Research Methods

CAC 2207
 Objectives
• Define, explain and distinguish key research terms.
• Describe the research process, activities, skills, validity, reliability and
ethical considerations.
• Clarify the process of selecting specific methodological approaches to
a study.
• Introduce skills to design, collect data, analyze and interpret findings
using statistical tools.
• Equip students with the minimal skills toolkit to conduct research
projects.
 Research Defined
• Research is an organized and systematic way to find answers to
questions.
• Hunting for facts or truth about a subject.
• Organized scientific investigation to solve problems, test hypotheses,
develop or invent new products.
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested in.
• Research is a creative process.
 Which of these is a research?
• [1] Mildred Sithole• [2] Tatenda Nyoni: says• [3] Thabo Shumba
prepared a paper on that he has researched and participated in a workshop
“computer usage in tertiary completed a document on curriculum development
institutions” after which gives information and prepared what he calls,
reviewing literature on the about the age of his a research report on the
subject available in her colleagues, their results, curriculum for accounts
university library and she their parents income and clerks. He did this through
called it a piece of distance of their university a literature survey on the
research. from the their homes. subject and by discussing
with the participants of the
workshop.
 Research example
• An entrepreneur involved in the production of wheel barrows with 20litre
water tanks was concerned with the complaints received from the users that
the wheel barrows have some problems with leaks after over 200 trips of
carrying water.
• He obtained information from the company workers to identify the various
factors influencing the problem.
• He then formulated the problem and generated guesses (hypotheses).
• He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information from a
representative sample of users of their product.
• He analyzed the data thus collected and interpreted the results in the light of
his hypotheses and reached conclusions.
• The entrepreneur researcher followed a sequence of steps which were in
order and thus systematic.
• The researcher did not just jump to conclusions, but used a scientific
method of enquiry in reaching conclusions.
• The two important characteristics of research are :
• Systematic and,
• Follows a scientific method of enquiry.
 Sources of Research Ideas
• Professional experience
• Burning questions
• Literature
• Professional meetings
• Discussions
• Plus many other sources…
 Good Quality Research
• Based on the work of others. • Generates new questions or is
• May be replicated (duplicated). cyclical in nature.

• May be generalized in other • Is incremental.

settings. • Is apolitical
• Based on logical rationale and • Is for the betterment of society.
tied to theory.
• Is doable!
 Poor Quality Research
• The opposites of the above.

• Focuses on what may not to be found.

• Plagiarism of other people’s work.
• Falsifying of data.
• Misrepresenting information and misleading participants.
• No contribution or transporting facts from source to another.
 The Process of Research
• Step 1: The process is initiated with a question or problem
• Step 2: Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal with the question
or problem
• Step 3: Then the research design is developed to achieve the objectives
• Step 4: Results are generated by conducting the research
• Step 5: Interpretation and analysis of results follow
• Step 6: Interpret results. and draw conclusions
Research process model
 Research is Systematic
It follows certain steps that are logical in order.
• Understand the nature of problem to be studied and identify the related area of
knowledge (knowledge area).
• Reviewing literature to understand how others have approached or dealt with the
problem.
• Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
• Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
• Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
 Uses of Research
• Research is often considered to have 2 orientations:
• Fundamental (basic or pure) and,
• Applied research.
 Research Topic Selection
• Personal experiences (your own/supervisor’s)
• Challenging acceptable ideas
• Review of existing practice
• Previous research – research gaps
• Current social and policy issues
• Related literature (theory) - theory serves as a source of prediction and
hypotheses
• Deductions from theory
• Professional experiences of situations, discussions, burning questions
 On selecting the topic
• Final decision must be yours the researcher
• Pick something that you are enthusiastic about.

• Your research output is a lifetime product;

• So it must interests you both today and tomorrow.
 Research topics should be:
• Relevant
• Challenging and interesting enough
• Exciting Shaped by the researcher
• Based on the statement of the problem.
• Based on the reality of the research, that is contextual,
researchable, timely, within budget, within technical levels of the
researcher
• May not be too broad or ambiguous
• A topic must be unique short and catchy.
• Idea is to bring new insight to a situation.
• Topic must be related to the statement of the problem/relevant to it.
• The topic should be brief but descriptive enough.
• Make sure that it is specific enough to tell the reader what your study
is all about
• Not addressing a felt need – it should be a real need.
• Identify the existing problem in the research content
• Does a solution to this problem make a real contribution eg to
academic discourse?
• Is the problem relevant to my work? Is it important enough to
contribute to the academic discourse in a wider context?
• Can the topic be dealt with meaningfully within my field of study?
• Does the topic provide me with a substantial intellectual challenge?
• Does this topic interest me enough to devote much of my time and
precious energy to it?
• Do I have some basic knowledge of the subject matter?
• Have I always been interested in studying this topic but never had
enough time to study it in depth?
• Is sufficient information available on the topic?
• Is there other research on the topic? Is it available?
• Is the area over researched?
• Which questions in the field remain unanswered?
• Is there a different approach to this topic?
• Is the topic perhaps too comprehensive or too limited?
• Does the topic warrant scientific investigation?
• Is it possible to say something new on the topic?
 Examples of research topics
• Full migration to computerized accounting systems.
• Options:
• Evaluation of operational efficiency from full migration to computerized
accounting systems.
• Analysis of accounting systems for full migration to computerized systems.
• Investigation into fraud case increases from the use of partly computerized
accounting systems.
• Impact of the computerization of accounting systems on staff morale.
Research Proposal
 Research Proposal
• Have the overall outline of the topics to be included in a proposal before you
begin writing.

• The outlines can be used as models depending on whether your proposed

study is qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
 Proposal Writing Preparation

Reading strategies
 Understand that you are not going to know exactly what you are looking for
in the beginning.
• Read to explore.
• Then read to focus.
• Finally read to understand all the details of previous relevant work.
• Read critically.
• Read always.
 Proposal Sections
• Title page (Topic, Personal details) • Significance of the study
• Introduction • Delimitations/Scope of the Study
• Background of the Study • Limitations of the study
• Statement of the Problem/Problem • Literature Review
Statement
• Research Methodology
• Purpose of the study • Budget and Timeframe/Schedule
• Research Objectives, Research • Conclusion & References
Questions, Research Hypotheses
 Cover page
• Usual cover page details
• University name, crest, logo
• Full name
• Student number
• Programme
• Topic
• Reason for : fulfilment of …
• Month, year, Supervisor
 Introduction
• Write the introduction last
• Summarise the actual discussion not sections
• No more than a 1/3 of a page
• Guide the reader into the document skilfully but gently
• Make the reader want to get the full details i.e. read more
• No new thing to be included here only what is in the document
 Background of the Study
• Position the study in the body of knowledge
• Provides a description to bring clarity and focus to the study
• Usually longer than the problem statement, but shorter than literature
review (not more than ¾ of a page)
• Draws from the researchers preliminary reading
• Explains the origins of the research topic
• Compares previous work to the intended project
• Is not a literature review
• Highlights main issues, opinions, discussions, debates to separate them from
this study
• Brings the identified problem to the fore and justifies the research project
• Organise the section to bring the views of experts to the fore by highlighting
key topics, dates, or other such useful logic
• Include relevant examples for context
• In some cases, focus on the past, present and the envisioned to expose the gap
 Research Problem

• A set of conditions/scenario needing discussion, a solution, or information.

• A research problem can be positive or negative.

• Technically:
• Implies the possibility of empirical/practical investigation, that is, of
data collection and analysis.
Problem Statement/Statement of the…
• Brings added focus to the problem highlighted in the Background
• Ends with a clear statement of the problem: Therefore, the problem is…
• The statement should not be ambiguous, but clearly highlight the problem
• The reader must be convinced that the problem is real and is worth solving
• One approach is to indicate
• The ideal situation
• The reality
• The consequences of not addressing the problem
• STATEMENT 1 (description of the ideal scenario)
• Describe the desired state, or the values that are considered important
and that are relevant to the problem.
• STATEMENT 2 (The reality of the situation)
• Describe conditions that prevent the goals discussed in statement 1 from
being achieved at the present moment/time.

• (BUT) Connect statements 1 and 2 using a term such as "but," "however,"

“unfortunately," or "in spite of“.
• STATEMENT 3 (The consequences)
• Show how the situation in statement 2 contains little promise of
improvement unless something is done. Emphasize benefits of research
as a possible solution.

• Conclude the statement with the clearly specified problem

• The problem is…
 Research demands that one is able to justify their research by describing the
areas of enquiry which are necessary and that will lead to solutions to the
problem.
 Answers the questions:
• What is the gap that needs to be filled? and/or
• What is the problem that needs to be solved?
• What factors make the problem critical to warrant research?
• What happens if the problem is solved/not solved?
 Provide brief statistics about the problem if available.
 State the problem clearly, precisely and early enough.
 Limit the variables you address in stating your problem or question.
 Distinguish between the following

• Problem Statement

• Statement of the Problem

 Purpose of the Study
 State the goals of the research.
 Provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall aim of the
investigation.
 If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be clear to the
reader.
 Clearly indicate the intention. For example, is one to ‘assess’,
‘evaluate’, ‘explain’, ‘explore’, ‘describe’ a certain phenomenon?
• The purpose of this ______ (strategy of enquiry, case study, or other type)
study is (was? will be?) to ______ (understand? explore? develop? discover?)
the ______ (central phenomenon being studied) for ______ (the
participants, such as the individual, groups, organisation) at ______ (research
site). At this stage in the research, the ______ (central phenomenon being
studied) will be generally defined as ______ (provide a general definition)
 Research Objectives

General Objective (Main Objective is optional)

 States the broad aim of the research.
 The general objective must be as brief as possible
 Research Objectives
Specific Objectives
 Should be numbered between 3 and 5
 Written as statements of intent
 Vary the use of action verbs
 Determines the kind of questions which will be asked.
 Determines the kind of data to be collected and data collection
procedures
 Example of action verbs
• Understand • Evaluate
• associate classify compare • appraise argue assess attach
compute contrast convert defend choose compare conclude
describe differentiate discuss contrast critique defend
distinguish estimate explain describe determine diagnose
express extend extrapolate discriminate estimate evaluate
generalize give example identify
indicate infer interpret locate explain grade judge justify
paraphrase predict report interpret measure rank relate
recognize restate rewrite review predict rate recommend review
select summarize translate revise score select summarize
support test value
• Analyze/Analysis • Create/Develop
• analyze appraise breakdown • arrange assemble categorical collect
calculate categorize compare combine comply compose construct
contrast criticize debate diagram create design detect develop devise
differentiate discriminate explain formulate generate generalize
integrate manage organize plan
distinguish examine experiment
prepare prescribe produce propose
identify illustrate infer inspect rearrange reconstruct relate
inventory model outline point out reorganize revise rewrite set up
question relate select separate specify summarize synthesize tell
subdivide summarize test write
 Research Questions
 These are questions which a researcher would like to answer in
addressing each of the objectives or part thereof.
 They are derived from the problem statement.
 Theses are concise questions that your research tackles.
 Data is collected to answer these questions.
 Used when specific objectives are broader as the research
questions become narrower and focused.
• If there is a main objective, then there is a main research question
• Map the research questions to the research objectives one to one
• Therefore, for 4 research objectives, have 4 research questions
• Each objective should have a question to be answered
• The question informs on the data to be collected thus the variables of
interest
 Good research question?
• Feasible • Ethical
• Subjects • Social or scientific value
• Resources • Safe
• Manageable
• Relevant
• Data available?
• Advance scientific knowledge?
• Interesting
• Influence clinical practice?
• Novel
• Impact health policy?
• In relation to previous findings
• Confirm or refute?
• Guide future research?

• New setting, new population

 A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied
3. The testability of the question
 Variables in research
• Have 2 or more properties or qualities
• Age, sex, weight, height

• Is one variable related to another?

• “ Is X related to Y? What is the effect of X on Y?”
 Variables in research

• Independent variable: • Dependent variable:

• has a presumed effect on the • Something that varies with a
dependent variable (outcome) change in the independent
• May or may not be manipulated variable
• Outcome variable
 Hypothesis
 What do you expect the results to show?
 A hypothesis may be directional or non-directional.
 Hypothesis can only be directional when some information on the
phenomenon under study is available.
 Inclusion of the hypothesis is optional
 Typically have a hypothesis for each research question if included
 Significance of the Study
 Highlight the reasons for conducting the research.
 Highlight the importance of carrying out the research.
 Show what could happen to society or theory if this study is done
or not done.
 State the benefits from the research and the beneficiaries.
 State how your study is distinct from all other studies that might
have addressed the same topic.
 Delimitation of the Study/Scope
 Specify the limits of the research in a way which makes it clear
what is and is not to be studied.
 Restrictions placed on the study by the researcher that may
restrict the study’s conclusions, conceptually and spatially (i.e.
study area, for this include the locality map of the study area).
 While the study area is an important consideration, the
conceptual scope of the study carries more weight.
 Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research
 Incorporate the rationale for the study area selected.
 Research is contextual, be specific
 The population of subjects for the study is determined by the scope
 Be clear and precise

 For example, the study may be limited to women only or teenagers in

Bulawayo only. The research site may be limited to one metropolitan city or
to one small geographic area. The central phenomenon may be limited to
individuals in business organisations who participate in creative teams.
 Limitations of the Study
 In this section, indicate conditions beyond your control as
researcher that may restrict the study’s conclusions.
 The limitations are not so much of physical limitations but the
shortcomings in terms of confounding variables surrounding your
sample design, which factors are likely to have an impact on the
veracity of your findings.
 In the best proposals, researchers indicate how they propose to
minimize the impact of such confounding variables.
• Associate these with the methods employed
• Population targeted
• Resource, time limitations/constraints
• Possibility of biases i.e. cannot explain away
• Include how the limitations will/have to be overcome
• Eg using mixed methods to overcome limitations of quantitative
methods
 Literature Review
 Comprehensive search of recent relevant secondary data.
 Builds a theoretical background that lays the foundation for your
study.
 Generates comprehensive knowledge for researcher to proceed
with confidence.
 States why the problem is important
Purpose of the Literature Review
• Provides a conceptual framework for the research
• Provides an integrated overview of the field of study
• Helps establish a need for the research
• May help clarify the research problem
• Helps to demonstrate researcher’s familiarity with the area under
consideration (theory and/or methods)
 Literature review situates your proposed research into the larger research
context by;
 reviewing previous research
 synthesizing it into a summary of “what is and isn’t known”
 relating it to the research question
 identifying weaknesses and points of controversy
 suggesting questions for further research
 demonstrating the depth of your understanding of the topic/subject.
 Nature of Literature Review
 Display a competent examination of earlier research.
 Researcher to demonstrate that the literature is relevant to present study.
 Use active voice rather than the passive voice i.e. Duncan (2020) states
that…..
 Vary the verbs i.e. argues, recommends, suggests, etc.
 Ultimately, your literature review should persuade readers that your
proposed research is necessary,
 That it is effectively conceptualized and designed, and that it builds
logically on prior research.
 Literature Coverage
• Reflecting coherence and unity of flow.
• Start at general level then narrow to study focus.
• Researcher to demonstrate wide reading in the area of study.
• Diversity of sources
• Acknowledge all sources
• Do not personalize i.e. I, this author, researcher, we, she, he…
 Skills Needed
• Surveying a comprehensive range of existing material and sources
in the general areas of your study.
• Selecting those materials that will be most relevant and significant
for your particular project.
• Understanding and analyzing the central findings and arguments.
• Synthesizing the findings and integrating them into the research
proposal.
• A good literature review generally contains an argument.
 Key Questions
• What are the broad bodies of literature that have relevance for
your research topic (local and international)?
• What theoretical model(s) relate to your research topic?
• What theories, methods and results have previous researchers in
your field produced?
• What are the most recent findings in your area of study?
• What gaps or contradictions exist among these findings?
• What new research questions do these findings suggest?
• What structure suits my literature review best?
• What should I leave out?
 Research Methodology
 This section is essential to most good research proposals.
 How you study a problem is often as important as the results you collect.
 This section includes a description of the general means through which
the goals of the study will be achieved: methods, materials, procedures,
tasks
 It must include enough detail to demonstrate that you are competent and
the project is feasible.
 Proposed methods must be appropriate to the type of research.
 Research Design

 A good research proposal should discuss the type of research

design to be used.
 These could be exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, case study,
hypothesis testing and such like - include references for methods.
 It is important to justify the chosen design for the proposed study
by showing how it fits into the intended task..
 Data Sources

 Indicate where the data will be sourced from

 Involves primary and secondary data.
 Primary data is collected directly from respondents while secondary
data is collected from documented data sources.
 Sampling Techniques

 Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn.

 State the sample size
 Sample selection methods and procedures
 Data Collection Methods

 Give an outline of how research data will be collected and

administered.
 The data collection instrument(s) is/are identified, defined and
relevance discussed.
 Sometimes pre-testing of the instrument(s) may be necessary.
 Data Analysis
 Justify data analysis tools and methods you intend to use.
 Explain how you intend to analyze and interpret your results.
 The methods can range from simple descriptive analysis to complex
multivariate analysis.
 The method of data analysis chosen depends on the type of
research.
 Time schedule
 This is a time budget for major activities which indicates how long it will
take to complete the study.
 Be realistic - do not squeeze activities into little time and do not
underestimate the time it will take to carry out activities.
 Use time scheduling tools such as the Gantt or PERT Charts.
 It enables the researcher to assess the feasibility of conducting a study
within the given time limits.
 Helps the researcher to stay on schedule as the research progresses.
 Budget
 This is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research
and their approximate cost.
 Almost every research proposal requires a budget.
 It must be worked out so that it is within the available funds.
 Provide as much detail as possible.
 Conclusion
• Summarize the key points of the discussion above
• Focus on the actual discussion points and not the section headings
• Ensure that you leave a lasting impression in the mind of the reader
• A good proposal is one with a clear concise conclusion which will
make the reader want to see the final work
• No proposal is complete without a conclusion
 References
 Every academic document should have a list of all cited references,
including those in Tables and Figure captions.
 Use the Harvard Style of Referencing.
 Appendices such as questionnaires, maps, sample data or
mathematical derivations should be included at the end.