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 The Union
Parliament
 Federal Setup in India – India follows a federal structure where powers are divided between the central and state
governments, with the Union Legislature (Parliament) at the national level.

Lok Sabha - Composition & Term – It consists of a maximum of 552 members (530 from states, 20 from UTs, and 2 nominated
Anglo-Indians if needed). The term is 5 years, but it can be dissolved earlier.

Qualifications for Lok Sabha Membership – A candidate must be at least 25 years old, an Indian citizen, and must not
hold an office of profit under the government.

Parliamentary Procedures –
Sessions – Three sessions: Budget Session (Feb-May), Monsoon Session (July-Sept), Winter Session (Nov-Dec).
Quorum – 1/10th of the total members must be present to conduct proceedings.
Question Hour – The first hour of a sitting for questioning ministers.
Adjournment – A temporary suspension of the sitting.
No-Confidence Motion – If passed, the government must resign.

Speaker of Lok Sabha – Elected by Lok Sabha members, controls debates, maintains order, and casts a vote in case of a
tie.

Rajya Sabha - Composition & Term – It has 250 members (238 elected by State Legislative Assemblies & 12 nominated by the
President). It is a permanent house, with 1/3rd members retiring every 2 years.

Qualifications for Rajya Sabha Membership – A candidate must be at least 30 years old, an Indian citizen, and must not
hold an office of profit.

Election of Rajya Sabha Members – Elected indirectly by members of State Legislative Assemblies through
proportional representation by single transferable vote.
 Presiding Officer of Rajya Sabha – The Vice President of India is the ex-officio Chairman, while the Deputy
Chairman is elected by the Rajya Sabha members.

Legislative Powers of Parliament – Can make laws on subjects in the Union List (only Parliament), Concurrent
List (both Parliament & State Legislatures), and Residuary subjects (not in any list).

Financial Powers of Parliament – Lok Sabha controls finances; no money bill can be introduced in Rajya Sabha.
Budget, taxation, and expenditure must be approved by Parliament.

Judicial Powers of Parliament – Can impeach the President, remove judges of the Supreme Court & High Court,
and punish for breach of parliamentary privileges.

Electoral Powers of Parliament – Elects the President, Vice President, and indirectly influences the selection
of judges and other officials.

Amendment Powers of Parliament – Can amend the Constitution by passing bills with a special majority and, in
some cases, with ratification by states.

Exclusive Powers of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha –

Lok Sabha – Controls finances, introduces money bills, and initiates a no-confidence motion.
Rajya Sabha – Cannot be dissolved, can delay ordinary bills for 6 months, and can declare a State List subject
as a national importance matter (Article 249).
The President
And The Vice
President
(a) The President of India
Qualifications for Election – The candidate must be:
A citizen of India, At least 35 years old, Qualified to be a member of Lok Sabha, Must not hold an office of profit
under the government.

Electoral College (Indirect Election) – The President is elected indirectly by an Electoral College consisting of:
Elected members of Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha, Elected members of State Legislative Assemblies.

Reason for Indirect Election – Ensures stability, prevents the President from becoming too powerful, and maintains the
parliamentary system of government.
Term of Office – The President serves a 5-year term but can be re-elected any number of times.

Impeachment Procedure –
The President can be removed for violation of the Constitution, The process begins in either house of Parliament and
requires a two-thirds majority in both houses.

Executive Powers –
Head of the Union Executive and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, Appoints Prime Minister, Council of
Ministers, Governors, Chief Justice, and other judges.

Legislative Powers –
Summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament, Gives assent to bills or sends them back for reconsideration (except
Money Bills). Can issue ordinances when Parliament is not in session.
Financial Powers –
No money bill can be introduced without the President’s approval, Lays the annual budget before Parliament.

Judicial Powers –
Appoints Chief Justice and other Supreme Court & High Court judges, Can grant pardons, reprieves, respites, and
remissions (Article 72).

Discretionary Powers –
Can return a bill for reconsideration (except a Money Bill), Can use judgment when no party has a clear majority.

Emergency Powers –
National Emergency (Article 352) – In case of war or rebellion, State Emergency (President’s Rule) (Article 356) – If a
state fails to function properly, Financial Emergency (Article 360) – If India’s financial stability is threatened.

(b) The Vice-President of India

Qualifications for Election – The candidate must be:
A citizen of India, At least 35 years old, Qualified to be a Rajya Sabha member, Must not hold an office of profit.

Election Process –
Elected by both Houses of Parliament through an indirect election, Members of State Legislatures do not participate.

Term of Office – 5 years, but can be re-elected.

Powers & Functions –

Ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha (but only votes in case of a tie), Acts as President in case of vacancy due to death,
resignation, or removal until a new President is elected.
 Prime
Minister and
Council of
Ministers
Appointment of the Prime Minister
The President appoints the Prime Minister, The leader of the majority party in Lok Sabha is invited to form the
government, In case of a hung Parliament, the President appoints a leader who can prove a majority in Lok Sabha.

Formation of the Council of Ministers

The Prime Minister selects ministers, and the President appoints them on the PM’s advice and it Includes three
categories:
Cabinet Ministers – Senior ministers heading key ministries (e.g., Home, Defence, Finance), Ministers of State – Assist
Cabinet Ministers; may have independent charge, Deputy Ministers – Assist ministers in administration.

Tenure of the Council of Ministers

Ministers serve as long as they enjoy the confidence of Lok Sabha, If a no-confidence motion is passed in Lok Sabha,
the entire Council of Ministers must resign.

Functions of the Council of Ministers

Policy Making – Formulates domestic and foreign policies.
Administrative Functions – Implements laws, maintains law and order, and oversees governance.
Legislative Functions – Introduces bills, recommends ordinances, and ensures smooth functioning of Parliament.
Financial Functions – Prepares and presents the Union Budget, levies taxes, and manages financial policies.
Emergency Functions – Advises the President during emergencies (National, State, Financial).

Prime Minister – Position & Powers

Head of the Government - The real executive authority (while the President is the constitutional head).
 Leader of Lok Sabha - Decides the agenda of Parliament and represents the government in Lok Sabha.

Head of the Council of Ministers - Can reshuffle or dismiss ministers.

Advisor to the President - The President acts on the advice of the PM, including in appointments (Governors, Judges,
Ambassadors).

Key Role in Foreign Affairs - Represents India in international matters, treaties, and agreements.

Collective Responsibility of the Cabinet

The entire Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha, If Lok Sabha passes a no-confidence motion,
the entire Council must resign.

Individual Responsibility of Ministers

Each minister is responsible for their department’s performance, The PM can ask a minister to resign if found
incompetent or corrupt.

Difference Between the Cabinet & the Council of Ministers

Cabinet - consists of Senior ministers only and it’s the Final decision-making body which is Smaller in size as compared
to the Council of Ministers and hold the authority of policy making

Council of Ministers - consists All ministers (Cabinet, Ministers of State, Deputy Ministers) and Assists the Cabinet,
larger in size as compared to cabinet and implements the policies made by the cabinet
The Supreme
Court
Composition of the Supreme Court
Chief Justice of India (CJI) + 34 other judges, Parliament can increase the number of judges if needed.

Qualifications of Judges
Must be a citizen of India, Must have at least 5 years of experience as a High Court judge or, Must have at least
10 years of experience as an advocate in a High Court or Must be a distinguished jurist in the President’s
opinion.

Appointment of Judges
The President appoints the Chief Justice & other judges, The Collegium System (CJI + senior Supreme Court
judges) recommends appointments.

Independence of Judiciary
Judges have security of tenure (cannot be removed except by impeachment), No interference by Executive or
Legislature in judicial decisions, Judges’ salaries & allowances are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India,
Separation of powers ensures judiciary remains free from political influence.

Jurisdiction & Functions of the Supreme Court

Original Jurisdiction- Hears disputes directly, such as: Between Union & States. Between two or more States.
Cases involving violation of Fundamental Rights.

Appellate Jurisdiction - Hears appeals against High Court decisions in civil, criminal, and constitutional cases.
 Advisory Jurisdiction- The President can seek advice from the Supreme Court on legal or constitutional
matters.

Revisory Jurisdiction- The Supreme Court can review its own judgments to correct mistakes.

Judicial Review - Declares laws unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution, Ensures laws & government
actions follow constitutional principles.

Court of Record- Supreme Court’s judgments serve as precedents for all other courts, It can punish for
contempt of court.

Enforcement of Fundamental Rights

Supreme Court can issue writs (special orders) to protect Fundamental Rights:
Habeas Corpus – Prevents illegal detention.
Mandamus – Orders an official to perform their duty.
Prohibition – Stops lower courts from exceeding jurisdiction.
Certiorari – Transfers a case from a lower court to the Supreme Court.
Quo Warranto – Prevents an illegal occupation of a public office.
 The High
Courts and
Subordinate
Courts
High Court - Each state (or group of states/UTs) has a High Court

Composition - Chief Justice + Other Judges (number varies by state).

Qualifications of High Court Judges- Must be a citizen of India, Must have at least 10 years of experience as an
advocate in a High Court or, Must have at least 10 years of experience as a judicial officer in India.

Appointment of High Court Judges

President appoints High Court judges, The Governor, Chief Justice of India, and Chief Justice of the High Court
are consulted.

Jurisdiction & Functions of High Court

Original Jurisdiction- Cases related to fundamental rights violations, Election disputes of MPs and MLAs, Cases
involving higher officials (e.g., state government employees).

Appellate Jurisdiction- Hears appeals against lower court decisions in civil & criminal cases.

Revisory Jurisdiction- Can review decisions of lower courts to prevent injustice.

Judicial Review- Can strike down unconstitutional laws made by the state legislature.

Court of Record- Its judgments are binding precedents for lower courts, Can punish for contempt of court.

Enforcement of Fundamental Rights & Writs Can issue writs (same as the Supreme Court): Habeas Corpus,
Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto.
 Subordinate Courts : Controlled by High Courts- Two types: Civil Courts (District Judge) & Criminal Courts
(Sessions Judge).

District Judge vs. Sessions Judge

Court of District Judge - Civil Cases (property disputes, contracts, wills), Presided by District Judge, Appeals
from lower civil courts, No death sentence

Sessions Court - Criminal Cases (murder, theft, assault), Presided by Sessions Judge, Appeals from lower
criminal courts, Can give the death penalty

Lok Adalats – Meaning & Advantages

Meaning: "People’s Court", set up to provide speedy and cost-effective justice, Cases settled mutually without
lengthy trials.

Advantages: No Court Fees – No need to pay legal fees, Speedy Resolution – Cases solved quickly, Binding
Decision – Decisions are final, no appeal allowed, No Lawyer Needed – People can represent themselves.
history
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 First War of
Independence
Political Causes
Doctrine of Lapse – British annexed princely states if the ruler died without a natural heir (e.g., Jhansi, Satara,
Nagpur).
Absentee Sovereignty – India was ruled from England, leading to resentment.
Annexation of Awadh (1856) – British removed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, angering both nobles and soldiers.

Socio-Religious Causes
Interference in Religion – British social reforms (abolition of Sati, Widow Remarriage Act) were seen as an attack on
Indian traditions.
Missionary Activities – Spread of Christianity created fear among Hindus and Muslims.
Racial Discrimination – British officials treated Indians as inferior.

Economic Causes
Heavy Taxation – High land revenue system burdened farmers.
Destruction of Handicrafts – British policies led to loss of traditional industries.
Unemployment – Indian artisans suffered due to cheap British machine-made goods.

Military Causes
Discontent among Sepoys – Lower salaries and lack of promotions for Indian soldiers.
General Service Enlistment Act (1856) – Forced sepoys to serve overseas, violating religious beliefs.
Enfield Rifle Incident – Rumor that cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat hurt religious sentiments.

Events of the Revolt

March 1857 – Mangal Pandey revolts at Barrackpore.
May 10, 1857 – Sepoys revolt in Meerut, march to Delhi, and declare Bahadur Shah Zafar as emperor.
Revolt spreads – Key leaders include Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nana Saheb (Kanpur), Tantia Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal
(Awadh).
British suppression – Delhi recaptured in September 1857, revolt crushed by 1858
Consequences of the Revolt

End of Mughal Rule

Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled to Rangoon.
Mughal rule ended permanently.

End of Company Rule

Government of India Act, 1858 – British Crown took direct control of India.
Governor-General renamed as Viceroy (first Viceroy – Lord Canning).

Changes in Army
Ratio of British to Indian soldiers increased.
Indian sepoys were divided (recruitment from loyal regions like Punjab and Gorkhas).

Religious Tolerance
British promised non-interference in Indian religions.

Divide and Rule Policy

Muslims were blamed for the revolt; British encouraged Hindu-Muslim divisions.

Economic Exploitation Continued

India's wealth continued to be drained to Britain.
 Growth of
Nationalism
Factors Leading to the Growth of Nationalism
Economic Exploitation
Drain of Wealth – British policies led to the constant transfer of Indian wealth to Britain (as highlighted by Dadabhai
Naoroji).
Destruction of Handicrafts – Indian artisans suffered due to the import of British machine-made goods.
High Revenue Taxes – Peasants suffered under heavy taxation and the Zamindari system.
Repressive Colonial Policies
Racial Discrimination – Indians were treated as inferior to British officials.
Vernacular Press Act (1878) – Restricted Indian newspapers from criticizing British policies.
Arms Act (1878) – Prohibited Indians from possessing weapons without permission.
Socio-Religious Reform Movements
Raja Rammohan Roy – Founded the Brahmo Samaj, opposed Sati and caste discrimination, promoted women's education.
Jyotiba Phule – Worked for the upliftment of lower castes and women's education, founded the Satyashodhak Samaj.
Role of the Press
Newspapers played a crucial role in spreading nationalist ideas and exposing British exploitation. Some important
newspapers and their publishers:
The Hindu – Founded by G. Subramania Iyer.
Amrita Bazar Patrika – Founded by Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh.
Kesari (Marathi) & Mahratta (English) – Founded by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
The Bengali – Founded by Surendranath Banerjee.
Foundation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
Precursors of the INC
East India Association (1866) – Founded by Dadabhai Naoroji, aimed at educating the British about Indian issues.
Indian National Association (1876) – Founded by Surendranath Banerjee, worked for political rights and Indian unity.
Formation of the INC (1885)
Founded by A.O. Hume, a retired British civil servant, to provide a platform for Indian political discussions.
First Session (1885) – Held in Bombay, presided by W.C. Bonnerjee.
Second Session (1886) – Held in Calcutta, presided by Dadabhai Naoroji.
Immediate Objectives of the INC
Promote unity among Indians across different regions and communities.
Place demands before the British government through peaceful methods.
Develop political awareness among Indians.
First Phase
Of Indian
National
Movement
Objectives of the Early Nationalists (Moderates)
Constitutional and Peaceful Reforms – Sought gradual reforms within British rule.
Indianization of Civil Services – Demanded more Indian participation in governance.
Protection of Indian Industries – Opposed British economic policies harming Indian industries.
Expansion of Education – Advocated for modern education to empower Indians.
Freedom of Speech & Press – Demanded removal of restrictions like the Vernacular Press Act (1878).
Methods of Struggle Used by Early Nationalists
Petitions and Memorandums – Sent requests to the British government to highlight Indian grievances.
Public Meetings – Organized speeches and discussions to raise awareness among Indians.
Press and Newspapers – Used newspapers to criticize British policies and spread nationalist ideas.
Resolutions in the British Parliament – Indian leaders influenced British MPs to discuss Indian issues.
Contributions of Key Leaders
Dadabhai Naoroji
Economic Drain Theory – Explained how British rule drained India’s wealth in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in
India.
First Indian in the British Parliament – Worked to represent Indian interests in Britain.
Surendranath Banerjee
Founded the Indian National Association (1876) – Worked for political rights and unity among Indians.
Led Protests Against the Partition of Bengal (1905) – Played a key role in anti-British movements.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Served as a Mentor to Mahatma Gandhi – Guided Gandhi on moderate political methods.
Advocated for Education & Social Reforms – Founded the Servants of India Society to promote education and social
upliftment.
SECOND Phase
Of Indian
National
Movement
Partition of Bengal (1905)
Announced by Lord Curzon on 16 October 1905.
Official Reason: Better administration by dividing Bengal into Eastern Bengal & Assam and Western Bengal.
Nationalist Perspective: Seen as a divide and rule policy to weaken Hindu-Muslim unity and suppress nationalism.
Surat Split (1907)
Occurred at the Surat session of INC due to conflicts between the Moderates and Radicals (Extremists).
Moderates (led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale) wanted gradual reforms through petitions.
Radicals (led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai) demanded direct action against British
rule.
Split weakened the national movement temporarily.
Objectives of the Radicals (Extremists)
Swaraj (Complete Independence).
Boycott of British goods & services.
Swadeshi Movement – Promote Indian industries.
Use of Mass Agitation and public protests.
Methods of Struggle of the Radicals
Passive Resistance – Non-cooperation with British policies.
Boycott of British Goods – Promoted indigenous products.
National Education – Started Indian-owned schools and colleges.
Promotion of Self-Reliance – Encouraged local industries.
Contributions of Key Leaders
Started Two Newspapers - Kesari (Marathi) & Mahratta (English) to spread nationalist ideas and oppose British rule.
Started Public Ganesh Festival & Shivaji Jayanti to unite people.
Bipin Chandra Pal
Promoted Swadeshi and National Education through speeches.
Edited newspapers like New India and Bande Mataram to spread nationalism.
Lala Lajpat Rai
Led protests against the Simon Commission in 1928, later died due to police lathi charge.
Founded the National College in Lahore to promote education.
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)
Founded in Dhaka in 1906 by Nawab Salimullah and Aga Khan.
Factors leading to formation:
Partition of Bengal increased communal tensions.
British encouragement to form a Muslim political party.
Desire to protect Muslim interests in politics.
Objectives of the Muslim League:
Loyalty to the British government.
Safeguard Muslim political rights.
Promote unity among Indian Muslims.
Lucknow Pact (1916) - Significance
INC and Muslim League came together to demand self-rule from Britain.
First time Hindus & Muslims presented a joint political front.
Marked the beginning of Hindu-Muslim unity in the national movement.
 Mahatma
Gandhi and
the National
Movement
Causes of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Khilafat Movement (1919)- The Ottoman Caliph was the spiritual leader of Muslims worldwide, After World War I, the
British and their allies dismantled the Ottoman Empire, reducing the Caliph’s power, Indian Muslims launched the
Khilafat Movement to demand the restoration of the Caliph’s authority, Gandhi supported this movement to unite
Hindus and Muslims in the freedom struggle.
Rowlatt Act (1919) - Passed by the British to suppress nationalist activities, Allowed arrest without trial and
imprisonment without due process, Indians saw it as an attack on civil rights, leading to widespread protests,
Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919) - A peaceful protest was held in Amritsar against the Rowlatt Act.
General Reginald Dyer ordered troops to fire on the unarmed crowd. More than 1,000 people were killed or
injured in the brutal attack. The massacre shocked the nation and led to massive anger against British rule.
Programme of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Boycott of British goods, schools, courts, and elections, Promotion of Swadeshi (use of Indian products),
Resignation of government officials and lawyers, Peaceful protests and non-violent resistance.
Suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922) – Protest turned violent when a mob set a police station on fire, killing 22
policemen, Gandhi called off the movement as he did not support violence.
Impact of the Non-Cooperation Movement
Increased national unity against the British, Weakened British control as people stopped cooperating, Gandhi
emerged as the national leader of the independence movement, Prepared India for future mass movements.
Causes of the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
Simon Commission (1927) – No Indian members in the commission; led to mass protests.
Lahore Session of 1929 – Congress declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence).
Dandi March (Salt March) - 1930
Gandhi marched 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi and Broke the salt law by making salt from seawater, inspiring mass
protests.
Programme of the Civil Disobedience Movement
Defiance of British laws (Salt Law, Land Revenue, Forest Laws), Boycott of foreign cloth and refusal to pay taxes,
Picketing liquor shops and government institutions.
Impact of the Civil Disobedience Movement
Forced the British to negotiate with Congress, Led to mass arrests, including Gandhi and Nehru, Strengthened the demand
for complete independence
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)
Gandhi agreed to end the movement in exchange for the release of political prisoners, Congress participated in the
Second Round Table Conference.
Second Round Table Conference (1931)
Held in London, but failed due to British refusal to grant full independence, Gandhi returned disappointed and resumed
protests.
Causes of the Quit India Movement (1942)
Failure of the Cripps Mission (1942) – British refused to grant immediate independence, Japanese Threat – Fear of Japanese
invasion during World War II.
Quit India Resolution (8 August 1942)
Launched at Bombay session of Congress, Gandhi gave the slogan "Do or Die", Demanded immediate British withdrawal from
India.
Government Response to Quit India Movement
Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and other leaders were arrested, Mass protests, strikes, and attacks on government buildings,
Brutal British suppression – firing, arrests, and torture.
Significance of the Quit India Movement
Final mass movement before independence, Weakened British control as people stopped cooperating, Created national
unity and global support for India's independence.
Outcome of the Movements
India became ungovernable for the British, All movements laid the foundation for independence in 1947.
Forward Bloc
and the INA
Forward Bloc (1939) – Objectives

Founded by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1939 after resigning from Congress due to ideological differences.
Aimed at uniting all radical and socialist forces to achieve complete independence.
Advocated for direct action against British rule instead of constitutional methods.
Sought immediate and complete freedom rather than dominion status.
Promoted socialist policies for economic equality and national reconstruction.

Indian National Army (INA) – Objectives & Contributions

Objectives of INA

Formed in 1942 by Rash Behari Bose and later led by Subhas Chandra Bose.
Liberate India from British rule through armed struggle.
Unite Indians (especially POWs and expatriates) into a strong military force.
Mobilize Indian civilians in Southeast Asia for active participation in the freedom movement.
Establish a Provisional Government of Free India in exile.

Contributions of Subhas Chandra Bose & INA

Gave the famous slogan "Dilli Chalo" (March to Delhi) to inspire soldiers.
INA fought alongside Japanese forces against the British in Burma and Northeast India.
Created the Rani Jhansi Regiment, a women’s combat force led by Captain Lakshmi Sehgal.
Established the Provisional Government of Free India in Singapore (1943).
INA’s struggle inspired revolts within the British Indian Army, weakening British control.
Independence
and Partition
of India
Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) – Key Clauses
Proposed a federal structure with three groups: Group A (Hindu-majority provinces), Group B (Muslim-
majority provinces), Group C (Bengal and Assam)
Provinces were given autonomy, but a weak central government would handle defense, foreign affairs, and
communication.
A Constituent Assembly would draft the Indian Constitution.
India would remain united but with significant autonomy for provinces.
Rejected by the Muslim League, which insisted on a separate Pakistan.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947) – Key Clauses & Acceptance

Proposed partition of India into two independent nations – India and Pakistan.
Bengal and Punjab were to be divided based on religious majorities.
Sindh, North west frontier province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), and Baluchistan could join India or Pakistan
through a vote.
Princely states were given the choice to join either India or Pakistan.
India and Pakistan were to become independent by August 15, 1947.
Accepted by both Congress and Muslim League as a solution to communal violence.

Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947) – Key Clauses

Declared India and Pakistan as two independent dominions from August 15, 1947.
British rule in India ended, and all treaties with princely states were nullified.
Governor-Generals would be appointed for both India and Pakistan.
Princely states could choose to join India or Pakistan.
The British Parliament no longer had control over Indian affairs.
The First
World War
Causes of the War

Nationalism and Imperialism

Nationalist sentiments led to rivalries between European nations.
Imperialist expansion created tensions over colonies, especially between Britain, France, and Germany.

Armament Race (Militarism)

European nations engaged in a military buildup, increasing the risk of war.
Germany and Britain competed in a naval arms race.

Division of Europe (Alliance System)

Two military alliances emerged: Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy), Triple Entente (Britain,
France, Russia). These alliances turned regional conflicts into a global war.

Sarajevo Crisis (Immediate Cause – 1914)

Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (a
Serbian nationalist).
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war, leading to a chain reaction involving major European
powers.

Results of the War

Treaty of Versailles (1919)
Germany was held responsible for the war (War Guilt Clause), Forced to pay heavy reparations to Allied
nations, Lost its colonies and territories like Alsace-Lorraine (given to France), German military was
severely restricted.
Territorial Rearrangements
Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires were dismantled.
New nations like Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia were created.
Britain and France took over German and Ottoman colonies in Asia and Africa.

Formation of the League of Nations (1920)

Established to maintain world peace and prevent future wars.
Aimed to resolve disputes diplomatically instead of military conflict.
However, it failed to prevent World War II due to lack of enforcement power.
 Rise of
Dictatorship
Causes for the Rise of Fascism in Italy

Economic Crisis
Post-World War I inflation, unemployment, and food shortages led to widespread discontent.
Italy did not receive promised territories (Dalmatian coast, Fiume) after the war, leading to frustration (known as
the "Mutilated Victory").

Weakness of Democracy
Frequent changes in government and political instability made democracy unpopular.
Fear of a Communist revolution (like in Russia) led people to support a strong leader.

Rise of Benito Mussolini & the Fascist Party

Mussolini used propaganda, paramilitary groups (Blackshirts), and violent tactics to gain control.
In 1922, he led the March on Rome, forcing King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint him as Prime Minister.
By 1925, Mussolini had established a one-party dictatorship.

Causes for the Rise of Nazism in Germany

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Germany was humiliated and forced to pay heavy reparations.
Lost territories and colonies, leading to national resentment.

Economic Depression (1929)

The Great Depression led to hyperinflation, unemployment, and poverty.
The Weimar Republic failed to solve economic issues, leading people to seek a strong leader.
Weak Weimar Republic
The democratic government was seen as inefficient and corrupt.
Frequent political instability and rise of Communist movements created fear among Germans.

Rise of Adolf Hitler & the Nazi Party

Hitler promised to restore Germany’s lost glory and end economic hardship.
Used powerful propaganda, mass rallies, and the SA (Brownshirts) to crush opposition.
In 1933, he became Chancellor, and by 1934, he became the absolute dictator (Führer).

Comparative Study: Mussolini’s Fascism vs. Hitler’s Nazism

Mussolini’s Fascism (Italy) - leader : Benito Mussolini, Core Ideology : Extreme nationalism, militarism,
totalitarianism, Opposed democracy; established one-party rule, Used Blackshirts to suppress opposition,
Invaded Ethiopia (1935) and Albania (1939), No extreme racial policies

Hitler’s Nazism (Germany) - Leader : Adolf Hitler, Core Ideology : Extreme nationalism, militarism, racial
superiority (Anti-Semitism), Opposed democracy; created a dictatorship, Used Brownshirts (SA) & SS to eliminate
rivals, Annexed Austria (1938), Sudetenland (1938), invaded Poland (1939), Promoted Anti-Semitism, led to the
Holocaust
The Second
World War
Causes of World War II

Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles (1919)

The Treaty humiliated Germany, forcing it to: Accept the War Guilt Clause (Article 231), Pay heavy reparations, Lose
territories and colonies, Reduce its military strength, Italy and Japan, though part of the Allies in World War I, were
disappointed with their territorial gains.

Rise of Fascism and Nazism: Fascist Italy (Mussolini) and Nazi Germany (Hitler) sought to expand their territories
aggressively, Hitler wanted to - Unite all German-speaking people (Lebensraum – "Living Space"), Overturn the Treaty of
Versailles, Destroy Communism (opposed the USSR).

Policy of Appeasement
Britain and France followed a policy of appeasement, allowing Hitler to expand unchecked: 1936: Hitler remilitarized the
Rhineland, 1938: Germany annexed Austria (Anschluss), 1938: Munich Pact – Britain and France let Hitler take Sudetenland
(Czechoslovakia), hoping to prevent war, March 1939: Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia, breaking his promise.

Japanese Invasion of China (1937)

Japan wanted to dominate Asia, It invaded Manchuria (1931) and later China (1937), committing brutal war crimes (e.g.,
Nanjing Massacre), The League of Nations failed to stop Japanese aggression

Failure of the League of Nations

The League was weak and ineffective due to: Lack of an army, USA’s absence, Failure to stop aggression (Italy in Ethiopia,
Japan in China, Germany in Europe).

Hitler’s Invasion of Poland (1939)

1st September 1939 – Hitler invaded Poland using Blitzkrieg (Lightning War).
Britain and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.
Key Events
Attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) : 7th December 1941 – Japan launched a surprise attack on the US naval base at Pearl Harbor
(Hawaii), Reason – USA had imposed economic sanctions on Japan, Impact – The USA entered World War II on the side of the
Allies.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing (1945) : 6th August 1945 – USA dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima ("Little Boy"), 9th August
1945 – Another bomb was dropped on Nagasaki ("Fat Man").
Reason – To force Japan to surrender without a land invasion, Impact – Japan surrendered on 15th August 1945, ending
World War II.

Consequences of World War II

Defeat of Axis Powers : Germany surrendered (May 1945) – Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker, Italy surrendered
(1943) – Mussolini was overthrown and executed, Japan surrendered (August 1945) after the atomic bombings.

Formation of the United Nations (1945): The League of Nations had failed to prevent war, The United Nations (UN) was
formed on 24th October 1945 to ensure world peace and security.

Beginning of the Cold War (1947-1991) - The world was divided into two blocs: USA & Western Allies (Capitalist Bloc). USSR &
Communist nations (Communist Bloc).

This led to political, military, and ideological tensions, but no direct war occurred between the USA and USSR.
The United
Nations
 The United Nations (UN) was founded on 24th October 1945 after World War II to maintain international peace
and security. It replaced the League of Nations, which had failed to prevent another global conflict.

Objectives of the UN
The UN aims to: Maintain international peace and security by preventing conflicts and resolving disputes,
Develop friendly relations among nations based on equality and self-determination, Promote human rights and
fundamental freedoms for all, regardless of race, gender, or religion, Encourage international cooperation
in solving social, economic, and humanitarian issues, Act as a center for harmonizing actions of nations in
achieving common goals.

Composition and Functions of UN Organs

General Assembly - Composition: Includes all member nations, each having one vote, Meets once a year, but
emergency sessions can be held.
Functions: Discusses and recommends actions on global issues, Approves the UN budget and appoints the
Secretary-General, Elects non-permanent members of the Security Council.

Security Council - Composition: 15 members: 5 Permanent members (USA, UK, France, Russia, China) with veto
power, 10 Non-permanent members, elected for two years.
Functions: Maintains international peace and security, Can impose sanctions and authorize military action,
Recommends admission of new members to the UN.

International Court of Justice (ICJ) - Composition: 15 judges, elected for 9 years by the General Assembly and
Security Council. Headquarters: The Hague, Netherlands.
Functions: Settles disputes between nations based on international law, Gives legal advice to the UN and
other agencies, Decides cases related to border conflicts, war crimes, and human rights violations.
Major Agencies of the United Nations

UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund) - Functions: Works for the welfare
of children by providing healthcare, education, and nutrition, Conducts vaccination campaigns and
helps prevent diseases like polio and measles. Provides emergency aid during conflicts and natural
disasters.

WHO (World Health Organization) - Functions: Monitors global health and fights epidemics, Conducts
disease eradication programs (e.g., polio and smallpox), Provides medical aid and guidelines to
improve healthcare systems.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)- Functions: Promotes
education and works towards universal literacy, Protects cultural heritage sites and historical
monuments. Encourages scientific research and international cooperation in science and
technology.
non - aligned
movement
Objectives of NAM -

Preserve national independence by avoiding military alliances.

Promote world peace and prevent global conflicts.
Support economic development and cooperation among nations.
End colonialism, imperialism, and racial discrimination.
Encourage mutual respect and non-interference in internal matters of other nations.

Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence)

Panchsheel was an agreement signed between India and China (1954) under Jawaharlal Nehru and Zhou Enlai. It
became the foundation of NAM’s policy.

The five principles of Panchsheel are:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s sovereignty and territorial integrity.

2. Non-aggression towards each other.
3. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
4. Equality and mutual benefit in relations.
5. Peaceful coexistence and diplomacy
Role of Jawaharlal Nehru in NAM

One of the founding leaders of the NAM.

Advocated for independent foreign policy for newly decolonized nations.
Promoted Panchsheel principles as a guiding philosophy of NAM.
Opposed military alliances and called for global disarmament.
Played a key role in organizing the first NAM summit in 1961 (Belgrade, Yugoslavia).

Architects of NAM (Founding Leaders)

The five main leaders who played a crucial role in the formation of NAM were:

1. Jawaharlal Nehru (India)

2. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
3. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
4. Sukarno (Indonesia)
5. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)

These leaders laid the foundation for NAM at the Belgrade Conference (1961).
thank you !