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Learning Matlab 6 Release 12 Matlab Student Version
2nd Printing Edition The Mathworks Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): The MathWorks
ISBN(s): 9780967219530, 0967219531
Edition: 2nd Printing
File Details: PDF, 2.16 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 MATLAB
®

STUDENT VERSION

Computation

Visualization

Programming

Learning MATLAB
Version 6 (Release 12)
How to Contact The MathWorks:

www.mathworks.com Web
ftp.mathworks.com Anonymous FTP server
comp.soft-sys.matlab Newsgroup

[email protected] Product enhancement suggestions

[email protected] Bug reports
[email protected] Documentation error reports

ISBN 0-9672195-3-1

Learning MATLAB
 COPYRIGHT 1999 - 2001 by The MathWorks, Inc.
The software described in this document is furnished under a license agreement. The software may be used
or copied only under the terms of the license agreement. No part of this manual may be photocopied or repro-
duced in any form without prior written consent from The MathWorks, Inc.
FEDERAL ACQUISITION: This provision applies to all acquisitions of the Program and Documentation by
or for the federal government of the United States. By accepting delivery of the Program, the government
hereby agrees that this software qualifies as "commercial" computer software within the meaning of FAR
Part 12.212, DFARS Part 227.7202-1, DFARS Part 227.7202-3, DFARS Part 252.227-7013, and DFARS Part
252.227-7014. The terms and conditions of The MathWorks, Inc. Software License Agreement shall pertain
to the government’s use and disclosure of the Program and Documentation, and shall supersede any
conflicting contractual terms or conditions. If this license fails to meet the government’s minimum needs or
is inconsistent in any respect with federal procurement law, the government agrees to return the Program
and Documentation, unused, to MathWorks.
MATLAB, Simulink, Stateflow, Handle Graphics, and Real-Time Workshop are registered trademarks, and
Target Language Compiler is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.
Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective holders.
Printing History: August 1999 First printing New manual
January 2001 Second printing Revised for MATLAB 6.0 (Release 12)
 Contents
Introduction
1
About the Student Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Student Use Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Differences Between the Student Version
and the Professional Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Obtaining Additional MathWorks Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Getting Started with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6

Finding Reference Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Troubleshooting and Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8

Documentation Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
MathWorks Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
MathWorks Education Web Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
MATLAB Related Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
MathWorks Store . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Usenet Newsgroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
MathWorks Knowledge Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10
Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11
Product Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11

About MATLAB and Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

What Is MATLAB? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12
What Is Simulink? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14

iii
 Installation
2
Installing on Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Installing MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Installing Additional Toolboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Accessing the Online Documentation (Help) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6

Installing on Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7

System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Installing MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Post Installation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Installing Additional Toolboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Accessing the Online Documentation (Help) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

Development Environment
3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Starting and Quitting MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

Starting MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Quitting MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

MATLAB Desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4

Desktop Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

Command Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Launch Pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Help Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Current Directory Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Workspace Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Editor/Debugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

Other Development Environment Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

iv Contents
 Getting Started
4
Matrices and Magic Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Entering Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
sum, transpose, and diag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Subscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
The Colon Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
The magic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Examples of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13

Working with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14

Generating Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
The load Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
M-Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
Deleting Rows and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

More About Matrices and Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18

Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18
Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
Multivariate Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
Scalar Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24
Logical Subscripting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
The find Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26

Controlling Command Window Input and Output . . . . . . . 4-28

The format Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-28
Suppressing Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30
Entering Long Command Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30
Command Line Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

v
 Graphics
5
Basic Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Creating a Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Multiple Data Sets in One Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Specifying Line Styles and Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Plotting Lines and Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Imaginary and Complex Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Adding Plots to an Existing Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Figure Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Multiple Plots in One Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9
Controlling the Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
Axis Labels and Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12
Saving a Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13

Editing Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14

Interactive Plot Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Using Functions to Edit Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Using Plot Editing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
Using the Property Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16

Mesh and Surface Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18

Visualizing Functions of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24

Printing Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26

Handle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28

Graphics Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Setting Object Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31
Finding the Handles of Existing Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33

Graphics User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35

Graphical User Interface Design Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35

Animations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Erase Mode Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Creating Movies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38

vi Contents
 Programming with MATLAB
6
Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
if . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
switch and case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
while . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
continue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

Other Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7

Multidimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
Cell Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Characters and Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14

Scripts and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17

Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-17
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-18
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
Passing String Arguments to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-20
The eval Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
Vectorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Preallocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Function Handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24
Function Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24

Demonstration Programs Included with MATLAB . . . . . . 6-27

Symbolic Math Toolbox

7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Getting Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4

vii
 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Symbolic Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Creating Symbolic Variables and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6
Symbolic and Numeric Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Creating Symbolic Math Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14

Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16
Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16
Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20
Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-22
Symbolic Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27
Taylor Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28
Extended Calculus Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29

Simplifications and Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-43

Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-43
Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-51

Variable-Precision Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-58

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-58
Example: Using the Different Kinds of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . 7-59
Another Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-61

Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-63

Basic Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-63
Linear Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-64
Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-68
Jordan Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-74
Singular Value Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-76
Eigenvalue Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-78

Solving Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-86

Solving Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-86
Several Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-87
Single Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-90
Several Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-92

viii Contents
 MATLAB Quick Reference
A

Symbolic Math Toolbox Quick Reference

B

ix
x Contents
 1

Introduction
About the Student Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Obtaining Additional MathWorks Products . . . . . . 1-5

Getting Started with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6

Finding Reference Information . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7

Troubleshooting and Other Resources . . . . . . . . 1-8

About MATLAB and Simulink . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-12

1 Introduction

About the Student Version

MATLAB® & Simulink® are the premier software packages for technical
computation, data analysis, and visualization in education and industry. The
Student Version of MATLAB & Simulink provides all of the features of
professional MATLAB, with no limitations, and the full functionality of
professional Simulink, with model sizes up to 300 blocks. The Student Version
gives you immediate access to the high-performance numeric computing power
you need.
MATLAB allows you to focus on your course work and applications rather than
on programming details. It enables you to solve many numerical problems in a
fraction of the time it would take you to write a program in a lower level
language. MATLAB helps you better understand and apply concepts in
applications ranging from engineering and mathematics to chemistry, biology,
and economics.
Simulink, included with the Student Version, provides a block diagram tool for
modeling and simulating dynamical systems, including signal processing,
controls, communications, and other complex systems.
The Symbolic Math Toolbox, also included with the Student Version, is based
on the Maple® V symbolic kernel and lets you perform symbolic computations
and variable-precision arithmetic.
MATLAB products are used in a broad range of industries, including
automotive, aerospace, electronics, environmental, telecommunications,
computer peripherals, finance, and medical. More than 400,000 technical
professionals at the world’s most innovative technology companies,
government research labs, financial institutions, and at more than 2,000
universities rely on MATLAB and Simulink as the fundamental tools for their
engineering and scientific work.

Student Use Policy

This Student License is for use in conjunction with courses offered at a
degree-granting institution. The MathWorks offers this license as a special
service to the student community and asks your help in seeing that its terms
are not abused.
To use this Student License, you must be a student using the software in
conjunction with courses offered at degree-granting institutions.

1-2
 About the Student Version

You may not use this Student License at a company or government lab. Also,
you may not use it for research or for commercial or industrial purposes. In
these cases, you can acquire the appropriate professional or academic version
of the software by contacting The MathWorks.

Differences Between the Student Version and the

Professional Version
MATLAB
This version of MATLAB provides full support for all language features as well
as graphics, external interface and Application Program Interface support, and
access to every other feature of the professional version of MATLAB.

Note MATLAB does not have a matrix size limitation in this Student
Version.

MATLAB Differences. There are a few small differences between the Student
Version and the professional version of MATLAB:

• The MATLAB prompt in the Student Version is

EDU>>

• The window title bars include the words

<Student Version>

• All printouts contain the footer

Student Version of MATLAB

This footer is not an option that can be turned off; it will always appear in
your printouts.

1-3
1 Introduction

Simulink
This Student Version contains the complete Simulink product, which is used
with MATLAB to model, simulate, and analyze dynamical systems.

Simulink Differences.

• Models are limited to 300 blocks.

• The window title bars include the words
<Student Version>

• All printouts contain the footer

Student Version of MATLAB

This footer is not an option that can be turned off; it will always appear in
your printouts.

Note Using Simulink, which is accessible from the Help browser, contains all
of the Simulink related information in the Learning Simulink book plus
additional, advanced information.

Symbolic Math Toolbox

The Symbolic Math Toolbox included with this Student Version lets you use an
important subset of Maple. You can access all of the functions in the
professional version of the Symbolic Math Toolbox except maple, mapleinit,
mfun, mfunlist, and mhelp. For a complete list of all the available functions, see
Appendix B, “Symbolic Math Toolbox Quick Reference.”

1-4
 Obtaining Additional MathWorks Products

Obtaining Additional MathWorks Products

Many college courses recommend MATLAB as their standard instructional
software. In some cases, the courses may require particular toolboxes,
blocksets, or other products. Many of these products are available for student
use. You may purchase and download these additional products at special
student prices from the MathWorks Store at www.mathworks.com/store.
Although many professional toolboxes are available at student prices from the
MathWorks Store, not every one is available for student use. Some of the
toolboxes you can purchase include:

• Communications
• Control System
• Fuzzy Logic
• Image Processing
• Neural Network
• Optimization
• Signal Processing
• Statistics
• Stateflow® (A demo version of Stateflow is included
with your Student Version.)

For an up-to-date list of which toolboxes are available, visit the MathWorks
Store.

Note The toolboxes that are available for the Student Version of MATLAB &
Simulink have the same functionality as the full, professional versions.
However, these student versions will only work with the Student Version.
Likewise, the professional versions of the toolboxes will not work with the
Student Version.

1-5
1 Introduction

Getting Started with MATLAB

What I Want What I Should Do

I need to install MATLAB. See Chapter 2, “Installation,” in this book.

I want to start MATLAB. (PC) Your MathWorks documentation CD must be in your

CD-ROM drive to start MATLAB. Double-click the MATLAB
icon on your desktop.

(Linux) Enter the matlab command.

I’m new to MATLAB and Start by reading Chapters 1 through 6 of Learning MATLAB.
want to learn it quickly. The most important things to learn are how to enter matrices,
how to use the : (colon) operator, and how to invoke functions.
You will also get a brief overview of graphics and programming
in MATLAB. After you master the basics, you can access the rest
of the documentation through the online help facility (Help).

I want to look at some There are numerous demonstrations included with MATLAB.
samples of what you can do You can see the demos by selecting Demos from the Help menu.
with MATLAB. (Linux users type demo at the MATLAB prompt.) There are
demos in mathematics, graphics, visualization, and much more.
You also will find a large selection of demos at
www.mathworks.com/demos.

1-6
 Finding Reference Information

Finding Reference Information

What I Want What I Should Do

I want to know how to use a Use the online help facility (Help). To access Help, use the
specific function. command helpbrowser or use the Help menu. The MATLAB
Function Reference is also available from Help in PDF format
(under Printable Documentation) if you want to print out any
of the function descriptions in high-quality form. Note: Your
MathWorks documentation CD must be in your CD-ROM drive
to access Help.

I want to find a function for There are several choices:

a specific purpose but I don’t
know its name. • See “MATLAB Quick Reference” in this book for a list of
MATLAB functions.
• From Help, peruse the MATLAB functions by Category or
Alphabetically.
• Use lookfor (e.g., lookfor inverse) from the command line.
• Use Index or Search from Help.

I want to learn about a Use Help to locate the appropriate sections in Using MATLAB.
specific topic like sparse
matrices, ordinary
differential equations, or cell
arrays.

I want to know what Use Help to see the Function Reference by Category, or see
functions are available in a Appendix A, “MATLAB Quick Reference,” in this book for a list
general area. of MATLAB functions. Help provides access to the reference
pages for the hundreds of functions included with MATLAB.

I want to learn about the See Chapter 7, “Symbolic Math Toolbox,” and Appendix B,
Symbolic Math Toolbox. “Symbolic Math Toolbox Quick Reference,” in this book. For
complete descriptions of the Symbolic Math Toolbox functions,
use Help and select Reference from Symbolic Math Toolbox.

1-7
1 Introduction

Troubleshooting and Other Resources

What I Want What I Should Do

I have a MATLAB specific Visit the Technical Support section

problem I want help with. (www.mathworks.com/support) of the MathWorks Web site and
search the Knowledge Base of problem solutions.

I want to report a bug or Use Help or send e-mail to [email protected] or

make a suggestion. [email protected].

Documentation Library
Your Student Version of MATLAB & Simulink contains much more
documentation than the two printed books, Learning MATLAB and Learning
Simulink. On your CD is a personal reference library of every book and
reference page distributed by The MathWorks. Access this documentation
library from Help.

Note Even though you have the documentation set for the MathWorks family
of products, not every product is available for the Student Version of MATLAB
& Simulink. For an up-to-date list of available products, visit the MathWorks
Store. At the store you can also purchase printed manuals for the MATLAB
family of products.

Accessing the Online Documentation

Access the online documentation (Help) directly from your product CD. (Linux
users should refer to Chapter 2, “Installation,” for specific information on
configuring and accessing the online Help from the CD.)

1 Place the CD in your CD-ROM drive.

2 Select Full Product Family Help from the Help menu.

Help appears in a separate window.

1-8
 Troubleshooting and Other Resources

Tutorials and reference for

MATLAB

Tutorials and reference for

Simulink

Tutorials and reference for

Stateflow

Tutorials and reference for

Symbolic Math Toolbox

Note When you start MATLAB for the first time, the Help Navigator
displays entries for additional products. To learn how to change the displayed
product list, see the “Product Filter” on page 3-10.

1-9
1 Introduction

MathWorks Web Site

Use your browser to visit the MathWorks Web site, www.mathworks.com. You’ll
find lots of information about MathWorks products and how they are used in
education and industry, product demos, and MATLAB based books. From the
Web site you will also be able to access our technical support resources, view a
library of user and company supplied M-files, and get information about
products and upcoming events.

MathWorks Education Web Site

This education-specific Web site, www.mathworks.com/education, contains
many resources for various branches of engineering, mathematics, and science.
Many of these include teaching examples, books, and other related products.
You will also find a comprehensive list of links to Web sites where MATLAB is
used for teaching and research at universities.

MATLAB Related Books

Hundreds of MATLAB related books are available from many different
publishers. An up-to-date list is available at www.mathworks.com/support/
books.

MathWorks Store
The MathWorks Store (www.mathworks.com/store) gives you an easy way to
purchase add-on products and documentation.

Usenet Newsgroup
If you have access to Usenet newsgroups, you can join the active community of
participants in the MATLAB specific group, comp.soft-sys.matlab. This
forum is a gathering of professionals and students who use MATLAB and have
questions or comments about it and its associated products. This is a great
resource for posing questions and answering those of others. MathWorks staff
also participates actively in this newsgroup.

MathWorks Knowledge Base

You can access the MathWorks Knowledge Base from the Support link on our
Web site. Our Technical Support group maintains this database of frequently
asked questions (FAQ). You can peruse the Knowledge Base to quickly locate

1-10
Other documents randomly have
different content
of the covered way has thus been reached, batteries of heavy
artillery will be there established, for the purpose of breaching the
walls of the ravelin and bastion; while at the same time miners will
first seek to destroy the defenders’ countermines (which would
otherwise be likely to send these batteries into the air), and then will
excavate a tunnel to the ditch at the foot of the counterscarp. If the
breach becomes practicable, a storming party will emerge from this
tunnel or gallery, and seek to carry the opposite work by hard
fighting. If inner works still subsist, which would tear assailants to
pieces, the double sap may be continued across the ditch, if a dry
ditch, right up the breach, that counter-batteries may be formed. If
the ditch be wet, means must be adopted for a causeway or a
bridge. By these means, however obstinate may be the defense, if
the besieging force be sufficiently strong, and aid do not arrive from
without, the ultimate success of the attack becomes certain. Vauban
raised attack to a superiority above defense, first by the introduction
of ricochet fire, which sweeps a whole line; and secondly by
originating parallels. Before his time, the whole attack was
conducted by zigzag approaches, in which the troops actually in
front could be but few, and were therefore unable to withstand
strong sorties of the garrison, who, in consequence, frequently broke
out and destroyed the works of the besiegers, rendering a siege an
operation of the most uncertain character.
Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition. See Ordnance, Ammunition
for.

Siege Artillery. Is heavy ordnance used for battering purposes,

and of too weighty a character to take the field. A siege-train of
guns and their ponderous ammunition is usually maintained in the
rear of an army, ready to be brought up for use when required. See
Artillery.
Siege Carriages. See Ordnance, Carriages for.
Siege-train. The number and kind of pieces composing a siege-
train must altogether depend on circumstances; but the following
general principles may be observed in assigning the proportion of
different kinds and calibers, and the relative quantity of other
supplies, for a train of 100 pieces:
Guns, about three-fifths the whole number (60); howitzers, one-
fourth (25); mortars, 10-inch siege, one-eighth (12), 8-inch siege, 3;
Coehorn mortars, in addition to the 100 pieces, 6. Total number of
guns, 106.
Carriages, for guns and howitzers, one-fifth spare, 102; for 10-
inch mortars, one-sixth spare, 14; for 8-inch mortars, 4.
Mortar-wagons, one for each 10-inch mortar and bed, and for
three 8-inch mortars and beds, 14.
Wagons, for transporting implements, intrenching and miners’
tools, laboratory tools and utensils, and other stores, each loaded
with about 2700 pounds,—say 140.
Carts, carrying balls, etc., on the march, 50.
Park battery-wagons, fully equipped, 28.
Park forges, fully equipped, 8.
Sling-carts, large, 5.
Sling-carts, hand, 4.
Total number of carriages, 369.
Draught-horses, for each gun and howitzer, with its carriage, 8; for
each spare gun-carriage, 6; for each mortar-wagon, 8; for each
battery-wagon, 6; for each forge, 6; for each cart, 2; for each sling-
cart, large, 2; spare horses, one-tenth. Total, about 1900 horses.
Siemens-Martin Steel. See Ordnance, Metals for, Steel.
Siena, or Sienna. A city of Central Italy, about 30 miles southeast
from Florence. In the Middle Ages, Siena became one of the
powerful city republics of Italy. It embraced the Ghibelline cause,
and in conjunction with the forces of Pisa, defeated the Tuscan
Guelfs, in the memorable battle of Monte Aperto (1206). Through
intestine quarrels it was subjugated by the emperor Charles V., and
given to his son in 1555, who ceded it to Cosmo of Tuscany, 1557. It
was incorporated with France, 1808-14.
Sierra Leone. A district of Western Africa, situated on the
Atlantic. The British settlement of Sierra Leone was established in
1787, when 400 negroes, with 60 wives, mostly women of bad
character, were removed to it from London. The settlement was
attacked by the French in September, 1794, and by the natives in
February, 1802.
Sight. A small piece of brass or iron fixed to a cannon or a
musket, to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in
aiming the piece.
Sight. To give the proper elevation and direction to by means of a
sight; as, to sight a rifle or cannon. To take sight, to take aim; to
look for the purpose of directing a piece of artillery, or the like.
Sight, Angle of. See Pointing.
Sight, Breech-. See Breech-sight.
Sight, Buckhorn-. A form of rear-sight much used in sporting
rifles, which takes its name from the curved form of the notch used.
This form of notch is now attached to the Springfield rifle in use by
U. S. troops.
Sight, Coarse. An aim of a piece in which a considerable portion
of the front-sight covers the object.
Sight, Elevating. The rear-sight of a small-arm, arranged to give
varying heights of sight for different ranges. There are a variety of
forms. The leaf-sight has a number of hinged leaves of different
lengths. The one now used in the U. S. army has one hinged leaf. Up
to 500 yards, the elevation is given by moving the sighting-piece up
a curved incline. Above 500 yards, the leaf is turned up to the
perpendicular.
Sight, Fine. An aim in which only the summit of the front-sight is
used to get the line of sight.
Sight, Front-. The sight nearest the muzzle of a cannon or small-
arm. In military arms, it is set on a short projection which is used
also as the bayonet-stud. In cannon of old model, using the tangent
scale, or pendulum hausse, the height of the front-sight is made
equal to the dispart, making the natural line of sight parallel to the
axis of the piece. See Dispart.
Sight, Line of. See Pointing.
 Sight, Peep-. A form of rear-sight for small-arms in which the
marksman looks through a small hole.
Sight, Plane of. See Pointing.
Sight, Quarter-. The quarter-sights of a cannon are divisions
marked on the upper quarters of the base-ring, commencing where
it would be intersected by a plane parallel to the axis of the piece,
and tangent to the upper surface of the trunnions; used for giving
elevations up to three degrees, and especially for pointing at a less
elevation than the natural angle of sight. Now obsolete.
Sight, Rear-. The sight nearest the breech of a cannon or small-
arm. The term is specially applied to small-arms.
Sight, Telescopic. An apparatus for sighting a cannon or small-
arm, consisting of a telescope so mounted as to give varying angles
of sight; used especially for long ranges. Rifles with such an
attachment are sometimes called telescopic rifles.
Sight, Trunnion. A front-sight fixed on or near the trunnions of a
gun.
Sign. An indication or token. In astronomy, one of the twelve
divisions of the zodiac.
Sign. To affix a signature; to subscribe.
Sign Language. A pantomimic system of communicating ideas,
extensively used by North American Indians. The range of its use is
not exactly known, but it is common among all the tribes of the
plains and many of those beyond the Rocky Mountains. It is in one
sense the court language of the Indians, being the only means of
communication between tribes not speaking a common dialect.
According to Gen. Marcy, it is accurately used and perfectly
understood by all the Indians from the Gila to the Columbia. The
same author tells a remarkable story, which seems to show that the
system is very nearly, if not exactly, the same as that used in
teaching mutes in deaf and dumb asylums.
Signal. Any sign made for marching, fighting, etc. Signals are
likewise given by the drum, bugle, and trumpet, during the exercise
of a battalion. See Signal Service.
 Signal Code. See Signaling.
Signal Equipments. See Equipments, Signal.
Signal Service. In the U. S. army there is one chief signal-officer
of the army, with the rank, pay, and emoluments of a brigadier-
general, and 400 enlisted men. The chief signal-officer is assisted in
his duties by commissioned officers detailed from the line for that
purpose. In war times the Signal Service of the U. S. army is
equipped to maintain communications by telegraph, signals, etc.,
between different sections of an army or armies, or between land
and sea forces. The enlisted men are thoroughly drilled in the art of
field telegraphy. In peace times the Signal Service has a corps of
observers stationed in large towns, and important commercial
centres, to give timely warning of the approach of storms, rise of
rivers, and all other important weather news for the guidance of
merchants and others.
Signaling. Is of remote origin. A rude code of signals addressed
to the eye is common among the savage races of the present day,
and doubtless existed from the earliest times among the historical
races. The Indians of the great plains of North America avail
themselves for night-signals of fires lighted on elevated points, and
of dense clouds of smoke made by suddenly heaping green brush
upon a fire for day-signals. Gen. Marcy, in his “Army Life on the
Border,” shows that similar signals can be used in this region with
great advantage by troops engaged in Indian campaigning.
Messages exchanged in this way must be preconcerted. This method
of signaling dates from a remote antiquity. Alphabetical signaling—a
system in which a written language is conveyed by means of its
elements—is first described by Polybius, about 260 B.C., and seems
to have been devised, or at least greatly improved by him. He
formed a code by arranging the letters of the Greek alphabet in
several columns. A given letter was represented by a number of
lanterns or torches or other signals, which gave the number of the
column, and a second set of signals giving the number of the letter
in the column. Capt. John Smith, of Virginia fame, is said to have
used the system of Polybius during the siege of Vienna. Alphabetical
signaling thus early adopted remained without improvement, and
too cumbersome for general application till recent times. Message
signaling by torches, flags, and rockets has been generally used,
especially at sea, where it has a wide application both in war and
commerce. The signals usually represented numbers, which were
referred to printed codes. The invention of the magnetic telegraph
led to the Morse alphabet, which crystallized the hitherto vague idea
of representing letters by the combination and arrangement of a few
simple elements. In the general service code of the United States,
there are used two elements. These can readily be represented by
sounds, motions, numbers, colors, etc. The ordinary method of
signaling is by waving a flag by day and a torch at night. See also
Telegraph, Field.
Sikh Wars. Two brief but desperate contests waged between the
British power in India and the Sikhs in 1845-46, 1848-49, which
resulted in the destruction of the latter as an independent nation.
The first had its origin in the dissensions which convulsed the Sikh
country after the death of Runjeet Singh, and which necessitated the
exercise of wary regard on the part of the Calcutta authorities. At
length an army of Sikhs, flushed with their triumph over all lawful
authority in their own country, crossed the Sutlej, and extended their
ravages over British territory; but their advanced guard was met by
Sir Henry Hardinge, the governor-general, at the head of four
regiments of infantry and one of dragoons, and routed at Mudki with
heavy loss. Three days after, the main body, which had in the mean
time crossed the river and intrenched itself at Feroze-Shah, was
attacked by a larger force of British under Gough and Hardinge, and
after a bloody conflict, which lasted two days, also routed. Still
undismayed by these reverses, they again intrenched themselves at
Sobraon; but a fresh body which had just crossed the Sutlej at Aliwal
19,000 strong with 68 pieces of cannon, was wholly routed and
driven across the river by Sir Harry Smith, at the head of 7000 men,
with 32 guns; and their main body was soon after similarly dispersed
at Sobraon (which see). The British then crossed the river, took
Lahore, and restored the authority of the young Maharajah from
whom they took the territory between the Beas and the Sutlej; the
treaty confirming this settlement being made at Lahore, March 9,
1846. But the internal disturbances in the kingdom of Lahore soon
became as active as before, and induced the Maharajah’s prime
minister to put the country under the Company’s protection; and a
residency with a guard of regular troops was then established in the
capital. On April 20, 1848, two British officers were murdered by a
Sikh chief, the dewan of Moolraj of Multan; and as it was found to be
but a premonitory symptom of a general outbreak, a small force of
British under Lieut. Edwardes, aided by a body of Sikhs, under the
rajah of Bhawalpur, gallantly attacked the army of Moolraj, which,
after a desperate conflict of nine hours, they defeated on June 18,
and, both sides in the mean time having received reinforcements,
again on July 1; Multan was then laid siege to, but the defection of
5000 auxiliary Sikhs under Shere Singh (the son of the Sirdar
Chuttur Singh, the governor of Hazara, who had been for some time
in revolt, and had driven the British from his district), compelled the
British to retreat. For some time, the British authorities in the Punjab
were hampered by a want of military force, and though the
Maharajah and much of his army still opposed the Sikh rebels, little
reliance could be placed upon most of it. Shere Singh now
succeeded in raising his army to 40,000, but was defeated by Lord
Gough at Ramnuggur (November 22). The inconsiderate haste of
Gough at Chillianwalla, January 13, nearly lost him that great battle,
which was saved only by the extreme valor of his soldiers; but
amends for this fault were made at Gujerat, where the power of
Shere Singh and his allies was completely broken. Meanwhile, the
fortress of Multan had, after a protracted bombardment, been
captured, and the Company, seeing no other mode of protecting
their territories from annoyance by these warlike fanatics, annexed
the Punjab, March 29, 1849, and thus terminated the existence of
the Sikhs as an independent nation.
Sikhs. The term Sikh, a corruption of the Sanscrit s’ishya,
signifying “disciple,” is applied to a community of which the Punjab,
in Northern India, constitutes, substantially, the confines. Less
commonly, even among themselves, the members of this community
are also known as Sinhs (vulgarly Singhs), that is, “Lions,” a title
given them by Govind, the last and most influential of their
hierarchs. Every name of a Sikh male now terminates with the word
Sinh. Originally a body of mere religionists, the Sikhs, from the
energy which they developed under repression, and the inducements
which they offered as proselytizers, grew by degrees, in strength
and numbers, and ended in a formidable nationality. Their originator,
Nanak, was born in 1469, in the vicinity of Lahore, and died in 1539,
not far from the place of his nativity.
Silence. To cause to cease firing by a vigorous cannonade; as, to
silence the batteries of an enemy.
Silesia. A province of the kingdom of Prussia, included in the
limits of the new German empire, lies south of the provinces of
Brandenburg and Posen. Formerly a province of Poland; was invaded
by John of Bohemia in 1325; ceded to him, 1355. In 1740, Frederick
II. of Prussia, taking advantage of the helpless condition of Maria
Theresa of Austria, laid claims to certain portions of Silesia; and
without declaring war, marched into and took possession of the
province, maintaining his hold despite the utmost efforts of Austria
in 1740-1742, and 1744-1745, called the first and second Silesian
wars. After the third Silesian war, better known as the Seven Years’
War (which see), it was finally ceded (1763) to Prussia. It was
overrun by the French in 1807.
Silistria. A strongly fortified town of Bulgaria, in Turkey in
Europe, on the right bank of the Danube. Here in 971, the Byzantine
emperor, John Zimisces, routed the Russians under Sviatoslav. It was
taken by the Russians, June 30, 1829, and held some years by them
as a pledge for the payment of a large sum of money by the Porte,
but was eventually returned. In 1854 it was again besieged by the
Russians (30,000 strong), under Prince Paskewitsch, and many
assaults were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in
consequence of a dangerous contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pasha,
the brave and skillful commander of the garrison, was killed. On
June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. A
grand assault took place on June 13, under Prince Gortschakoff and
Gen. Schilders, which was vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the
garrison assumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the
Russians, and destroyed the siege-works. The siege was thus raised,
and the Russians commenced their retreat as Omar Pasha was
drawing near. The garrison was ably assisted by two British officers,
Capt. Butler and Lieut. Nasmyth, the former of whom, after being
wounded, died of exhaustion. They were highly praised by Omar
Pasha and Lord Hardinge, and Lieut. Nasmyth made a major.
Sill. In fortification, the inner edge of an embrasure.
Silladar Horse. Indian irregular cavalry, raised and maintained on
the principle of every man furnishing and maintaining his own horse,
arms, equipments, etc., in return for his pay.
Sillon. In fortification, a work raised in the middle of a ditch, to
defend it when it is too wide. It has no particular form, and is
sometimes made with little bastions, half-moons, and redans, which
are lower than the works of the place, but higher than the covert
way. It is more frequently called an envelope.
Silures. A powerful people in Britain, inhabiting South Wales, who
long offered a formidable resistance to the Romans, and were the
only people in the island who at a later time maintained their
independence against the Saxons.
Silver Stick. Is the title given to a field-officer of the Life Guards,
when on duty at the palace. The silver stick is in waiting for a week,
during which period all reports are made through him to the gold
stick (which see), and orders from the gold stick pass through to the
brigade. In the absence of the gold stick on levees, and drawing-
room days, he goes to the royal closet for the parole.
Simancas. A town of Spain, province of Valladolid. Near it
Ramirez II. of Leon and Fernando of Castile gained a victory over
Abderahman, the Moorish king of Cordova, August 6, 938. The
archives of Castile are kept in the fortress of this place, and many
valuable documents and records were burnt by the French troops
quartered in the town in 1809.
 Simonoseki. A town of Japan, at the southwestern extremity of
the island of Nipon, and at the entrance of the island sea Suonada.
In 1863 three vessels belonging to the American, Dutch, and French
governments were fired into from batteries on the shore of
Simonoseki Strait; this assault was subsequently returned by French
and American war-vessels. In 1864 a combined fleet of Great Britain,
France, Holland, and the U. S. men-of-war bombarded and
destroyed Simonoseki. The Japanese government had to pay an
indemnity of $3,000,000.
Simulation. The vice of counterfeiting illness or defect, for the
purpose of being invalided.
Sinalunga. A town of Central Italy, in the province of Sienna.
Here Garibaldi was arrested in 1867, whilst attempting to cross into
the Papal territory to take command of the volunteers who intended
to march upon Rome.
Sinde, or Scinde. (Called also Sindh, or Sindia, and Sinday, from
sindhoo, or sindhu, “a collection of waters.”) An extensive territory of
British India, included in the presidency of Bombay, comprising the
lower course and delta of the Indus. It was traversed by the Greeks
under Alexander, about 326 B.C.; conquered by the Persian
Mohammedans in the 8th century; tributary to the Ghaznevide
dynasty in the 11th century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739;
reverted to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747. After various
changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by the English. Sir Charles
James Napier, the British envoy, at the head of a considerable
military force, marched against the enemy, totally routed them at
Meeanee (February 17, 1843), and by defeating the ameers of
Mirpur, at Dubba, near Hyderabad (March 24), completed the
subjugation of Sinde. For two years afterwards, Napier was actively
employed in reducing the marauding tribes of the west, who pillaged
the province; and so successful was the “Sheitanka bhai” (Devil’s
Brother), as the robber tribes named him, that they were completely
rooted out of their fastnesses, and most of them transported to
distant regions.
 Sine Die (“without day”). When the court or other body rise at
the end of a session or term they adjourn sine die. In law this does
not preclude further proceedings by the same court.
Single Combat. A contest in which no more than two are
engaged.
Single-stick. A cudgel used in fencing or fighting. Also, a game
at cudgels, in which he who first brings blood from his adversary’s
head is pronounced victor.
Sinister. In heraldry, the left-hand side of a shield. As shields are
supposed to be carried in front of the person, the sinister side is that
which covers the bearer’s left side, and therefore, lies to the
spectator’s right. See Points of the Escutcheon.
Sinopé (Turk. Sinub). A town of Asiatic Turkey, province of
Anatolia, on the southern side of a little promontory running
eastward into the Black Sea, 80 miles northwest of Samsun. Ancient
Sinopé was the most important of all the Greek colonies on the
shores of the Euxine. Having been destroyed in the invasion of Asia
by the Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony from Miletus,
632 B.C. It remained an independent state till it was taken by
Pharnaces I., king of Pontus. After an obstinate resistance to the
Romans under Lucullus, it was taken and plundered, and proclaimed
a free city. The bay of Sinopé, which affords the finest anchorage for
ships along the whole northern coast of Asiatic Turkey, was the
scene of a bloody naval engagement, or rather massacre, November
30, 1853, when a Turkish squadron of 13 ships was suddenly
attacked and destroyed (except one vessel which conveyed the
tidings to Constantinople) by a Russian fleet of 6 sail of the line, 2
sailing-vessels, and 3 steamers; 4000 lives were lost by fire or
drowning, and Osman Pasha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol
of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo-French fleet
entered the Black Sea, January 3, 1854.
Sinople. In heraldry, the same as Vert (which see).
Sinuessa. An ancient town of Italy, on the shore of the
Mediterranean, near the confines of Latium and Campania. It was
colonized by the Romans in 296 B.C. It suffered much during the
invasion of Hannibal, who, in 217, carried his devastations up to the
very gates.
Sioux Indians. See Dakota Indians.
Sir. The title of a knight or baronet, which, for distinction’s sake,
is always prefixed to the knight’s or baronet’s Christian name, either
in speaking or in writing to him.
Siraceni, Siraci, or Siraces. A powerful people of Sarmatia
Asiatica, dwelt in the district of Siracene, east of Palus Mæotis, as far
as the river Rha (now Volga). The Romans were engaged in a war
with them in 50.
Sirmium (now Mitroviz). An important city in Pannonia Inferior,
was situated on the left bank of the Savus. It was founded by the
Taurisci, and under the Romans became the capital of Pannonia, and
the headquarters of all their operations in their wars against the
Dacians and the neighboring barbarians. It contained a large
manufactory of arms, a spacious forum, an imperial palace, etc. It
was the residence of the admiral of the first Flavian fleet on the
Danube, and the birthplace of the emperor Probus.
Siscia. An important town in Pannonia Superior, situated upon an
island formed by the rivers Savus Colapis and Odra. It was a
strongly-fortified place, and was conquered by Tiberius in the reign
of Augustus, from which time it became the most important town in
all Pannonia.
Sissopoli, or Sizeboli. A town of Turkey in Europe, 80 miles
northeast from Adrianople. It was taken by the Russians in 1829.
Sistova, or Schistab, called also Shtab. A town of Turkey in
Europe, in Bulgaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 24 miles east-
southeast from Nicopolis. A treaty of peace (“peace of Sistova”) was
signed here between Austria and Turkey in 1791.
Sit. In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, to sit
before a fortification, to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging it.
Sitka. Called by the Russians New Archangel, is the most
important settlement in Alaska. It is situated on the west side of
Baranoff Island, in lat. 57° 3′. The population is mainly composed of
Indians and Russian half-breeds. A census taken in 1875 made the
total number, excluding Indians, 502. For many years Sitka was the
headquarters of the Russian American Company. Upon the transfer
of the Territory, in 1867, to the United States, Sitka became the
headquarters of the military department of Alaska. It remained an
army post till 1877, when the garrison was withdrawn. The
inhabitants are at present protected from the Indians by a naval
vessel.
Sixain. In the Middle Ages, was an order of battle, wherein six
battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made
to advance, to form the vanguard; the first and sixth to retire, to
form the rear-guard; the third and fourth remaining on the spot, to
form the corps or body of the battle.
Six-shooter. A pistol with six barrels, or capable of firing six
shots in quick succession; especially a six-barreled or six-chambered
revolver.
Size, To. In a military sense, to take the height of men for the
purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their
relative statures more effective.
Skalitz. A small town of Austria, in the northwest of Hungary,
near the borders of Moravia, on the left bank of the March. It was
stormed by the Prussian general Steinmetz, June 28, 1866; whereby
the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was greatly facilitated.
Skean, Skeen, or Skeine. A Celtic word which signifies a knife.
It was a weapon in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was
worn by the Irish in ancient times.
Skedaddle. To betake one’s self to flight; to run away with
precipitation, as if in a panic; to withdraw, as an army, or part of an
army, from the presence of an enemy, especially in a hasty or secret
manner.
Skeleton. A word applied to regiments that have become
reduced in their number of men.
 Sketch, Military. The delineation of a small portion of ground for
military purposes. The scale is generally larger than that of a map.
Skid. In military language, is any timber which is used as a base
to keep one object from resting on another. Thus, a row of cannon
in store will be kept from the ground by skids. The term is also
applied to the drag which is put on the wheels of carriages in going
up hills, to prevent rolling backwards.
Skierniwice. A town of Russia, situated on the Bzura, 38 miles
southwest from Warsaw. The French were defeated here, in 1809,
by the Russians.
Skinners. A name assumed by a predatory band in the
Revolutionary war, who, professing allegiance to the American cause,
but influenced by a desire to plunder, roamed over the “neutral
ground” lying between the hostile armies, robbing those who
refused to take the oath of fidelity.
Skipton. A town of England in the West Riding of Yorkshire, 38
miles west of York. The old castle of Skipton was founded in the
time of William the Conqueror; it was a place of great strength in the
17th century, and held out for three years against the Parliamentary
forces. In 1649 it was dismantled, but subsequently rebuilt by the
Countess of Pembroke.
Skirmish. A slight fight in war; a light combat between
detachments from armies which are yet at a considerable distance
from each other, or between detached and small parties.
Skirmish. To fight slightly or in small parties; to engage in a
skirmish; to act as skirmishers.
Skirmisher. One who skirmishes; one of such troops as are sent
forward in advance, or move deployed in loose order on the flanks of
a marching column, to discover and intercept hostile forces.
Skiver. A dirk to stab with.
Skottefer. Formerly a name applied to an archer.
Sky-rocket. See Pyrotechny.
 Slash. A cut; a wound; also, a cut in cloth. It was formerly used
to express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which were placed
upon the arms of non-commissioned officers, in order to distinguish
them from privates.
Slash. To strike violently and at random with an edged
instrument; to lay about one indiscriminately with blows.
Slashed. Cut in stripes or lines. Hence, slashed sleeves and
pockets, which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers
or men wear long coats.
Slaughter. The extensive and unnecessary destruction of human
life; carnage. Also, to visit with great destruction of life; to kill; to
slay in battle.
Slavonia, or Sclavonia (called by the native Slavonska). A
territory or province of the Austrian empire, formerly incorporated
with Hungary, but now forming part of the kingdom of Croatia and
Slavonia. The country anciently formed part of the province of
Pannonia. During the barbarian migrations, the land was overrun,
now by one and now by another tribe, and at length remained in the
possession of the Avars. These, however, were conquered about the
end of the 8th century by Charlemagne, who settled in their place a
tribe of Slavonians from Dalmatia. When, in the 10th century, the
Hungarians conquered Pannonia, they also made themselves
masters of the whole of Slavonia, except Syrmia, which still
remained subject to the Eastern emperors. It was, however, the
object of contention, and the scene of bloody conflicts between the
Greeks and the Hungarians, until, after various vicissitudes, it was
finally ceded to the latter in 1165. From 1526, when it was
conquered by the Turks, Slavonia remained in their possession till it
was restored to Hungary by the peace of Carlowitz in 1699. In 1734
its size was diminished by the formation of the Military Frontier, and
in 1848 it was separated from Hungary.
Slavonians, or Slaves (native name Slowene, or Slowane). The
general name of a group of nations belonging to the Aryan family,
whose settlements extend from the Elbe to Kamtschatka, and from
the Frozen Sea to Ragusa on the Adriatic, the whole of Eastern
Europe being almost exclusively occupied by them. The original
names of the Slavic tribes seem to have been Winds, or Wends
(Venedi), and Serbs. The latter of these names is spoken of by
Procopius as the ancient name common to the whole Slavic stock.
The Slavonians proper are a handsome, tall, and slender race.
Sleepers. Small joists of timber, which form the foundation for
the platform of a battery, and upon which the boards for the flooring
are laid. Also, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar.
Sleets. The parts of a mortar extending from the chamber to the
trunnions, to strengthen that part.
Sleeves, Gunner’s. See Implements.
Sliding-rings. See Ordnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of
Artillery Carriage.
Sligo. A maritime county in the northwest of Ireland, and the
province of Connaught. It formed part of the kingdom of Connaught
previously to the arrival of the English, in the reign of Henry II.
Subsequently it came into the possession of one of the family of the
O’Connors, kings of Connaught, who was called O’Connor Sligo.
After a protracted struggle between the natives and the English, it
fell into the hands of the De Burgos, who either by force or treaties
had made themselves masters of the greater part of the ancient
kingdom of Connaught. It became the theatre of several conflicts in
the war against O’Neil, chieftain of Tyrone, in the latter part of
Elizabeth’s reign. The most remarkable of these was that with Sir
Conyers Clifford, who in attempting to pass into the country from
Roscommon with a body of from 1500 to 2000 men, in order to
relieve Belleek, was attacked in a defile of the Curlew Mountains by
O’Roark, chieftain of Breffney, was himself killed and his troops were
driven back with considerable loss. During the civil wars of 1641, the
Irish kept possession of the open country until nearly its close, when
they were reduced to submission by the Parliamentary forces under
Ireton. In the subsequent war of 1688 this country was held by the
forces of King James for some time, but ultimately yielded to the
victorious arms of William III. The French force which landed at
Killalla under Gen. Humbert in 1798, had a severe skirmish at
Coloony with the Limerick militia, commanded by Col. Vereker,
afterwards Viscount Gort, which ended in the retreat of the latter.
Sligo. The chief town of the above county, and a seaport, situated
on the mouth of the river Garrogue. In 1641, it was taken without
opposition, by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Charles Coote, who
was afterwards attacked by a force collected by the Roman Catholic
archbishop of Tuam, which retreated in consequence of an alarm
being spread that a large force was approaching to relieve the town.
When retiring they were attacked by the Parliamentarian forces, the
archbishop killed, and on his person was found the important
document exposing the secret communications which took place
between Charles I. and the Irish Catholics. Coote subsequently
evacuated the town, which thence continued in possession of the
royalists till the termination of the war. In 1688 it was taken for King
William by the Enniskilleners, who, in turn, were driven out by Gen.
Sarsfield; but the place ultimately surrendered to the Earl of
Granard.
Sling. A weapon much in use before the introduction of fire-arms,
consisted of a piece of leather, with a round hole in the middle, and
two cords of about a yard in length. A round pebble being hung in
the leather by cords, the latter were held firmly in the right hand,
and swung rapidly round. When the stone had attained great speed,
one string was disengaged, on which the stone flew off at a tangent,
its initial velocity being the same as it had at the last moment of
revolution. This velocity gives far greater range and force than could
be imparted in mere throwing. The men who used this weapon were
called slingers.
Sling. A leather strap attached to a musket, serving to support it
across the soldier’s back, as occasion may require.
Sling-cart. See Hand Sling-cart.
Slingers. See Sling.
 Slope Arms. A word of command in the British service, for
placing the musket upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In
marches, soldiers are almost invariably permitted to slope arms.
Slope, Interior. See Interior Slope.
Slopes. The approaches to the crest of heights are by slopes,
which may be either gentle or steep. When these slopes are gentle,
the fire from the crest can be made an effective one by reason of its
“grazing action.” Especially will it be so with artillery fire when
properly directed. When slopes are quite steep, the fire will be a
plunging one, and will be apt to pass over the heads of the attacking
troops. Especially will this be the case with the fire of artillery.
Sloping Swords. In the British service, is a position of the sword
among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of
the right shoulder, the hilt advanced.
Slow Time. The same as common time, by which troops on foot
march at the rate of ninety steps per minute.
Slow-match. See Laboratory Stores.
Slugs. Cylindrical or cubical pieces of metal, discharged from a
gun.
Slur-bow. A species of cross-bow formerly used for discharging
fire and arrows.
Smalcald. See Schmalkald, League of.
Small-arms. Are portable fire-arms known as muskets, rifles,
carbines, pistols, etc., and were first invented about the middle of
the 14th century. At first they consisted simply of a tube of iron or
copper, fired from a stand or support. They were loaded with leaden
balls, and were touched off by a lighted match held in the hand.
They weighed from 25 to 75 pounds, and consequently two men
were required to serve them. The difficulty of loading these
weapons, and the uncertainty of their effects, as regards range and
accuracy, prevented them from coming rapidly into use, and the
cross-bow was for a long time retained as the principal projectile
weapon for infantry. The difficulty of aiming hand-cannon, arising
from their great weight, was in a measure overcome by making
them shorter, and supporting them on a tripod, by means of
trunnions which rested on forks. This arm was called an arquebuse
(which see). The next improvement in the arquebuse was to make it
lighter, and inclose it in a piece of wood called the stock, the butt of
which was pressed against the left shoulder, while the right hand
applied the match to the vent. It was still very heavy, and in aiming,
the muzzle rested in the crotch of a fork placed in the ground. To
give steadiness to the aim while applying the match to the priming,
a species of lock was next devised, which consisted of a lever
holding at its extremity a lighted match. In firing, the lever was
pressed down with the finger until the lighted end of the match
touched the priming. This apparatus, known as the serpentine,
continued in use until it was replaced by the wheel-lock, which was
invented in Nuremburg, in 1517. (See Wheel-lock.) The petronel was
a wheel-lock arquebuse of larger caliber and lighter weight than its
predecessors. See Petronel.
Musket.—The musket was first introduced by the Spaniards, under
Charles V. The original caliber of the musket was such that 8 round
bullets weighed a pound; the piece was, consequently, so heavy that
it was necessary to fire it from a forked rest inserted in the ground.
The size of the bore was finally reduced to 18 bullets to the pound;
and from this arm was derived the late smooth-bored rifle.
Rifle.—It is generally stated that the rifle was invented by Gaspard
Zoller, of Vienna, and that it first made its appearance at a target-
practice at Leipsic, in 1498. The first rifle-grooves were made parallel
to the axis of the bore, for the purpose of diminishing the friction of
loading forced or tightly-fitting bullets. It was accidentally
discovered, however, that spiral grooves gave greater accuracy to
the flight of the projectile, but the science of the day was unable to
assign a reason for this superiority, and the form, number, and twist
of the grooves depended on the caprice of individual gunmakers.
About 1600, the rifle began to be used as a military weapon for
firing spherical bullets. In 1729, it was found that good results could
be attained by using oblong projectiles of elliptical form. The great
difficulty, however, of loading the rifle, which was ordinarily
accomplished by the blows of a mallet on a stout iron ramrod,
prevented it from being generally used in regular warfare. The
improvements which have been made of late years have entirely
overcome this difficulty, and rifles have now superseded the smooth-
bored arms.
Muzzle-loading Guns.—The following are among the most
prominent muzzle-loading guns in use prior to 1860:
The Lancaster Elliptic Rifle.—So called, although the elliptical rifle
is very old. The bore in this rifle is slightly oblate; the twist found, by
experience, to be most advantageous is one turn in 52 inches, the
approved diameter of the bore .498 inch, the length of the barrel
being 32 inches. An eccentricity of .01 inch in half an inch is found
sufficient to make the bullet spin on its axis to the extreme verge of
its flight. The length of the bullet found to answer best with these
rifles is 21⁄4 diameters in length, with a windage of four- or five-
thousandths of an inch.
Nuthall’s Rifle.—In the ordinary mode of grooving rifles, sharp
angles are left between the groove and “land” (those parts of the
smooth-bore left in their original state after the process of grooving
has been completed). These create great friction with the projectile,
both in loading and discharging. Maj. Nuthall removes these
objections by rounding off the “lands” into the grooves, that is,
making them a series of convex and concave curves, the bore
assuming a beautiful appearance to the eye, for the smoothness and
evenness with which the lands and grooves blend into each other.
Enfield Rifle.—This rifle has three grooves, taking one complete
turn in 78 inches, firing a bullet resembling the Minié, except that a
wooden cup was substituted for one of iron. Its diameter is .577 of
an inch, its bullet weighs 530 grains, and ranges with great accuracy
for 800 yards, and fairly up to 1100. There are also Gen. Boileau’s
rifle, and some others which our space will not admit of our noticing.
The extraordinary efficacy of the breech-loading principles, especially
in combination, have, however, only been very prominent during the
wars of the last few years, and notably in the Prussian campaign of
1864 against Denmark, and of 1866 against Austria. The successes
of the Prussian arms were attributed in no small degree to the
rapidity with which their troops could fire as compared with the
enemy. They had in greater or less numbers borne these same rifles
since 1835, but these were the first opportunities of using them in
warfare. To all other powers, whose men still carried muzzle-loading
rifles, and who had debated, without practical result, for years past
the question of armament with breech-loaders, soldiers thus armed
appeared irresistible. From July, 1866, to the present moment, the
hammer and the anvil have been busy throughout the civilized world
in making the weapons of death yet more deadly. Scarcely two
countries seem to have adopted the same plan: each nation has
elaborated a system from among its own inventors. Those
possessing no great reserve of rifles have prepared new arms, but
the majority of governments have been content, in the first instance,
to convert their existing stock into needle-firing breech-loaders of as
good a construction as circumstances would permit. The advantage
of breech-loading is obvious: to be able to insert the charge at the
head of the barrel instead of at its mouth, is to save time and avoid
exposure to hostile fire during the operation of loading and ramming
home, which of necessity involves considerable outstretching of the
limbs. The great condition of success is, that the bullet shall be
propelled with equal force and with equal safety to the rifleman, as
from the muzzle-loader. When a charge is ignited the constituents of
the gunpowder, assuming a gaseous condition under the heat
engendered, expand into a volume of light gas many times greater
in bulk than the powder before occupied. On the amount of this
expansion, and its sudden action on the projectile, the force of the
shot depends. Any joint in the breech-piece through which a portion
of this gas can escape, without having imparted its thrust to the ball,
tends, therefore, to lessen the range and penetration; while the
shock of the explosion falling more severely on this than on any
other part of the barrel, tends yet more to dislocate the breech-piece
and diminish the closeness of the joint’s fit. In weapons which do
not call for a long range, as revolvers and pistols, a perceptible
interval is left between the chamber and barrel, through which much
gas escapes; but in rifles, which have range and penetration as
principal objects, there is prima facie ground for preferring a muzzle-
loader. The gas, however, is far from pure as generated in the barrel,
for much water is produced and held in suspension, while there is
also a solid residuum consisting of unburned materials of the
powder. In the muzzle-loader, these clog (or, technically, foul) the
barrel, filling the grooves and rendering the ramming home of
succeeding charges more and more difficult. The effect is, that a
solid mass of unburned matter is gradually forced by ramming into
the head of the barrel, destroying the accuracy and usefulness of the
weapon. In the breech-loader, this solid deposit must be provided
against both ways. The backward throw on firing (for, of course, the
charge explodes with equal power in every direction) tends to force
it into the mechanism of the joints, preventing their proper fit, and
continually augmenting the escape of gas. On the other hand, the
deposit is prevented from accumulating in the barrel by the fact that
succeeding charges are inserted behind it, and, by their explosion,
force the solid matters out at the muzzle. Thus, in the matter of
fouling, if the gases can be prevented from blocking up the breech-
apparatus, the breech-loader has a great advantage over the
muzzle-loader. This protection of the breech-apparatus is the
problem which inventors have had to solve. The following are the
most notable among breech-loading arms:
The American Springfield, model of 1873. The barrel is of “low
steel,” caliber .45 inch, rifled with three concentric grooves of equal
widths with the lands, and of the uniform depth of .005 of an inch,
and uniform twist of one complete turn in 22 inches. The lock-plate
is 0.175 inch thick, and let in flush. The exterior metal-work is
browned. An open swivel is attached to the upper band, for stacking
arms, instead of locking bayonets, us heretofore; also a “trowel
bayonet” and “intrenching tool.” Length of rifle-barrel including
receiver, 36 inches; carbine, 25.4 inches. Length of rifle-bayonet, 18
inches; crook of stock, 21⁄2 inches, and distance from butt to trigger,
131⁄2 inches. Total length of rifle, without bayonet, 51.9; of carbine,
41.3 inches; weight of rifle without bayonet, 8.38 pounds; of
carbine, 6.87 pounds. Trigger adjusted to pull at 6 to 8 pounds.
 Remington.—This is a magazine-gun, and belongs to that system
in which a fixed chamber is closed by a bolt, by direct action, and in
which the lock is concealed. The magazine is in the tip-stock, and
carries 8 cartridges, which are brought into the chamber by the
action of the trigger; the mechanism is so arranged that no more
than one cartridge can enter the chamber at the same time. The
magazine is loaded from below, and in any position of the bolt.
Sharps.—See Sharps Rifle.
Spencer.—A magazine-gun, holding 7 cartridges which are brought
one by one into the chamber by a movement of the trigger-guard as
a lever, which at the same time throws out the shell of the exploded
cartridge. A new magazine can be inserted whenever the cartridges
have been exhausted, or the magazine may be shut off and the rifle
used as a single breech-loader.
Winchester.—Same pattern as the Spencer.
Snider Rifle.—So called from its inventor, the essential features of
which are that the breech-block revolves around an axis on the right
of and parallel to the axis of the bore, and the firing-pin passes
obliquely from the nose of the hammer, through the breech-block, to
the centre of the base of the cartridge. This was the first form of
breech-loaders adopted by the British government, which in 1866
directed that the old Enfield muzzle-loaders should be altered to
breech-loaders upon this system.
Martini-Henry.—Adopted by the British government, has a breech-
loading apparatus on the Martini system united to a barrel rifled on
the system of Henry, a gunmaker of Scotland. Martini, a Swiss,
derived his system of breech-loading from the Peabody system of
the United States by dispensing with the independent outside lock
and substituting therefor a spiral-spring firing-bolt or striker, inclosed
in the breech-block; the number of grooves is seven; in shape they
are flat at the bottom; the lands are narrow, having the appearance
of sharp ribs, which are designed to take a firm hold of the bullet. It
is understood that these grooves are made somewhat deeper at the
breech than at the muzzle. The twist is one turn in 22 inches. There
is a brass collar around the head of the ramrod to prevent injury to
the bore in wiping out. The weight of the rifle is 81⁄2 pounds; of
bayonet 141⁄2 ounces. The weight of rifle with bayonet attached 9
pounds 11 ounces.
Mauser Rifle.—This rifle is used in Prussia, and is a modification of
the Chassépot system, by which it is adapted to the use of the
metallic gas-check cartridge. It was invented in 1871. The
mechanism of this gun is much simpler than the needle-gun, and
has a longer range.
Chassépot Rifle.—The Chassépot rifle is used in France, and was
introduced shortly after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. In its
principal features it resembled the Prussian needle-gun, inasmuch as
the breech was closed with a sliding-bolt, and it fired a self-primed
paper-case cartridge, which was ignited by a needle impelled by a
spiral spring. Unlike the needle-gun, however, it was provided with a
gas-check, which was of the form of a thick india-rubber disk or
packing, attached to the end of the breech-bolt, and it possessed
the modern improvements of reduced caliber and rapid twist of the
rifle-grooves for obtaining great range and accuracy of fire. The
Chassépot was the principal arm used by the French army during the
German war. Since that time efforts have been made to adapt it to
fire the modern metallic-case cartridge. The plan of alteration to this
end adopted by the French authorities is that submitted by Capt.
Gras of the French artillery committee. The length of the bore,
including the chamber, is 32.28 inches; the length of the complete
arm, without sabre-bayonet, is 50.8 inches; and with the bayonet it
is about 72.0 inches. The weight with the bayonet is 10.3 pounds;
without the bayonet, 8.9 pounds. The grooves are four in number,
and of a width equal to that of the lands; the depth of the grooves is
0.0118 inch; the twist is one turn in 21.6 inches, and is from right to
left instead of from left to right, according to the usual practice. The
pull on the trigger is thought to disturb the aim by carrying the
muzzle of the arm slightly to the right; the object of grooving the
barrel to the left is to correct this disturbance by the drift which
follows the direction of the twist. The initial velocity is stated to be
420 metres (about 1377 feet), and the effective range extends to
1700 yards, about one mile. The rapidity of fire is 15 times per
minute. The Russian army is armed with two patterns of Berdan
breech-loaders. One lot of 30,000, in which the breech-block swings
upward and forward, was manufactured by the Colt’s Patent Fire-
Arms Company, Hartford, Conn., and a second lot of 30,000 on a
sliding breech-bolt system made in Birmingham, England. The latter-
named arm was adopted for the entire Russian army. The following
are the principal dimensions: Diameter of bore (caliber), 0.42 inch;
length of barrel, 30.43 inches; total length of arm without bayonet,
50.38 inches; length of arm with bayonet, 70.38 inches; number of
grooves, 6; twist, one turn in 20 inches; weight of arm with bayonet,
9.75 pounds.
Vetterlin Rifle.—Is a repeating rifle used in the Swiss service, and
is a Swiss invention, the peculiarity of which is the union of a
cartridge magazine with a sliding-bolt-breech system. The following
are the principal dimensions: Caliber, 0.41 inch; number of grooves,
4; depth of grooves, 0.0086 inch; width of grooves, 0.0177 inch;
twist of grooves, 26 inches; length of barrel, 33.14 inches; length of
arm without bayonet, 51.18 inches; length of arm with bayonet,
70.08 inches; weight of arm without bayonet, 10.14 pounds; with
bayonet, 11.02; weight of rifle with magazine filled, 12.12 pounds;
initial velocity, 1341 feet.
Werndl Rifle.—Adopted in the Austrian service in place of the
alteration of Wanzl, is the invention of Joseph Werndl, a gun
manufacturer of Styria, and is applied to muskets, carbines, and
pistols. The breech-block in this system vibrates around an axis
parallel to and below the axis of the bore prolonged to the rear of
the chamber. The barrel of the musket is made of cast steel. Its
length is 33.14 inches, including the chamber, which is 2.07 inches.
Its weight is 3.83 pounds. The rifle-grooves are six in number, and
their depth is 0.007 inch. The lands are 0.07 inch wide, and the
grooves 0.15 inch. The twist is one turn in 28.5 inches. The total
length of arm, including sabre-bayonet, 73.0 inches, while its
weight, including the bayonet, is about 11.5 pounds; without the
bayonet the length is 50.5 inches, and the weight 9.85 pounds. The
barrel, bands, and sights are browned.
 Werder Rifle.—Adopted in 1869 for the Bavarian army, is the
invention of J. L. Werder of Nuremberg, and is known as the Werder
system. It belongs to the class of falling breech-blocks, of which the
Peabody may be considered the exponent in this country. It differs,
however, from this and most other guns of this class, as the breech-
block is opened and closed by the hammer instead of the lever-
guard, giving, as claimed, greater safety and ease of manipulation,
especially when the soldier loads lying on the ground. The rifle-
grooves are four in number, their depth is 0.0075, and twist is one
turn in 22 inches. The diameter of the bore is 0.435; the length of
the barrel, including chamber, but exclusive of breech-frame, is 35.0;
the weight of the arm without bayonet, 9.75 pounds. The breech-
loaders with and without the needle-arrangement are too numerous
to mention, but the most notable are given above. See Magazine
Guns, and Lyman’s Multi-charge Gun.
Revolver.—In fire-arms, is a weapon which, by means of a
revolving breech, or revolving barrels, can be made to fire more than
once without reloading. The invention is very far from new,
specimens, with even the present system of rotation, being still in
existence, which were manufactured at the beginning of the 17th
century. Probably the first revolver to suggest itself was one in which
several barrels were mounted on an axis, and made to revolve by
the action of the trigger, so that their powder-pans came
successively under the action of the lock. This principle was never
entirely abandoned, and in the reign of George IV. was produced a
pistol called the “Mariette,” which had from 4 to 24 small barrels
bored in a solid mass of metal, made to revolve as the trigger was
drawn back. At close quarters, such a pistol would doubtless have
been useful; but its great weight and cumbrous mechanism rendered
aim extremely unsteady. Contemporaneously from the first with the
revolving barrels, went the formation of a revolving chamber or
breech, pierced with several cylindrical apertures to receive the
charges. Being made to revolve, each motion brought a chamber
into line with the one barrel, common to all, whereupon the weapon
was ready for use. Numerous patents for this principle have been
taken out, including one by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester in
1661. Various improvements were made, especially in the mode of
causing revolution; an American patented such a weapon in the
United States and England about 1818. In 1835, Col. Samuel Colt
brought to a conclusion experiments of some years’ standing, and
patented his world-renowned Colt’s revolver, which was a great
advance on all previous attempts, and is substantially still in use.
The fame attached to Colt’s revolvers renders them so well known as
to require but little introduction necessary. This make is now
extensively used in the United States, and indeed in almost every
country of the world, and seems not to lose favor anywhere. The
barrel is rifle-bored. The lever-ramrod renders wadding or patch
unnecessary, and secures the charge against moisture, or becoming
loose by rough handling or hard riding. The hammer, when at full
cock, forms the sight by which to take aim, and is readily raised at
full cock by the thumb, with one hand. The movements of the
revolving chamber and hammer are ingeniously arranged and
combined. The breech, containing six cylindrical cells for holding the
powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it can
only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a direct line.
The base of the cylinder being cut externally into a circular ratchet of
six teeth (the lever which moves the ratchet being attached to the
hammer); as the hammer is raised in the act of cocking, the cylinder
is made to revolve, and to revolve in one direction only; while the
hammer is falling the chamber is firmly held in position by a lever
fitted for the purpose; when the hammer is raised the lever is
removed, and the chamber is released. So long as the hammer
remains at half-cock, the chamber is free and can be loaded at
pleasure. Col. Colt has improved on this patent. Revolvers made by
Remington, Smith & Wesson, Daw, Adams & Dean, and others, are
mostly on the same principle as the Colt.
Smart-money. In England, the money which was paid by the
person who had taken the enlisting money, in order to get released
from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment.
Also, money allowed to soldiers or sailors in the British service for
wounds or injuries received.
 Smite. To destroy the life of by beating, or by weapons of any
kind; to slay by a blow; to kill; as, to smite one with the sword, or
with an arrow or other weapon. Also, to beat or put to rout in battle;
to destroy or overthrow by war.
Smoke-ball. Is a hollow sphere similar to a light-ball, and filled
with a composition which emits a dense, nauseous smoke; it is
employed to suffocate the enemy’s miners when at work, or to
conceal one’s own operations; it burns from 25 to 30 minutes.
Smolensk. A fortified town of Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, 250 miles west-southwest from Moscow. The
French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three times
repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensk, and found
the city which had been bombarded burning and partly in ruins,
August 16-17, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the Russian commander-in-
chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he
retreated after the battle, and Kutusoff succeeded to the command.
Smooth-bore Projectile. See Projectile, Spherical Projectiles.
Smyrna. One of the most ancient and important cities of Asia
Minor, and the only one of the Greek cities on the western coast
which has retained its name and importance to the present day. At
an early period it fell into the hands of the Ionians of Colophon; it
became a member of the Panionic Confederacy. Its early history is
obscure; but thus much is clear, however, that at some period the
old city of Smyrna, which stood on the northeast side of the
Hermaean Gulf (now the Gulf of Smyrna), was abandoned, and that
it was succeeded by a new city, on the southeast side of the same
gulf (the present site), which is said to have been built by Antigonus.
It had a magnificent harbor, the largest ships could lie alongside the
quays. In the civil wars it was taken and partly destroyed by
Dolabella, but it soon recovered. In the successive wars under the
Eastern empire it was frequently much injured, but always
recovered. After various vicissitudes during the Middle Ages, the city
fell finally into the hands of the Turks, in whose possession it has
since remained.
 Snaffle-bit. A kind of slender bit, having a joint in the part to be
placed in the mouth.
Snaphance. An old musket of the 17th and first half of the 18th
centuries, called also asnaphan. See Gun.
Snare-drum. The smaller, common military drum, as
distinguished from the bass-drum;—so called because (in order to
render it more resonant) there is stretched across its lower head a
catgut string, or collection of strings.
Snick and Snee. A combat with knives such as the Dutch carry.
Snider Rifle. See Small-arms.
Soanes. A powerful people of the Caucasus, governed by a king
who could bring 200,000 soldiers into the field. They are also called
Suani and Suanocolchi.
Sobraon. A town of Northwest India, on the left bank of the
Sutlej, 25 miles east-northeast of Ferozpur (or Ferozepoore), near
which, on February 10, 1846, a most obstinate battle was fought
between the British army under Sir Hugh Gough and a Sikh force
numbering about 35,000. The Sikhs were strongly intrenched, and
vigorously resisted the attacks of their opponents, but the courage
and perseverance of the latter ultimately gave them the mastery;
the various earthworks were captured in succession, and the Sikhs
driven across the Sutlej, with a loss in killed, wounded, and drowned
of 13,000. Gough immediately followed up his victory by crossing
into the Punjab in pursuit of the fleeing enemy.
Social War. A celebrated contest between the Socii of Italy and
the city of Rome, which lasted from 91 B.C. till 89, and was the most
formidable war ever carried on in Italy during the dominion of the
Romans. It arose from the desire of the Italians to be placed on a
footing of equality with the Romans. Nearly 300,000 lives were
sacrificed in the contest, and numerous towns destroyed. The senate
of Rome were at length compelled to grant the franchise and all
other privileges, which they at first absolutely refused to the Italians.
Socket. Generally means any hollow pipe that receives something
inserted.
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