GIS: Database, Functions, DEM, Georeferencing and

Applications

GIS
Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool designed to collect, manage,
analyze, and present geographically referenced data. This technology supports
planning, development, and decision-making by enabling users to integrate
various data sources on a digital platform.

Key Benefits of GIS:

● Enhanced Analysis: Allows integration of various data with digital maps,

which improves the quality of analysis and can be represented
graphically.
● Layered Information: Supports layering of different data, enabling users
to retrieve and use information in more meaningful ways.
● Decision Support: Assists scientists, planners, and decision-makers in
answering questions and making informed decisions.

History of GIS Development

GIS development has its roots in cartography and spatial analysis, evolving
from simple paper maps to sophisticated digital tools.

Milestones in GIS Evolution:

● 1854: John Snow mapped a cholera outbreak in London, marking an early

use of spatial analysis to understand disease spread.
● 1960s: Development of computerized mapping systems spurred by
nuclear research.
● 1962: The first operational GIS, the Canada Geographic Information
System (CGIS), was created by Dr. Roger Tomlinson, often called the
"father of GIS."
 ● 1980s-1990s: Commercial GIS software emerged, including Intergraph,
ESRI, and CARIS, offering enhanced user interfaces and data
management capabilities.
● 2000s: Open-source GIS software grew in popularity, providing
cost-effective, customizable solutions across various platforms.

Components of GIS

GIS comprises several core components that

work together to facilitate the collection,
storage, manipulation, and presentation of
geographic data. Each component plays a
specific role in the system's functionality.

1. Software

● GIS software includes tools necessary for data storage, analysis, and
visualization.
● Key software elements:
○ Data Input/Output Software: Manages input and output of spatial
data.
○ Database Management System (DBMS): Stores and organizes
spatial and non-spatial data.
○ Query, Analysis, and Visualization Tools: Facilitate spatial analysis
and data visualization.
○ Graphical User Interface (GUI): Provides easy access to GIS tools
for all levels of users.
● Types of GIS Software:
○ Commercial Software: Examples include ArcGIS, MapInfo, and
Gram++.
○ Open-Source Software: Examples include AMS/MARS, which are
freely available and modifiable.
2. Hardware

● GIS hardware consists of the physical devices on which GIS operates.

● Common hardware setups:
○ Centralized Computer Servers: For large-scale data management
and processing.
○ Personal Computers and Laptops: Commonly used for smaller
projects or single-user applications.
● Input and Output Devices: May include scanners, digitizers, and printers
for handling geographic data entry and visualization.

3. Data

● Spatial Data: Represents the geographic location of features and can

include maps, satellite images, and aerial photographs. Spatial data are
georeferenced using latitude and longitude, allowing each pixel or point
on a map to have precise geographic coordinates.
● Attribute Data: Contains information related to spatial features, such as
population, agricultural production, and utility services. This data is
usually stored in tabular form and linked to spatial data, providing
additional context.

4. Users

● GIS users range from technical experts who design and maintain GIS
systems to end-users who leverage GIS outputs for practical applications,
such as urban planners or environmental scientists.
● User Accessibility: Modern GIS systems offer user-friendly interfaces that
allow non-technical users to interact with the system without requiring
detailed knowledge of software commands.

5. Methods
 ● Effective GIS operation relies on well-designed plans and methodologies,
which vary based on organizational needs and GIS application areas.
● Protocols and Guidelines: Ensure data accuracy and consistency in
analysis, making GIS outputs reliable for decision-making.

Functions of GIS

GIS systems perform various tasks that facilitate the handling of both spatial
and non-spatial data. The major functions are as follows:

1. Data Input

● Types of Data:
○ Spatial Data: Represents geographic locations of features.
○ Non-Spatial (Attribute) Data: Provides detailed information about
spatial features, such as names, population, or usage.
● Data Entry Methods:
○ Keyboard Entry: Manually entering data attributes.
○ Coordinate Geometry: Using coordinates to define the position of
features.
○ Manual Digitizing: Tracing physical maps to capture data in digital
format.
○ Scanning: Digitizing hard copy maps or images for integration into
GIS.
○ Input of Existing Digital Files: Importing already digitized data for
analysis.

2. Data Manipulation

● Manipulation procedures are applied to spatial data, attribute data, and

relationships among these elements to ensure data compatibility and
accuracy.
● Raster Data Manipulation:
○ Projection Changes: Modifying map projections.
 ○ Resampling and Transformation: Changing reference systems and
adjusting cell sizes.
○ Reclassification: Assigning new values to data based on certain
criteria.
○ Surface Creation and Analysis: Using raster data to generate
surface models.
● Vector Data Manipulation:
○ Topology Modification: Ensuring vector data adheres to spatial
relationships.
○ Spatial Splitting and Generalization: Adjusting data for clarity and
usability.
○ Edge Matching: Aligning borders between different data sheets.

3. Data Management

● Database Management Systems (DBMS): Essential for large-scale

projects where data volume and user numbers are high.
● Relational Database Model:
○ Table-based Structure: Stores data as tables, each representing an
entity with attributes.
○ Flexibility: Allows linking of different data tables based on common
fields, making it highly useful for GIS applications.

4. Query and Retrieval

● Allows users to retrieve specific spatial and attribute data using

Structured Query Language (SQL) or menu-driven systems.
● Example Queries:
○ "Select districts with a population over 10,000."
○ "Identify areas suitable for specific crop types based on soil
characteristics."

5. Data Analysis
 ● Spatial analysis is the core function of GIS, enabling users to identify
patterns, trends, and predictive scenarios.
● Common Analysis Types:
○ Overlay Analysis: Combines multiple data layers to reveal
interactions, like combining soil type and land use data.
○ Proximity Analysis: Determines distances from specific features,
such as calculating land areas within a 1 km radius of a river.

6. Visualization

● GIS presents spatial and attribute data in visual formats such as maps,
graphs, and models.
● Output Formats:
○ Maps and Graphs: Visually represent analysis results, making them
easier to interpret.
○ Statistical Summaries and Models: Provide quantitative insights
and can be customized based on user needs.

Technology in GIS

GIS uses specific technology for data input, manipulation, analysis, and
presentation.

1. Data Creation:
○ Digitization: Converting physical maps and data into digital formats.
○ Remote Sensing: Capturing spatial data through satellite imagery
and aerial photography.
2. Data Representation:
○ Raster Data: Represents continuous fields (e.g., elevation,
temperature) using pixel grids.
○ Vector Data: Uses points, lines, and polygons to represent discrete
features (e.g., roads, rivers).
3. Spatial Analysis:
 ○ Overlay and Proximity Analysis: For assessing relationships
between features.
○ Geostatistical Analysis: Utilizes statistical methods to analyze
spatial data, predict patterns, and conduct interpolation.
4. Data Processing and Transformation:
○ Converts diverse data sources into compatible formats, such as
transforming raster to vector data.
5. Projection and Coordinate Systems:
○ GIS transforms data to standard projections and coordinates,
enabling accurate mapping of diverse datasets.

Data Capture in GIS

Data capture is the process of collecting and entering geographic information

into a GIS, which is essential for creating digital spatial datasets.

● Methods of Data Capture: Data capture methods vary from digitizing

existing maps to using remote sensing technologies.
○ Digitization: Converts printed or film maps into digital form by
tracing features to create vector data.
○ Scanning: Transforms a physical map into raster data, which can be
processed to produce vector data.
○ Direct Survey Data: Surveying instruments with digital data
collection capabilities can input data directly into GIS.
○ Global Positioning System (GPS): Provides accurate positioning
data that integrates directly with GIS.
○ Remote Sensing: Utilizes platforms such as satellites or aircraft to
gather data with sensors like cameras, digital scanners, and LIDAR,
which produce data that is vital for large-scale analysis.

● Types of Captured Data:

○ Primary Data Sources: Data collected first hand via surveys, GPS,
or remote sensing.
 ○ Secondary Data Sources: Derived from existing maps, aerial
photographs, or other historical data that can be digitized.

Applications of GIS

GIS has applications across various fields, aiding in resource management,

planning, and policy-making.

1. Urban Planning: Supports infrastructure planning, zoning, and land use

management.
2. Agriculture: Assists in crop planning, soil analysis, and yield forecasting.
3. Environmental Management: Helps monitor and manage natural
resources, pollution, and conservation efforts.
4. Transportation: Used for route planning, traffic analysis, and logistics.

GIS Software

GIS software varies based on functionality, licensing, and user needs.

1. Commercial Software: ArcGIS, MapInfo, and GRAM++ are common for

high-level GIS applications.
2. Open Source Software: GRASS, QGIS, and MapServer provide
cost-effective and customizable options.
3. Specialized Applications: ERDAS IMAGINE (for remote sensing) and
GMS (for groundwater modeling) cater to niche applications.

Digital Elevation Models (DEMs)

A Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

represents the Earth's surface
elevations digitally, allowing precise
analysis of terrain attributes with
reference to a set datum (baseline
elevation).
Importance and Applications:

● Hydrologic Applications: DEMs support water resource modeling,

reservoir volume estimation, flood risk mapping, and more.
● Geologic and Hazard Analysis: Identification of geological features,
landslide prediction, and risk assessment.
● Environmental and Agricultural Management: Assists in soil mapping,
land use planning, vegetation health monitoring, etc.

Types of DEM Representations:

● Regular Square Grids: Used for raster DEMs with regularly spaced
elevation data.
● Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN): Suitable for varied terrains with
irregular sampling.
● Contour Lines: Derived from topographic maps, representing points of
equal elevation.

Types of DEMs

● Raster DEMs:
○ A grid-based elevation model, also known as a heightmap, where
each cell contains elevation data.
○ Primary DEM: Generated directly from measured data points.

● TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network):

○ Consists of non-overlapping triangles connecting irregularly spaced
elevation points, providing a more detailed representation of varied
terrains.

● Contour-Based DEMs:
○ Contour lines represent constant elevations on topographic maps,
which can be digitized to create DEMs.

DEM Data Capture and Processing

 ● Data Capture Methods:
○ Digitization and Scanning: Converting existing maps into vector
(digitized by tracing features) or raster (scanned) data.
○ Direct Survey Data: Entering survey data or GPS measurements
directly into GIS.
○ Remote Sensing: Data collection from sensors (LIDAR, radar, and
satellites) mounted on aircraft or satellites.

● Editing and Processing:

○ Topological Corrections: Ensures continuity and connectivity in
features, necessary for network analyses.
○ Error Management: Removing undershoots, overshoots, and
artifacts from scanned maps.

● Raster-to-Vector Translation:
○ Converting raster data (e.g., satellite imagery) to vector by
generating line features around cells with similar values.

Georeferencing

● Definition: Georeferencing is the method of aligning spatial data to

known geographic coordinates, ensuring that an image, such as satellite
imagery or scanned maps, is accurately positioned relative to the Earth's
surface.
● Purpose: This process allows map layers or images to be combined,
analyzed, and used within geographic contexts, making it fundamental in
GIS for accurate mapping, spatial analysis, and integration of diverse
datasets.

Key Concepts in Georeferencing

● Ground Control Points (GCPs):

○ Definition: Specific, identifiable locations on an image that
correspond to real-world coordinates.
 ○ Purpose: GCPs are used as anchors to align the image with
geographic locations, ensuring the image represents the physical
area accurately.
○ Selection: Effective GCPs are clear, well-distributed across the
image, and often come from features like intersections, landmarks,
or geological markers.

● Reference Coordinate System:

○ Definition: The geographic coordinate system used to map locations
on the Earth, often involving latitude and longitude or other GIS
coordinate systems (e.g., UTM).
○ Importance: Ensures consistent positioning across datasets,
allowing integration of georeferenced maps with other spatial data.

Georeferencing Process

● Step 1: Identifying Ground Control Points on the Image.

● Step 2: Assigning Known Coordinates to Each GCP.
● Step 3: Transforming the Image: Using mathematical transformations (like
affine or polynomial transformations) to align the image accurately with
the coordinate system.
● Step 4: Error Checking: Verifying alignment by checking residual errors
between GCPs and refining the transformation if necessary.

Benefits and Applications of Georeferencing

● Creating Accurate Maps:

○ Used extensively for urban planning, disaster management, and
environmental monitoring.
○ Georeferenced maps support decision-making with precise, updated
spatial data.
● Change Detection Over Time:
 ○ Comparing historical images with current georeferenced maps helps
identify changes in urban areas, vegetation cover, water bodies, and
more.
○ Essential for tracking environmental shifts and urban development.
● Spatial Data Integration:
○ Enables merging maps with additional data (e.g., demographics,
climate) to enhance insights.
○ Useful in fields like regional planning, resource management, and
public policy.
● Natural Resource Management:
○ Facilitates monitoring of forests, agricultural areas, water resources,
etc.
○ Helps in sustainable resource allocation and conservation efforts.

Tools and Platforms Supporting Georeferencing

● Software: GIS software like QGIS, ArcGIS, and others provide tools for
adding GCPs, transforming images, and verifying accuracy.
● Map Providers: Platforms such as LocationIQ offer vector and raster map
tiles that are optimized for integration with georeferenced data.
Open-source mapping data further adds flexibility in combining
georeferenced layers with additional datasets.
● APIs and Web Mapping: Many providers, including LocationIQ, provide
APIs to incorporate high-resolution maps that can be integrated into
applications, supporting georeferencing and spatial data usage across
various platforms.