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Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261

6th Asia-Pacific Congress on Sports Technology (APCST)

Difference in kicking motion between female and male soccer

players
Keiko Sakamotoa*, Yutaka Shimizua , Eiko Yamadab, Sungchan Hongc, Takeshi
Asaib
a
Graduate school, Institute of Health and Sport Science, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Ibaraki, 305-8574, Japan
b
Institute of Health and Sport Science, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Ibaraki, 305-8574, Japan
c
Sports R & D Core, University of Tsukuba, Tennoudai 1-1-1, Ibaraki, 305-8574, Japan

Received 20 March 2013; revised 6 May 2013; accepted 9 May 2013

Abstract

This study was designed to compare the kicking motion between female and male soccer players to determine the
mechanical and technical characteristics of the kick by female players. A motion capture system (250 Hz) was used to
compare ball velocity, foot velocity, mean peak knee joint torques, angle of the thigh and shank, and mean thigh-to-
shank energy ratio between female and male soccer players to elucidate the mechanical and technical characteristics
of the kick by female players before ball impact. The values for ball velocity, foot velocity immediately before
impact, mean peak knee joint torques, and mean thigh-to-shank energy ratio were smaller for the female players than
for the male players (p < 0.05).
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
© 2013 Published
Selection by Elsevier
and peer-review Ltd. Selection
under responsibility andSchool
of the peer-review underMechanical
of Aerospace, responsibility of RMIT University
and Manufacturing Engineering,
RMIT University
Keywords: Female players; kicking leg; energy

1. Introduction

In a kick motion in soccer, obtaining a high ball velocity is an important technical task. The reported
determining factors for ball velocity include the important kick elements, namely, swing velocity [1],
reduced mass of the kicking leg, the position at which the ball is impacted, and the posture of the ankle
joints [2]. However, little research has been conducted to analyse kicking techniques in female soccer
players [3-5] in comparison with male soccer players. Despite the known sex-based differences in

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +81-029-853-2711; fax: +81-029-853-2711.

E-mail address: [email protected]

1877-7058 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University
doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2013.07.009
256 Keiko Sakamoto et al. / Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261

skeletal, muscular, and flexibility-related aspects between male and female players [6, 7], the technical
characteristics of the kick by female players have not been elucidated; thus, the technical coaching given
to soccer players has not been adapted to female players. Hence, this study aimed to use a 3-dimensional
motion-capture system to compare swing velocities and joint torques between male and female players to
better understand the features of the kicking motions by female soccer players.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants and experimental procedure

The participants consisted of 13 male soccer players (height, 174.3 ± 4.7 cm; weight, 66.8 ± 4.9 kg)
and 13 female soccer players (height, 160.4 ± 4.9 cm; weight, 57.1 ± 5.7 kg). In total, 26 athletes
specializing in soccer at a university with a department of physical education participated in this study.
Written informed consent was obtained from all the subjects before participation in the study. All the
procedures undertaken in the study were approved by the ethics committee of the Institute of Health and
Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan. All the participants’ dominant leg was the right leg.
The experimental task was a kicking motion in which the ball is caught at the instep (the portion
centred on the dorsum of the foot leading to the ankle). Each participant was asked to warm up and then,
with an ad libitum running start, kick a soccer ball that had been set down, toward a goal 10 m away,
using the dominant leg at full force. Two trials were performed by each participant; a trial was deemed to
be a success if the kick hit a 2-m square in the centre of the goal. To minimize the impact on the
mechanical interaction between the foot and the ball during ball impact at the soccer shoes, all the
subjects wore different sizes of the same model of indoor soccer shoes (DESTAQUE 2 J, Asics
Corporation). Imaging was performed using 10 infrared cameras (Vicon Motion Systems); 3-dimensional
coordinate data of each part of the body (16 anthropometric points with reflective markers attached)
during the kicking motion were collected at 250 Hz (Fig. 1). A stationary coordinate system was defined
as a right-handed coordinate system where the x-axis is the direction orthogonal to the horizontal kicking
direction at the start of the task, the y-axis is the horizontal kick direction at the start of the task, and the z-
axis is the vertical direction.
Raw data was calculated for every kinematic variable, and 20 points of post-impact data were
extrapolated by reflection [8]. The data, including the extrapolated points, were smoothed by using a
fourth-order phase-shift-free Butterworth digital filter to determine the optimum cut-off frequency (5-47.5
Hz) [9]. A force platform (Kistler) was installed beside the ball, and the ground reaction force at the point
of contact with the supporting leg was measured at a sampling frequency of 1,000 Hz [4].

Force plate
Hip R
Hip L
Toe R
Ankle R Kicking direction
Knee L Ball
Target
Z Knee R
X

X Ankle L

Y Z Y

Fig 1. (a) Location of the markers for the lower limbs; (b) Fig. 2. Experiment setup.
 Keiko Sakamoto et al. / Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261 257

2.2. Data analysis and calculated parameters

In this study, to analyse differences between females and males, the following parameters were
calculated. Ball velocity was determined by calculating the ball velocity in the horizontal left-right (x-
axis), horizontal front-rear (y-axis), and vertical up-down (z-axis) directions and resultant velocity
(composition of x, y and z direction velocity). The foot centre of gravity was identified by using body part
inertia coefficients for Japanese athletes [10] to geometrically calculate the raw data for the coordinates of
the foot centre of gravity, which was then differentiated by time to thereby calculate the velocity of the
foot centre of gravity in the horizontal left-right (x-axis), horizontal front-rear (y-axis), and vertical up-
down (z-axis) directions, and then resultant velocity. The joint centre for the hip joint was calculated
using the estimation method of the Clinical Gait Analysis Forum of Japan. The knee joint and ankle joint
centres were taken to be the midpoint of the internal and external condyles in each respective joint. The
raw data of the coordinates for the resulting midpoints were differentiated by time to thereby calculate the
midpoint velocity. The knee joint and hip joint midpoint velocities were determined by calculating the
midpoint in the horizontal left-right (x-axis), horizontal front-rear (y-axis), and vertical up-down (z-axis)
directions and then resultant velocity.
In the present study, the whole body was modelled using a segment model of 15 rigid bodies
connected by 14 joints with 3 degrees of motion freedom. A moving coordinate system was set for every
degree of motion freedom from the 3-dimensional coordinates of each site on the body to calculate the
joint angle, joint angular velocity during the kicking motion (Fig. 2). Inverse dynamics calculation was
adopted for reaction force data to calculate the joint torque. To evaluate the extent to which energy from
the thigh to the shank is transferred, the energy transfer ratio in the leg was also determined by calculating
the thigh and shank energy in the kicking leg. The shank-to-thigh energy ratio was calculated for the point
of contact between the kicking leg and the ball, following the point of contact between the support leg and
the ground, by dividing the integral value of the shank energy during a later stage by the integral value of
thigh energy. The early stage was defined as the time from the point of contact between the support leg
and the ground until the peak value of thigh energy in the kicking leg, whereas the late stage was defined
as the time from the peak value of the thigh energy in the kicking leg until the point of contact between
the kicking leg and the ball (Eq.1).

zhIER yhAA zkIER

zSHA
zFOOT xhFE xkFE
zTHI ykAA
xFOOT
xSHA ySHA sFOOT zkIER
xTHI yTHI yFOOT
sSHA xaPD yaIE
sTHI

Hip Shank Foot Hip Knee and Ankle

Fig. 2. (a) Definition of the segment coordinate systems fixed at the thigh, shank, and foot segments used in the calculation of the
angular velocity of each segment; (b) Definition of the joint coordinate systems fixed at the centre of the hip, knee, and ankle joints
to express the anatomical joint rotations.




















(1)








258 Keiko Sakamoto et al. / Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Data analysis and calculated parameters

Fig. 3(a) depicts the horizontal velocity of the foot, knee, and hip of the kicking leg from the landing
of the plantar leg until its impact on a global coordinate system.
The initial peak hip velocity, the peak knee velocity, and finally, the peak foot velocity were observed
at impact. The female and male players effectively generated foot velocity using the kinetic chain
mechanism. The mean ball velocity for the female players’ instep kick was 22.0 ± 1.4 m/s, compared with
the male players’ 26.4 ± 2.0 m/s (Fig. 3(b)). Thus, the mean ball velocity for the instep kick was 17%
lower in the female players than in the male players (p < 0.05). The female players’ mean foot velocity
just before impact for the instep kick was 17.4 ± 1.0 m/s, compared with the male players’ 19.9 ± 1.2 m/s.
The foot velocity immediately before impact for the instep kick in the female players was approximately
13% lower than that in the male players (p < 0.05).

35

Females
Hip
20 20
Knee 30
Males

Ankle 25
15 15

Velocity (m/s)
Velecity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

20

10 10 15

10
5 5
5

0 0 0
0 50 100 0 50 100 Ball Foot
a) Time (%) b) Time (%)

Fig. 3. (a) Examples of horizontal velocity of the hip, knee, and ankle (kicking leg) of the female and male players (a, female
players; b, male players); (b) Comparison of the ball and foot velocities before impact. The bars and asterisks represent significant
differences between females and males (*p < 0.05).

3.2. Knee joint torque

Fig. 4(a) shows the knee joint torque of the kicking leg from the landing of the plantar leg until impact.
Overall, the magnitude of the knee joint torque transitioned to lower values in the female players than in
the male players.
Fig. 4(b) shows the mean peak torque in the knee of the kicking leg from the landing of the plantar leg
until impact. The mean peak flexion/extension torques of the knee joint of the female players’ instep kick
was 41.0 ± 2.6 N/m, compared with the male players’ 60.6 ± 2.6 N/m (Fig. 3(b)). Thus, the mean peak
flexion/extension torques in the knee joint of the female players was 22% lower than that of the male
players for the instep kick (p < 0.05). For the female players, the mean peak adduction/abduction torques
in the knee joint was 16.0 ± 1.8 N/m for the instep kick, compared with the male players’ 25.6 ± 2.6 N/m.
The mean peak adduction/abduction torques in the knee joint of the female players immediately before
impact was approximately 37% lower than that of the males for the instep kick (p < 0.05). The difference
in the mean peak internal/external rotation torques of the knee joint between the female and male players
were not significant.
 Keiko Sakamoto et al. / Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261 259

80

Females
Males
Flexion/ 70
100 100
Extension 60
80 80

Peak torque (N m)
Adduction/

Knee torque (N m)
Knee torque (N m)

60 60 50
Abduction
40 40 40
Internal/
20 20 External 30
0 0 rotation
20
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
-20 -20
10
-40 -40
0
-60 -60 flexion/ adduction/ internal/
Time (%) Time (%) -10
a) b) extension abduction external
rotation

Fig. 4(a). Examples of knee joint torques of the kicking leg of the female and male players (a, female players; b, male players); (b)
Comparison of the peak knee joint torques of the kicking leg. The bars and asterisks represent significant differences between
females and males (*p < 0.05).

3.3. Angle of thigh and shank

Fig. 5 shows the horizontal angle of the thigh and shank of the kicking leg from the landing of the
plantar leg until impact. Female and male players exhibited positive values for thigh angle from the latter
half to impact. Shank angular velocity, however, showed a tendency towards a greater increase than thigh
angle.

40 40
20 20
0 0
Angular velocity (rad/s)
Angular velocity (rad/s)

-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

-40 -40
-60 -60
Thigh
-80 -80
Shank
-100 -100
-120 -120
-140 -140
-160 -160
-180 -180
Time (%) Time (%)
a) b)

Fig. 5. Examples of thigh and shank angle (kicking leg) for the female and male players (a, female players; b, male players).

3.4. Energy of the thigh and shank of the kicking leg

Fig. 6(a) shows the horizontal energy of the thigh and shank of kicking leg from the landing of the
plantar leg until impact. The overall torque magnitude in the female players had the tendency to be
smaller than that in the male players. Energy exerted by the thigh was presumably transferred to the shank
by the linked motion and contributed to the translational motion of the kicking leg (Fig. 5). To illustrate
the extent to which thigh motion impacts shank motion, Fig. 6(b) shows the mean shank-to-thigh energy
ratio. The female players showed a significant value for the mean shank-to-thigh energy ratio in
260 Keiko Sakamoto et al. / Procedia Engineering 60 (2013) 255 – 261

comparison with the male players (p < 0.05). This suggests the possibility that the thigh-to-shank energy
ratio is lower in the female players than in the male players.

1.1

Females
Males
350 350 Thigh 1.0
Shank
300 300
0.9
Energy (m 2 / s2)

Energy (m 2/ s2 )
250 250

Ratio
200 200
0.8
150 150
100 100 0.7
50 50
0 0 0.6
a) 0 20 40 60 80 100 b) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Energy
Time (%) Time (%)
(a) (b)

Fig. 6(a). Examples of the energy of the thigh and shank (kicking leg) in the female and male players (a, female players; b, male
players); (b) Comparison of the energy ratio. The bars and asterisks represent significant differences between females and males (*p
< 0.05).

4. Conclusion

This study was designed to compare the swing motion between female and male soccer players to
determine the mechanical and technical characteristics of the kick by female players. The values for ball
velocity, foot velocity immediately before impact, mean peak knee joint torques, and mean thigh-to-shank
energy ratio were lower in the female players than in the male players (p < 0.05).
Female and male players’ swing motions presumably include energy transfer by means of a kinetic
chain technique between the thigh and shank; however, our results suggest that female players may have a
lower thigh-to-shank energy ratio than male players. Furthermore, given that the hip joint also contributes
significantly to shank acceleration, we suggest that future research not only on knee joint motion but also
on hip joint motion be conducted.

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