UNIT I

Introduction: Definition and scope of CAD/CAM- Computers in industrial manufacturing, design

process Computer Aided Design (CAD)-Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)- Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) Graphics: Data base for graphic modeling-transformation geometry-3D
transformations – Clipping-hidden line removal- Colour-shading.
INTRODUCTION:
In today’s global competition, industries cannot survive unless they introduce new products or existing
ones with:
– Better quality
– Lower cost
– Shorter lead time
Computer aided design (CAD): CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in
creation, modification, analysis and optimization

Computer aided machining (CAM): CAM can be defined as the use of computer systems to plan,
manage and control a manufacturing plant through either direct or indirect computer interface with the
plant’s production resources.

 3D CAD data can be read by CAM software which takes 3D data & CNC machine parameters
as inputs and delivers a tool path that cuts metal as per the part designs.
 The tool path so generated can be simulated on the screen to evaluate tool gauging so that the
machining run is perfect.
Computer Integrated manufacturing (CIM):
• Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is manufacturing supported by computers. It is
the total integration of Computer Aided Design / Manufacturing and also other business
operations and databases.
• Definition: CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise by using integrated
systems and data communication coupled with new managerial philosophies that improve
organizational and personnel efficiency.
• The CIM concept is that all the operations related to the production function in an
integrated computer system to assist, enhance and /or automate the operations.
• The computer system is spread throughout the firm, touching all the activities that support
manufacturing.
• In this integrated computer system, the output of one activity serves as the input to the next
activity, through the chain of events that starts with the sales order and finishes with
shipment of the product.

Figure 1 Scope of CAD/CAM and CIM

 Figure 2 Computerized elements of CIM system

• Customer orders are initial y entered by the company‟s sales force into a
computerized order-entry system. The orders contain the specifications
describing the product.
• The specifications serves as input to the design
• New products are designed on a CAD system. The components that comprise
product are designed, the BOM is complied, and assembly dwgs are prepared.
• The output of design serves as input to mfg. engg, where process planning,
tool design and similar activities are accomplished to prepare for production
• The output of mfg. engg. Provides input to the PPC, where MRP and
scheduling is performed
Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE):
• Computer-aided Engineering analysis (often referred to as CAE) is the
application of computer software in engineering to analyze the robustness and
performance of components and assemblies.
• It encompasses simulation, validation and optimization of products and
manufacturing tools.
• Parts and assemblies designed in CAD software can be „analyzed‟ for their
field performances right on the computer screen.
• Most of the olden-day destructive testing methods have found mathematical
replacements in the modern-day CAE software.
• CAE software delivers results that help analyzing designs.
• Analysis tools are available for
• static stress-strain,
• deflection,
• thermal,
• flow,
• motion,
• vibration
• This allows designers to “design-right-the-first-time”.
• Use of computer systems to analyze CAD geometry
• Allows designer to simulate and study how the product will behave, allowing
for optimization
• Finite-element method (FEM)
 • Divides model into interconnected elements
• Solves continuous field problems
Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing):

Figure 3 Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing)

• Driven by customers and markets which demand the product

• In some cases, design functions are performed by the customer and the
product is manufactured by a different firm.
• In other cases, design and manufacturing is accomplished by the same firm
1. The product cycle begins with a concept, an idea of a product.
2. This concept refined, analyzed, improved and translated into a plan for the
product through the design engineering process.
3. The plan is documented by drafting a set of engineering drawings showing how
the product is made and providing a set of specifications indicating how the
product should perform
4. A process plan is formulated which specifies sequence of production operations
required to make the product.
5. New equipment and tools sometimes be acquired to produce the new product.
6. Scheduling provides a plan that commits the company to manufacture of certain
quantities of the product by certain dates.
7. Once all these plans are formulated product goes into production.
8. It is followed by quality testing and delivery to the customer.
Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid:
 Computer aided design and computer automated drafting are utilized in
conceptualization, design and documentation of the product.
 Computers are used in process planning and scheduling to perform these functions
more efficiently.
 Computers are used in production to monitor and control the manufacturing
operations.
 In quality control, computer are used to perform inspections and performance
tests on the product and its components
 Figure 4 Product Cycle revised with CAD/CAM overlaid
Mathematical Model for product life cycle:
 Let T1 be the time required to produce 1 unit of product.
 This includes sum of individual process times plus time to assemble,
inspect and package a single product.
 T2 be time associated with planning and setting for each batch of
production
 This include the ordering of raw materials by purchasing department,
time required in production planning to schedule the batch, setup times
for each operation etc.
 T3 be the time required for designing the product and for all other
activities that are accomplished once for each different product.
 These include process planning, cost estimating and pricing, building of
special tools and fixtures.
 B be the number of batches produced throughout the product life cycle.
 Q be the number of units produced in each batch.
 The aggregate time spent on the product throughout its life cycle can be

The average time spent on each unit of product during its life cycle.

 In mass and batch production the T2 and T3 terms can be spread over a
large number of units.
 Their relative values, therefore becomes less important as the production
quantities increase. The T1 term becomes most important term.
 In job shop manufacturing, the T2 and T3 terms can become significant
because the quantities are so low.
Relationship between CAD/CAM & Automation:
• The goal of CAD/CAM and automation is to reduce the various time elements
in product life cycle.
• With this there is increase in productivity and improve in standard of living.
• The automation technology is concerned with reducing the T1 and T2
Elements, with emphasize on the unit production cost (T1).
• The CAD/CAM technology is concerned with all the three terms but is
 perhaps focused on the T3 and T2 terms in the life cycle model.
• CAD/CAM has made important contribution towards integrating the functions
of design and manufacturing
The manufacturing database from CAD/CAM:
In the conventional manufacturing cycle practiced for so many years in industry,
• Engineering drawings were Prepared by design draftsman and then used by
manufacturing engineer to prepare process plan (“Route Sheet”)
• The activities involved in the designing the product were separated from the
activities associated with process planning.
• Essentially a two-step procedure was employed.
• This was both time consuming and involved duplication of efforts by design
and manufacturing personnel
• In an integrated CAD/CAM system, a direct link is established between
product design and manufacturing.
• It is goal of CAD/CAM not only to automate certain design phases of design
and certain phases of mfg., but also to automate the transition from design to
manufacturing.
• Computer- based systems have been developed which create much of the data
and documentation required to plan and manage the mfg. operations for the
product.
• The manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base.
• It includes all the data on the product generated during design (geometry data,
BOM , material specifications) as well as additional data required for mfg.,
much of which based on the product design

Fig 5. The manufacturing database from CAD/CAM

Benefits of CAD:
• Productivity improvement in Design
• Shorter lead times
• Reduced engineering personnel requirement
• Customer modifications are easier to make
• Rapid response of the design analysis
• Improved accuracy of design
• Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
• Provide better functional analysis to reduce prototype testing
• Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
• Assistance in preparation of documentation
• Minimized transcription errors
• Designs have more standardization
• Fewer errors in NC part programming
• Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among engineers,
designers, drafters, management and different project groups.
Computer Graphics Software:
• The graphic software is the collection of programs written to make it
convenient for user to operate the computer graphics system.
• It includes programs to generate images on the CRT screen, to manipulate the
images, and to accomplish various types interaction between the user and the
system.
• Some other programs for implementing specialized functions of CAD/CAM
are
1. Design analysis programs (FEA & kinematic simulation)
2. Manufacturing planning programs (e.g. automated process planning and
numerical control part programming )
Ground rules in Designing Software:
1. Simplicity : The graphics software should be easy to use
2. Consistency: The package should operate in a consistent and predictable way
to the user
3. Completeness: There should be no inconvenient omissions in the set of
graphics function
4. Robustness : The graphics system should be tolerant of minor instances of
misuse by the operator
5. Performance: Within limitations imposed by the system hardware, the
performance should be exploited as much as possible by software. Graphics
program should be efficient and speed of response should be fast and
consistent.
6. Economy: Graphics programs should not be so large or expensive as to make
their use prohibitive
The software configuration of a graphics system:
In the operation of the graphics system by the user, a variety of activities take place,
which can be divided into three types
• Interact with the graphics terminal to create and alter images on the screen
• Construct a model of something physical out of the images on the screen. The
models are sometimes called as application models
• Enter the model into computer memory and/or secondary storage.
Graphics software:
The graphics software can be divided into three modules
• The graphics package
• The application program
 • The application data base

Application Program
• It controls the storage of data into and retrieves data out of application
database
• The application program is driven by the user through the graphics package
• The application program is implemented by the user to construct the model of
a physical entity whose image to be viewed on the graphics screen.
• Application programs are written for particular problem areas.
• Problem areas in engineering design would include arch, construction, mech.
Components, ext, chem, aerospace.
• Problem areas other than deign include flight simulators, graphical display of
data, mathematical analysis, and even artwork
Graphics Package
• The graphics package is the software support between the user and the
graphics terminal.
• It manages the graphical interaction between the user and the system
• It also serves as a s/w support between the user and the application software
• The graphics package consist of input subroutines and output subroutines
• The input subroutine accepts the input commands and data from the user and
forward them to the application program
• The output subroutines control the display terminal (or other output device)
and converts the application models into 2D or 3D graphics pictures.
Application data base
• The database contains mathematical, numerical and logical definitions of the
application models, such as electronic ckts, mechanical components,
automobile bodies, and so forth.
• It also contains alphanumeric information associated with the models, such as
BOM, mass properties and other data.
• The contents of the data base can be readily displayed on the CRT or plotted
out in hard copy form.
Functions of a Graphics package:
• Generation of graphics elements
• Transformations
• Display control and windowing function
• Segmenting functions
• User input functions
Generation of graphics elements
• A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic image entity such as a dot
(or point), line segment, circle, and so forth
• The collection of elements in the system could also include alphanumeric
characters and special symbols
• There is often a special hardware component in the graphics system associated
with the display of many of the elements.
• This speeds up the process of generating the element
• The user can construct the application model out of collection of elements
 • The term primitive is used in reference to the graphics element
• E.g. sphere, cube, or cylinder
• In 3D wire frame models and solid modelling, primitives are used as building
blocks.
Transformations
• Transformations are used to change the image on the display screen
• Transformations are applied to graphics elements in order to aid the user in
constructing an application model
• It includes enlargement and reduction of the image by a process called scaling,
repositioning the image or translation, and rotation.
Display control and windowing
• This provides the user with the ability to view the image from the desired
angle and at the desired magnification
• Another aspect of display control is hidden line removal.
Segmenting function
• Segmenting provides user with the capability to selectively replace, delete or
otherwise modify portions of the image.
• The term segment refers to a particular portion of the image which has been
identified for the purpose of modifying it.
• Storage type CRT is unsuited to segmenting function.
User input output functions
• User input functions constitute a critical set of functions in the graphics
package because they permit the operator to enter commands or data to the
system.
• The entry is accomplished by means of operator input devices.
Constructing the geometry:
• The use of graphics elements
• Defining the graphics elements
• Editing the geometry
The use of graphics elements
 The graphics system accomplishes the definition of the model by constructing it
out of graphics elements
 These elements are called by the user during the construction process and added
one by one, to create the model
 There are several aspects about this construction process.
1. Each new element is being called but before it is added to the model, the user
can specify its size, its position and orientation.
These specifications are necessary to form the model to proper shape and size For
this purpose various transformations are utilized
2. Graphics element can be subtracted as well as added
Another way of saying this is that the model can be formed out of negative
elements as well as positive elements.

3. A third feature available during model building is the capability to group

several elements together into units which are sometimes called cells
A cell in this context, refers to a combination of elements which can be called
 to use anywhere in the model e.g. a bolt is to be used in several places in
mechanical assembly
Define the graphics elements
• The user has variety of ways to call a particular graphic element and position it
on the geometric model
• Points, lines, arcs , circles can be defined in various ways through interaction
with the ICG system
• E.g. point can be defined simply by x, y and z coordinates. A polygon would
be defined as an ordered set of points representing the corners of the polygon
Editing the geometry
• A CAD provides system provides editing capabilities to make corrections and
adjustments in the geometric model
• When developing the model, the user must be able to delete, move, copy and
rotate the components of the model.
• The editing involves selecting the particular portion of the model, and
executing the appropriate command
Editing features in CAD
1. Move an item. This involves the translation of item from one place to
another
2. Duplication an item at another location. The copy function is similar to
move function except it preserves a copy of an item at its original location
3. Rotate an object. This is the rotation transformation, in which the item is
rotated through specified angle from its original orientation
4. Mirror an item. This crates a mirror image of an item about a specified
plane.
5. Delete an item. This causes selected segment of the model to be removed
from the screen and from the database.
6. Trim an line or other component
7. Scale an item
 The method of selecting the segment of the model varies from system to system
1. With cursor control common method is for a rectangle to be formed on the CRT
screen around the model segment. The rectangle is defines by entering the upper
left and lower right corners of the rectangle
2. It involves light pen to be placed over the component t be selected
 The computer must some how show indicate to the user which portion of the
model has been selected
 This includes placing mark on the segment, making segment brighter than the rest
of the image, and making the segment blink.
Transformations
• 2-D Transformations
• 3-D Transformations
Two-dimensional Transformations
• To locate a point in a two-axis Cartesian system, the x and y coordinates are
specified.
• These coordinate can be treated together as a 1 x 2 matrix : (x, y), e.g. the
matrix (1,4) would be interpreted to be point which is 1 unit from the origin in
the x-direction and 4 units from the origin in the y-direction.
• This method of representation can be extended further to define a line as a
2 x 2 matrix by giving x and y coordinates of the two end points of the line.
The notation would be,