initial Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

8. Two-Point Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

9. Symmetric Matrix Eigenvalue Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

10. Introduction to Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Appendices . . . . 411

Index . . . . . . . . . . . 421

v
 Preface

This book is targeted primarily toward engineers and engineering students of ad-
vanced standing (sophomores, seniors and graduate students). Familiarity with a
computer language is required; knowledge of basic engineering subjects is useful, but
not essential.
The text attempts to place emphasis on numerical methods, not programming.
Most engineers are not programmers, but problem solvers. They want to know what
methods can be applied to a given problem, what are their strengths and pitfalls and
how to implement them. Engineers are not expected to write computer code for basic
tasks from scratch; they are more likely to utilize functions and subroutines that have
been already written and tested. Thus programming by engineers is largely confined
to assembling existing pieces of code into a coherent package that solves the problem
at hand.
The “piece” of code is usually a function that implements a specific task. For the
user the details of the code are unimportant. What matters is the interface (what goes
in and what comes out) and an understanding of the method on which the algorithm
is based. Since no numerical algorithm is infallible, the importance of understanding
the underlying method cannot be overemphasized; it is, in fact, the rationale behind
learning numerical methods.
This book attempts to conform to the views outlined above. Each numerical
method is explained in detail and its shortcomings are pointed out. The examples
that follow individual topics fall into two categories: hand computations that illustrate
the inner workings of the method, and small programs that show how the computer
code is utilized in solving a problem. Problems that require programming are marked
with
.
The material consists of the usual topics covered in an engineering course on
numerical methods: solution of equations, interpolation and data fitting, numerical
differentiation and integration, solution of ordinary differential equations and eigen-
value problems. The choice of methods within each topic is tilted toward relevance

vii
viii Preface

to engineering problems. For example, there is an extensive discussion of symmetric,

sparsely populated coefficient matrices in the solution of simultaneous equations.
In the same vein, the solution of eigenvalue problems concentrates on methods that
efficiently extract specific eigenvalues from banded matrices.
An important criterion used in the selection of methods was clarity. Algorithms
requiring overly complex bookkeeping were rejected regardless of their efficiency and
robustness. This decision, which was taken with great reluctance, is in keeping with
the intent to avoid emphasis on programming.
The selection of algorithms was also influenced by current practice. This dis-
qualified several well-known historical methods that have been overtaken by more
recent developments. For example, the secant method for finding roots of equations
was omitted as having no advantages over Brent’s method. For the same reason, the
multistep methods used to solve differential equations (e.g., Milne and Adams meth-
ods) were left out in favor of the adaptive Runge–Kutta and Bulirsch–Stoer methods.
Notably absent is a chapter on partial differential equations. It was felt that this
topic is best treated by finite element or boundary element methods, which are outside
the scope of this book. The finite difference model, which is commonly introduced
in numerical methods texts, is just too impractical in handling multidimensional
boundary value problems.
As usual, the book contains more material than can be covered in a three-credit
course. The topics that can be skipped without loss of continuity are tagged with an
asterisk (*).
The programs listed in this book were tested with MATLAB® 6.5.0 and under
Windows® XP. The source code can be downloaded from the book’s website at

www.cambridge.org/0521852889

The author wishes to express his gratitude to the anonymous reviewers and
Professor Andrew Pytel for their suggestions for improving the manuscript. Credit
is also due to the authors of Numerical Recipes (Cambridge University Press) whose
presentation of numerical methods was inspirational in writing this book.
1 Introduction to MATLAB

1.1 General Information

Quick Overview

R
This chapter is not intended to be a comprehensive manual of MATLAB . Our sole
aim is to provide sufficient information to give you a good start. If you are familiar
with another computer language, and we assume that you are, it is not difficult to pick
up the rest as you go.
MATLAB is a high-level computer language for scientific computing and data vi-
sualization built around an interactive programming environment. It is becoming the
premiere platform for scientific computing at educational institutions and research
establishments. The great advantage of an interactive system is that programs can be
tested and debugged quickly, allowing the user to concentrate more on the principles
behind the program and less on programming itself. Since there is no need to com-
pile, link and execute after each correction, MATLAB programs can be developed in
much shorter time than equivalent FORTRAN or C programs. On the negative side,
MATLAB does not produce stand-alone applications—the programs can be run only
on computers that have MATLAB installed.
MATLAB has other advantages over mainstream languages that contribute to
rapid program development:

r MATLAB contains a large number of functions that access proven numerical li-
braries, such as LINPACK and EISPACK. This means that many common tasks (e.g.,
solution of simultaneous equations) can be accomplished with a single function
call.
r There is extensive graphics support that allows the results of computations to be
plotted with a few statements.
r All numerical objects are treated as double-precision arrays. Thus there is no need
to declare data types and carry out type conversions.

1
2 Introduction to MATLAB

The syntax of MATLAB resembles that of FORTRAN. To get an idea of the similari-
ties, let us compare the codes written in the two languages for solution of simultaneous
equations Ax = b by Gauss elimination. Here is the subroutine in FORTRAN 90:

subroutine gauss(A,b,n)
use prec_ mod
implicit none
real(DP), dimension(:,:), intent(in out) :: A
real(DP), dimension(:), intent(in out) :: b
integer, intent(in) :: n
real(DP) :: lambda
integer :: i,k
! --------------Elimination phase--------------
do k = 1,n-1
do i = k+1,n
if(A(i,k) /= 0) then
lambda = A(i,k)/A(k,k)
A(i,k+1:n) = A(i,k+1:n) - lambda*A(k,k+1:n)
b(i) = b(i) - lambda*b(k)
end if
end do
end do
! ------------Back substitution phase----------
do k = n,1,-1
b(k) = (b(k) - sum(A(k,k+1:n)*b(k+1:n)))/A(k,k)
end do
return
end subroutine gauss

The statement use prec mod tells the compiler to load the module prec mod
(not shown here), which defines the word length DP for floating-point numbers. Also
note the use of array sections, such as a(k,k+1:n), a feature that was not available
in previous versions of FORTRAN.
The equivalent MATLAB function is (MATLAB does not have subroutines):

function b = gauss(A,b)
n = length(b);
%-----------------Elimination phase-------------
for k = 1:n-1
for i = k+1:n
3 1.1 General Information

if A(i,k) ˜= 0
lambda = A(i,k)/A(k,k);
A(i,k+1:n) = A(i,k+1:n) - lambda*A(k,k+1:n);
b(i)= b(i) - lambda*b(k);
end
end
end
%--------------Back substitution phase-----------
for k = n:-1:1
b(k) = (b(k) - A(k,k+1:n)*b(k+1:n))/A(k,k);
end

Simultaneous equations can also be solved in MATLAB with the simple command
A\b (see below).
MATLAB can be operated in the interactive mode through its command window,
where each command is executed immediately upon its entry. In this mode MATLAB
acts like an electronic calculator. Here is an example of an interactive session for the
solution of simultaneous equations:

>> A = [2 1 0; -1 2 2; 0 1 4]; % Input 3 x 3 matrix

>> b = [1; 2; 3]; % Input column vector
>> soln = A\b % Solve A*x = b by left division
soln =
0.2500
0.5000
0.6250

The symbol >> is MATLAB’s prompt for input. The percent sign (%) marks the
beginning of a comment. A semicolon (;) has two functions: it suppresses printout
of intermediate results and separates the rows of a matrix. Without a terminating
semicolon, the result of a command would be displayed. For example, omission of
the last semicolon in the line defining the matrix A would result in

>> A = [2 1 0; -1 2 2; 0 1 4]
A =
2 1 0
-1 2 2
0 1 4
4 Introduction to MATLAB

Functions and programs can be created with the MATLAB editor/debugger and
saved with the .m extension (MATLAB calls them M-files). The file name of a saved
function should be identical to the name of the function. For example, if the function
for Gauss elimination listed above is saved as gauss.m, it can be called just like any
MATLAB function:

>> A = [2 1 0; -1 2 2; 0 1 4];
>> b = [1; 2; 3];
>> soln = gauss(A,b)
soln =
0.2500
0.5000
0.6250

1.2 Data Types and Variables

Data Types
The most commonly used MATLAB data types, or classes, are double, char and
logical, all of which are considered by MATLAB as arrays. Numerical objects
belong to the class double, which represents double-precision arrays; a scalar is
treated as a 1 × 1 array. The elements of a char type array are strings (sequences
of characters), whereas a logical type array element may contain only 1 (true) or 0
(false).
Another important class is function handle, which is unique to MATLAB. It
contains information required to find and execute a function. The name of a function
handle consists of the character @, followed by the name of the function; e.g., @sin.
Function handles are used as input arguments in function calls. For example, suppose
that we have a MATLAB function plot(func,x1,x2) that plots any user-specified
function func from x1 to x2. The function call to plot sin x from 0 to π would be
plot(@sin,0,pi).
There are other data types, but we seldom come across them in this text. Additional
classes can be defined by the user. The class of an object can be displayed with the
class command. For example,

>> x = 1 + 3i % Complex number

>> class(x)
ans =
double
5 1.2 Data Types and Variables

Variables
Variable names, which must start with a letter, are case sensitive. Hence xstart and
xStart represent two different variables. The length of the name is unlimited, but
only the first N characters are significant. To find N for your installation of MATLAB,
use the command namelengthmax:

>> namelengthmax
ans =
63

Variables that are defined within a MATLAB function are local in their scope.
They are not available to other parts of the program and do not remain in memory
after exiting the function (this applies to most programming languages). However,
variables can be shared between a function and the calling program if they are declared
global. For example, by placing the statement global X Y in a function as well as
the calling program, the variables X and Y are shared between the two program units.
The recommended practice is to use capital letters for global variables.
MATLAB contains several built-in constants and special variables, most important
of which are

ans Default name for results

eps Smallest number for which 1 + eps > 1

inf Infinity
NaN Not a number
√
i or j −1
pi π
realmin Smallest usable positive number
realmax Largest usable positive number

Here are a few of examples:

>> warning off % Suppresses print of warning messages

>> 5/0
ans =
Inf

>> 0/0
6 Introduction to MATLAB

ans =
NaN

>> 5*NaN % Most operations with NaN result in NaN

ans =
NaN

>> NaN == NaN % Different NaN’s are not equal!

ans =
0

>> eps
ans =
2.2204e-016

Arrays
Arrays can be created in several ways. One of them is to type the elements of the array
between brackets. The elements in each row must be separated by blanks or commas.
Here is an example of generating a 3 × 3 matrix:

>> A = [ 2 -1 0
-1 2 -1
0 -1 1]
A =
2 -1 0
-1 2 -1
0 -1 1

The elements can also be typed on a single line, separating the rows with semi-
colons:

>> A = [2 -1 0; -1 2 -1; 0 -1 1]
A =
2 -1 0
-1 2 -1
0 -1 1

Unlike most computer languages, MATLAB differentiates between row and col-
umn vectors (this peculiarity is a frequent source of programming and input errors).
For example,
7 1.2 Data Types and Variables

>> b = [1 2 3] % Row vector

b =
1 2 3

>> b = [1; 2; 3] % Column vector

b =
1
2
3

>> b = [1 2 3]’ % Transpose of row vector

b =
1
2
3

The single quote (’) is the transpose operator in MATLAB; thus b’ is the transpose
of b.
The elements of a matrix, such as
⎡ ⎤
A11 A12 A13
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎣ A21 A22 A23 ⎦
A31 A32 A33

can be accessed with the statement A(i,j), where i and j are the row and column
numbers, respectively. A section of an array can be extracted by the use of colon
notation. Here is an illustration:

>> A = [8 1 6; 3 5 7; 4 9 2]
A =
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

>> A(2,3) % Element in row 2, column 3

ans =
7

>> A(:,2) % Second column

8 Introduction to MATLAB

ans =
1
5
9

>> A(2:3,2:3) % The 2 x 2 submatrix in lower right corner

ans =
5 7
9 2

Array elements can also be accessed with a single index. Thus A(i) extracts the
ithelement of A, counting the elements down the columns. For example, A(7) and
A(1,3) would extract the same element from a 3 × 3 matrix.

Cells
A cell array is a sequence of arbitrary objects. Cell arrays can be created by enclosing
their contents between braces {}. For example, a cell array c consisting of three cells
can be created by

>> c = { [1 2 3], ’one two three’, 6 + 7i}

c =
[1x3 double] ’one two three’ [6.0000+ 7.0000i]

As seen above, the contents of some cells are not printed in order to save space.
If all contents are to be displayed, use the celldisp command:

>> celldisp(c)
c{ 1} =
1 2 3
c{ 2} =
one two three
c{ 3} =
6.0000 + 7.0000i

Braces are also used to extract the contents of the cells:

>> c{ 1} % First cell

ans =
1 2 3
9 1.3 Operators

>> c{ 1} (2) % Second element of first cell

ans =
2
>> c{ 2} % Second cell
ans =
one two three

Strings
A string is a sequence of characters; it is treated by MATLAB as a character array. Strings
are created by enclosing the characters between single quotes. They are concatenated
with the function strcat, whereas a colon operator (:) is used to extract a portion of
the string. For example,

>> s1 = ’Press return to exit’; % Create a string

>> s2 = ’ the program’; % Create another string
>> s3 = strcat(s1,s2) % Concatenate s1 and s2
s3 =
Press return to exit the program
>> s4 = s1(1:12) % Extract chars. 1-12 of s1
s4 =
Press return

1.3 Operators
Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB supports the usual arithmetic operators:

+ Addition
− Subtraction
∗ Multiplication
ˆ Exponentiation

When applied to matrices, they perform the familiar matrix operations, as illus-
trated below.

>> A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6]; B = [7 8 9; 0 1 2];

>> A + B % Matrix addition

10 Introduction to MATLAB

ans =
8 10 12
4 6 8

>> A*B’ % Matrix multiplication

ans =
50 8
122 17

>> A*B % Matrix multiplication fails

??? Error using ==> * % due to incompatible dimensions
Inner matrix dimensions must agree.

There are two division operators in MATLAB:

/ Right division
\ Left division

If a and b are scalars, the right division a/b results in a divided by b, whereas the left
division is equivalent to b/a. In the case where A and B are matrices, A/B returns the
solution of X*A = B and A\B yields the solution of A*X = B.
Often we need to apply the *, / and ˆ operations to matrices in an element-by-
element fashion. This can be done by preceding the operator with a period (.) as
follows:

.* Element-wise multiplication
./ Element-wise division
.ˆ Element-wise exponentiation

For example, the computation Ci j = Ai j Bi j can be accomplished with

>> A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6]; B = [7 8 9; 0 1 2];

>> C = A.*B
C =
7 16 27
0 5 12
11 1.3 Operators

Comparison Operators
The comparison (relational) operators return 1 for true and 0 for false. These operators
are

< Less than

> Greater than
<= Less than or equal to
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
˜= Not equal to

The comparison operators always act element-wise on matrices; hence they result in
a matrix of logical type. For example,

>> A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6]; B = [7 8 9; 0 1 2];

>> A > B
ans =
0 0 0
1 1 1

Logical Operators
The logical operators in MATLAB are

& AND
| OR
˜ NOT

They are used to build compound relational expressions, an example of which is

shown below.

>> A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6]; B = [7 8 9; 0 1 2];

>> (A > B) | (B > 5)
ans =
1 1 1
1 1 1
Other documents randomly have
different content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Index of the
Project Gutenberg Works of Bertrand Russell
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Index of the Project Gutenberg Works of Bertrand Russell

Author: Bertrand Russell

Editor: David Widger

Release date: April 29, 2019 [eBook #59391]

Most recently updated: April 9, 2023

Language: English

Credits: Produced by David Widger

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDEX OF THE

PROJECT GUTENBERG WORKS OF BERTRAND RUSSELL ***
INDEX OF THE PROJECT
GUTENBERG

WORKS OF

BERTRAND RUSSELL

Compiled by David Widger

 CONTENTS
Click on the ## before many of the titles to
view a linked
table of contents for that volume.

Click on the title itself to open the original

online file.

## PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM

## THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

## POLITICAL IDEALS

## THE PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

## THE PROBLEM OF CHINA

## BOLSHEVISM

## MYSTICISM AND LOGIC

## OUR KNOWLEDGE OF EXTERNAL WORLD

FREE THOUGHT AND OFFICIAL PROPAGANDA

## ON FOUNDATIONS OF GEOMETRY
 ## WHY MEN FIGHT

TABLES OF CONTENTS OF
VOLUMES

PROPOSED ROADS TO
FREEDOM
 By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
PART I HISTORICAL
CHAPTER I MARX AND SOCIALIST DOCTRINE
CHAPTER II BAKUNIN AND ANARCHISM
CHAPTER III THE SYNDICALIST REVOLT
PART II PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE
CHAPTER IV WORK AND PAY
CHAPTER V GOVERNMENT AND LAW
CHAPTER VI INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
CHAPTER VII SCIENCE AND ART UNDER SOCIALISM
CHAPTER VIII THE WORLD AS IT COULD BE MADE

THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

 By Bertrand Russell
1921

CONTENTS

MUIRHEAD LIBRARY OF PHILOSOPHY

PREFACE

THE ANALYSIS OF MIND

LECTURE I. RECENT CRITICISMS OF "CONSCIOUSNESS"

LECTURE II. INSTINCT AND HABIT
LECTURE III. DESIRE AND FEELING
INFLUENCE OF PAST HISTORY ON PRESENT
LECTURE IV.
OCCURRENCES IN LIVING
LECTURE V. PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSICAL CAUSAL LAWS
LECTURE VI. INTROSPECTION
LECTURE VII. THE DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION
LECTURE
SENSATIONS AND IMAGES
VIII.
LECTURE IX. MEMORY
LECTURE X. WORDS AND MEANING
LECTURE XI. GENERAL IDEAS AND THOUGHT
LECTURE XII. BELIEF
LECTURE
TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD
XIII.
LECTURE XIV. EMOTIONS AND WILL
LECTURE XV. CHARACTERISTICS OF MENTAL PHENOMENA

POLITICAL IDEALS
 By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

I: Political Ideals
II: Capitalism and the Wage System
III: Pitfalls in Socialism
IV: Individual Liberty and Public Control
V: National Independence and Internationalism

THE PROBLEMS OF
PHILOSOPHY
 By Bertrand Russell

CONTENTS

PREFACE
CHAPTER I. APPEARANCE AND REALITY
CHAPTER II. THE EXISTENCE OF MATTER
CHAPTER III. THE NATURE OF MATTER
CHAPTER IV. IDEALISM
KNOWLEDGE BY ACQUAINTANCE AND
CHAPTER V.
KNOWLEDGE BY DESCRIPTION
CHAPTER VI. ON INDUCTION
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GENERAL
CHAPTER VII.
PRINCIPLES
CHAPTER VIII. HOW A PRIORI KNOWLEDGE IS POSSIBLE
CHAPTER IX. THE WORLD OF UNIVERSALS
CHAPTER X. ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF UNIVERSALS
CHAPTER XI. ON INTUITIVE KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER XII. TRUTH AND FALSEHOOD
KNOWLEDGE, ERROR, AND PROBABLE
CHAPTER XIII.
OPINION
THE LIMITS OF PHILOSOPHICAL
CHAPTER XIV.
KNOWLEDGE
CHAPTER XV. THE VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
NOTE
THE PROBLEM OF CHINA
 By Bertrand Russell
CONTENTS

QUESTIONS
CHINA BEFORE THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
CHINA AND THE WESTERN POWERS
MODERN CHINA
JAPAN BEFORE THE RESTORATION
MODERN JAPAN
JAPAN AND CHINA BEFORE 1914
JAPAN AND CHINA DURING THE WAR
THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE
PRESENT FORCES AND TENDENCIES IN THE FAR EAST
CHINESE AND WESTERN CIVILIZATION CONTRASTED
THE CHINESE CHARACTER
HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA
INDUSTRIALISM IN CHINA
THE OUTLOOK FOR CHINA
APPENDIX
INDEX
THE PRACTICE AND THEORY
OF BOLSHEVISM
 Bertrand Russell
CONTENTS

PAGE

PART I

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF RUSSIA

I. WHAT IS HOPED FROM BOLSHEVISM 15
II. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 24
III. LENIN, TROTSKY AND GORKY 36
IV. ART AND EDUCATION 45
V. COMMUNISM AND THE SOVIET CONSTITUTION 72
VI. THE FAILURE OF RUSSIAN INDUSTRY 81
VII. DAILY LIFE IN MOSCOW 92
VIII. TOWN AND COUNTRY 99
IX. INTERNATIONAL POLICY 106
PART II
BOLSHEVIK THEORY
I. THE MATERIALISTIC THEORY OF HISTORY 119
II. DECIDING FORCES IN POLITICS 128
III. BOLSHEVIK CRITICISM OF DEMOCRACY 134
IV. REVOLUTION AND DICTATORSHIP 146
V. MECHANISM AND THE INDIVIDUAL 157
VI. WHY RUSSIAN COMMUNISM HAS FAILED 165
VII. CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF COMMUNISM 178
MYSTICISM AND LOGIC
AND OTHER ESSAYS
 Bertrand Russell
CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. Mysticism and Logic 1
II. The Place of Science in a Liberal Education 33
III. A Free Man's Worship 46
IV. The Study of Mathematics 58
V. Mathematics and the Metaphysicians 74
VI. On Scientific Method in Philosophy 97
VII. The Ultimate Constituents of Matter 125
VIII. The Relation of Sense-data to Physics 145
IX. On the Notion of Cause 180
Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by
X. 209
Description
Index 233

OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE

EXTERNAL WORLD
AS A FIELD FOR SCIENTIFIC
METHOD IN PHILOSOPHY,
 By Bertrand Russell
CONTENTS

LECTURE PAGE
I. Current Tendencies 3
II. Logic as the Essence of Philosophy 33
III. On our Knowledge of the External World 63
IV. The World of Physics and the World of Sense 101
V. The Theory of Continuity 129
VI. The Problem of Infinity considered Historically 155
VII. The Positive Theory of Infinity 185
On the Notion of Cause, with Applications to the
VIII. 211
Free-will Problem
Index 243
 INDEX
Absolute, 6, 39.
Abstraction, principle of, 42, 124 ff.
Achilles, Zeno's argument of, 173.
Acquaintance, 25, 144.
Activity, 224 ff.
Allman, 161 n.
Analysis, 185, 204, 211, 241.
legitimacy of, 150.
Anaximander, 3.
Antinomies, Kant's, 155 ff.
Aquinas, 10.
Aristotle, 40, 160 n., 161 ff., 240.
Arrow, Zeno's argument of, 173.
Assertion, 52.
Atomism, logical, 4.
Atomists, 160.
Belief, 58.
primitive and derivative, 69 ff.
Bergson, 4, 11, 13, 20 ff., 137, 138, 150, 158, 165, 174, 178,
229 ff.
Berkeley, 63, 64, 102.
Bolzano, 165.
Boole, 40.
Bradley, 6, 39, 165.
Broad, 172 n.
Brochard, 169 n.
Burnet, 19 n., 160 n., 161 n., 170 n., 171 ff.
Calderon, 95.
Cantor, vi, vii, 155, 165, 190, 194, 199.
Categories, 38.
Causal laws, 109, 212 ff.
evidence for, 216 ff.
in psychology, 219.
Causation, 34 ff., 79, 212 ff.
law of, 221.
not a priori, 223, 232.
Cause, 220, 223.
Certainty, degrees of, 67, 68, 212.
Change,
demands analysis, 151.
Cinematograph, 148, 174.
Classes, 202.
non-existence of, 205 ff.
Classical tradition, 3 ff., 58.
Complexity, 145, 157 ff.
Compulsion, 229, 233 ff.
Congruence, 195.
Consecutiveness, 134.
Conservation, 105.
Constituents of facts, 51, 145.
Construction v. inference, iv.
Contemporaries, initial, 119, 120 n.
Continuity, 64, 129 ff., 141 ff., 155 ff.
of change, 106, 108, 130 ff.
Correlation of mental and physical, 233.
Counting, 164, 181, 187 ff., 203.
Couturat, 40 n.
Dante, 10.
Darwin, 4, 11, 23, 30.
Data, 65 ff., 211.
“hard” and “soft,” 70 ff.
Dates, 117.
Definition, 204.
Descartes, 5, 73, 238.
Descriptions, 201, 214.
Desire, 227, 235.
Determinism, 233.
Doubt, 237.
Dreams, 85, 93.
Duration, 146, 149.
Earlier and later, 116.
Effect, 220.
Eleatics, 19.
Empiricism, 37, 222.
Enclosure, 114 ff., 120.
Enumeration, 202.
Euclid, 160, 164.
Evellin, 169.
Evolutionism, 4, 11 ff.
Extension, 146, 149.
External world, knowledge of, 63 ff.
Fact, 51.
atomic, 52.
Finalism, 13.
Form, logical, 42 ff., 185, 208.
Fractions, 132, 179.
Free will, 213, 227 ff.
Frege, 5, 40, 199 ff.
Galileo, 4, 59, 192, 194, 239, 240.
Gaye, 169 n., 175, 177.
Geometry, 5.
Giles, 206 n.
Greater and less, 195.
Harvard, 4.
Hegel, 3, 37 ff., 46, 166.
“Here,” 73, 92.
Hereditary properties, 195.
Hippasos, 163, 237.
Hui Tzu, 206.
Hume, 217, 221.
Hypotheses in philosophy, 239.
Illusions, 85.
Incommensurables, 162 ff., 237.
Independence, 73, 74.
causal and logical, 74, 75.
Indiscernibility, 141, 148.
Indivisibles, 160.
Induction, 34, 222.
mathematical, 195 ff.
Inductiveness, 190, 195 ff.
Inference, 44, 54.
Infinite, vi, 64, 133, 149.
historically considered, 155 ff.
“true,” 179, 180.
positive theory of, 185 ff.
Infinitesimals, 135.
Instants, 116 ff., 129, 151, 216.
defined, 118.
Instinct v. Reason, 20 ff.
Intellect, 22 ff.
Intelligence, how displayed by friends, 93.
inadequacy of display, 96.
Interpretation, 144.
James, 4, 10, 13.
Jourdain, 165 n.
Jowett, 167.
Judgment, 58.
Kant, 3, 112, 116, 155 ff., 200.
Knowledge about, 144.
Language, bad, 82, 135.
Laplace, 12.
Laws of nature, 218 ff.
Leibniz, 13, 40, 87, 186, 191.
Logic, 201.
analytic not constructive, 8.
Aristotelian, 5.
and fact, 53.
inductive, 34, 222.
mathematical, vi, 40 ff.
mystical, 46.
and philosophy, 8, 33 ff., 239.
Logical constants, 208, 213.
Mach, 123, 224.
Macran, 39 n.
Mathematics, 40, 57.
Matter, 75, 101 ff.
permanence of, 102 ff.
Measurement, 164.
Memory, 230, 234, 236.
Method, deductive, 5.
logical-analytic, v, 65, 211, 236 ff.
Milhaud, 168 n., 169 n.
Mill, 34, 200.
Montaigne, 28.
Motion, 130, 216.
continuous, 133, 136.
mathematical theory of, 133.
perception of, 137 ff.
Zeno's arguments on, 168 ff.
Mysticism, 19, 46, 63, 95.
Newton, 30, 146.
Nietzsche, 10, 11.
Noël, 169.
Number, cardinal, 131, 186 ff.
defined, 199 ff.
finite, 160, 190 ff.
inductive, 197.
infinite, 178, 180, 188 ff., 197.
reflexive, 190 ff.
Occam, 107, 146.
One and many, 167, 170.
Order, 131.
Parmenides, 63, 165 ff., 178.
Past and future, 224, 234 ff.
Peano, 40.
Perspectives, 88 ff., 111.
Philoponus, 171 n.
Philosophy and ethics, 26 ff.
and mathematics, 185 ff.
province of, 17, 26, 185, 236.
scientific, 11, 16, 18, 29, 236 ff.
Physics, 101 ff., 147, 239, 242.
descriptive, 224.
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