MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

I/II Semester B.Tech Degree Course

CE-1102 Common for all branches of Engineering

According to the revised syllabus applicable for 2012 batch

onwards

Lecture notes

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SIKKIM MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Majitar, Rangpo, East Sikkim
 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS
I/II Semester (Common for all Branches of Engineering)
Lesson Plan
Lecture Topics to be covered Remarks
No
01 Introduction, Importance of the subject, Definition of Force and its
characteristics, Magnitude, line of action, direction, sense
02 Force system, various force systems, coplanar, non-coplanar,
concurrent, non-concurrent etc, collinear, some fundamental laws
and principles: Newton’s laws, Principle of transmissibility, particle
and rigid body
03 Trigonometric relations: sine rule, cosine rule, Numerical accuracy
and approximation limits
04 Coplanar concurrent forces system: Resultant, graphical methods:
Parallelogram law, triangle law, polygon rule, Composition and
resolution, resolution into rectangular components, force from
rectangular components.
05 Resultant by resolution into rectangular components: Procedure
06 Problems
07 Problems
08 Problems
09 Equilibrium: Equilibrant, polygon rule, triangle law, Analytical
condition, Lami’s theorem, Space diagram and free body diagram
10 Some guide lines, procedure to construct FBD
11 Problems
12 Problems
13 Problems
14 Coplanar non-concurrent force system: Moment of a force, 02
Varignon’s theorem, examples
15 Couples, Properties
16 Procedure to determine resultants, problems
17 Problems
18 Problems
19 Problems
20 Equilibrium: conditions, Statically determinate and indeterminate
structures, Two force system and three force system in equilibrium
21 Types of supports and reaction ,Types of loading,
22 Problems
23 Problems
24 Centroid and Second moment of areas: Centre of gravity, 03
determination of CG of flat plates, Centroid of areas and lines,
25 Line of symmetry, first moment of area, cetroid of areas and lines
by direct integration
26 Centroid of a circular arc, centroid of a circular sector, centroid of
triangle, quarter circular area, tabulation of results
27 Centroid of composite areas: problems
28 Problems
29 Problems
30 Second moment of area: definition, polar second moment of area,
radius of gyration, parallel axis theorem
31 Second moment of area by direct integration: rectangle, triangle, 04
circular, semi-circular, quarter circular area, tabulation of results
32 Composite areas: problems
33 Problems
34 Simple stresses and strains: Various mechanical properties of 05
materials: elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, brittleness,
hardness etc
35 Stress, simple stress, axial stress, shear stress, strain, linear strain,
shear strain, volumetric strain, typical stress-strain diagrams of
ductile materials
36 Definitions: proportional limit, elastic limit, yield stress, ultimate
stress, nominal and true breaking stress, gauge length, necking,
percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area.
37 Stress-strain curve of typical brittle materials, working stress and
factor of safety. Hooke’s law, Poisson’s ratio, biaxial and tri-axial
stress system, generalized Hooke’s law.
38 Relationship between linear strains and volumetric strain. Elastic
constants of a material: Young’s modulus, Rigidity modulus, bulk
modulus, Poisson’s ratio.
39 Relation ship among the elastic constants: (i) E,G,µ (ii) E, K, µ (iii)
E, G, K ,
40 Theoretical limits of Poisson’s ratio, Deformation of tapering
circular and trapezoidal bars, Elongation due to self weight of a
circular bar, Summary.
41 Problems
42 Problems
43 Problems
44 Problems
45 Kinematics: Definition of terms: displacement, velocity, 06
acceleration, relationship, problems of rectilinear motion with
variable acceleration
46 Equations of motion with constant acceleration, problems
47 Problems of motion under acceleration due to gravity
48 Problems of projectile motion as component motions
49 Problems
50 Application of Newtons second law: Problems 07
51 Problems
52 Application of work-energy principle: definition of terms: work,
power, energy, derivation of work-energy equation
53 Problems
54 Problems
55 Application of Impulse-momentum principle: definition of terms: 08
Linear momentum, impulse, derivation of impulse-momentum
equation, equation of conservation momentum
56 Problems
57 Problems
58 Revision
59 Revision
 CHAPTER – I

COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Mass(m): It is a measure of inertia of a body which is its resistance to change of

motion.

Force(F) It is the action of one body on another body which tends to cause a change in
the state of rest or of motion of the bodies. It is characterized by its magnitude, direction,
line of action and sense.

Characteristics:
(a) Magnitude: Magnitude of a force is represented by a certain number. In SI System
(System International) the basic unit of force is Newton(N)

(b) Line of action: The line of action of a force is the infinite line along which the force
acts. The magnitude of the force can be represented by a segment of this line.

(c) Direction: The direction of a force is defined by the angle , the line of action makes
with a reference axis.

(d) Sense: The sense of a force is indicated by an arrowhead.

Line of action

Magnitude Sense
θ = Direction
Reference axis
Type of Forces:

(i) External Forces: Action of other body or bodies on the given rigid body.
(ii) Internal Forces: Forces, which hold together the particles of a rigid body.

Particle & Rigid Body

Particle: A particle is a very small amount of matter, which may be assumed to occupy
a single point in space. The word particle in mechanics can mean bodies as large as a
ship, an aero plane, a road car etc. provided we do not consider the motion about its
mass centre.

Rigid Body: A rigid body is a combination of a large number of particles occupying

fixed positions with respect to each other. Hence a rigid body will not undergo any
deformation under the action of external forces. Actual bodies do undergo small
deformations. But these small deformations can be neglected in the study of mechanics
and we treat all bodies to be perfectly rigid.
Force System: When several forces of varying magnitude act on a body, they are said
to form a system of forces.

(i) Coplanar Force System: In this force system, line of action of all the forces lie in
the same plane.

(ii) Non Coplanar Force System: In a non coplanar force system, the line of action
of all the forces do not lie in a single plane

(iii) Concurrent Force System: In a concurrent force system, the line of action of
all the forces meet at a single point

(iv) Non Concurrent Force System: In a non concurrent force system, the line of
action of all the forces do not meet at a single point.

(v) Coplanar Concurrent Force System: In a coplanar concurrent force system,

the line of action of all the forces lie in the same plane and meet at a single point.

(vi) Coplanar Non concurrent Force System: In a coplanar non concurrent

force system, the line of action of all the forces do lie in a single plane but they do not
meet at a single point.

(vii) Non coplanar Concurrent Force System: In a non coplanar concurrent

force system, the line of action of all the forces do not lie in the same plane but they meet
at a single point.

(viii) Non coplanar Non concurrent Force System: In a non coplanar non
concurrent force system, the line of action of all the forces neither lie in the same plane
nor they meet at a single point.

(ix) Collinear Force System: Forces having the same line of action are said to be
collinear.

Some Fundamental Laws:

(a) Newton’s Laws of Mechanics.

(i) First Law: If the resultant force acting on a body is equal to zero, the body will
continue to be at rest (if it was originally at rest) or move at constant speed along a
straight line.

(ii) Second Law: If the resultant force acting on a body is not equal to zero, the
body will have an acceleration in the direction of the resultant force and proportional to
the resultant force.
Resultant  Acceleration
F = ma where m- mass of the body in kg.
a -acceleration in m/s2
UNIT FORCE: When mass = 1kg and acceleration = 1m/s2, then F = 1kgm/s2=1N
1 Newton(N): It is the force required to produce an acceleration of 1m/s2 on a body of
mass 1 kg.

(iii) Third Law: The action and reaction forces between interacting bodies are always
equal and opposite in direction and collinear.

Newton’s first law contains the principles of equilibrium of forces which is the main
topic of concern in statics. Newton’s second law forms the basis for most of the analysis
in dynamics. The third law is the basis to our understanding of forces. It states that forces
always occur in pairs of equal and opposite forces. Thus the downward force exerted by
a duster on the desk is accompanied by an upward force of equal magnitude exerted on
the duster by the desk. Lack of careful attention to this basic law is the cause of frequent
errors.

In analyzing the bodies, it is necessary to isolate the body under consideration and then
consider forces acting on the body in question.

(b) Principle of Transmissibility:

Statement: A force may be applied at any point on its line of action without altering the
external effect on the rigid body on which it acts.

Explanation: The external effect of the force P will remain the same whether it is
applied as a push at A or as a pull at B along its line of action.
A B A B
P P

Hence in our study of mechanics, as we are mainly interested in the external effect of the
forces on rigid bodies, it is necessary and sufficient to specify the magnitude, line of
action, direction and sense of the force.

Some Trigonometric Relations:

C
A B C θ1
Sine Rule:  
sin 1 sin  2 sin  3 B θ2
Cosine Rule: A2 = B2 + C2 – 2BC Cos1 θ3 A
Sin (+) = Sin Cos + Cos Sin
Sin(2) = 2 Sin Cos
Cos(+) = Cos Cos – Sinα Sinβ
Cos(2) = Cos2 – Sin2 = 2Cos2 – 1 = 1 – 2 Sin2
1  cos 2 1  cos 2
Cos2 = and Sin2 =
2 2
tan   tan 
Tan (+) =
1  tan  tan 

Accuracy Limits & Approximations:

Pocket calculators used in performing numerical computations give eight to ten

significant figures. But students should not record more significant figures than that can
be justified. An accuracy greater than 0.2 percent is seldom necessary or meaningful in
the solution of practical engineering problems. Accuracy to three or four significant figures
is considered satisfactory for majority of engineering calculations.
Example:
25.436578 = 25.44, 102.435678 = 102.4, 0.34563657 = 0.3456

When the quantities involved are either too large or too small, they must be written in the
engineering form.

Example: 0.000375 as 37510-6 or as 0.37510-3

2785435 as 2.785106 or as 2785103

This can be done by using ENG function of the calculator.

Resultant: Resultant of a force system is that single force which acting alone produces
the same effect on the body as that due to the given system of forces.

Graphical Principles:
(i) Parallelogram Law: The resultant of two forces P and Q acting at the point A can
be obtained by constructing a parallelogram with P and Q as its adjacent sides. The
diagonal that passes through the point A represents the resultant in magnitude and
direction.
Q
Q R

θ 
A P
P
(ii) Triangle Law: If the two forces acting at a point be represented by the two sides of
a triangle taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the third side of the triangle
taken in the reverse order.
In other words, if the two forces are arranged in a tip to tail fashion, then the line
joining the tail of the first force to the tip of the second force represents the resultant in
magnitude and direction.
Q
R
Q
θ  θ
A P
P
Example(1): Determine the resultant of the two forces acting as shown in figure.

2000N
2000N
R
45o
1500N 135o
45o 
15o 15o 1500N
Force Triangle
Consider the force triangle.
Using Cosine rule:
R = 15002  20002  2  1500  2000  cos135 = 3239N
3239 2000 2000
Also using sine rule:   sin    sin135
sin135 sin  3239
 = 25.89o = 40.89o with respect to reference axis

(iii) Polygon rule: The resultant of a system of concurrent forces can be obtained by
arranging the forces in a tip to tail fashion. The line joining the tail of the first force to the
tip of the last force represents the resultant both in magnitude and direction.
F2 F3
F3 F4

F1 R F2
F4 F1
Force Polygon
(iv) Resultant of collinear forces: The resultant of collinear forces is given by the
algebraic sum of their magnitudes.
F1 F2
F1 F2
R = F1 + F2
Composition & Resolution of Forces:
(i) Composition: Composition is the process of combining two or more forces into a
single force (called resultant) such that this single force acting alone produces the same
effect on the body as that due to the given system of forces. In other words, the process
of determining the resultant is known as composition.
(ii) Resolution: Resolution is the reverse process of composition. In resolution, a
single force is replaced by two or more forces (called the components) such that they
together produce the same effect on the body as that due to the given single force.
F6 F3
F2 F5
F4
F1

F1&F2 are components of F. F3 & F4 are Falso components of F and F5 & F6 also are
components of F. Thus it is obvious that a given force can be resolved into its
components in an infinite way.

Special Cases:
(i) One of the two components is known in magnitude and direction.
In this case our aim is to determine the magnitude and direction of the second
component. The second component can be obtained by using the triangle rule. Let F be
the force and F1 be one of its components known in magnitude and direction. The second
component is represented by the line joining the tip of the force F1 to the tip of the force F.

Using Cosine rule: F2 = F 2  F12  2  F  F1  cos  1

F
F θ2
θ1 F2
θ1 θ3
F1
F1
Force Triangle
F2 F1 F1
Also using sine rule:  sin2 =  sin  1
sin  1 sin  2 F2
Example(2): Determine the magnitude and direction of the force P so that the resultant
of the 900N force and P is a vertical force of 2700N directed downward.
900N
o
900N
10
100o
θ 2700N P
P θ

Force Triangle
Using cosine rule: P = 9002  27002  2  900  2700  cos100 = 2991N
2991 900 900
Using sine rule :  sin =  sin100 ;  = 17.24o
sin100 sin  2991

(ii) To resolve a given force along two given directions:

In this case the line of action of both the components is known. The magnitude
and sense of the components can be obtained by constructing the parallelogram drawing
lines parallel to the given directions through the tip of the given force F
F2
F
θ2
F F2
θ2
θ1 θ1
F1
F1
Parallelogram
Example(3):Resolve the 3000N force along the two directions shown.

3000N
F2 o
o 3000N 60 F2
30
90o
60o
30o
30o F1
F1
Force Triangle

Consider the force triangle;

3000 F1 F2 3000
Using sine rule:   , F1 =  sin60 = 5196N,
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90 sin 30
3000
F2 =  sin90 = 6000N
sin 30

(i) Resolution of a force into rectangular components:

This is a special case of the resolution of a force along two given directions. If the
angle between the two directions is 90o, the parallelogram formed will be a rectangle and
hence the two components are called rectangular components. We call the two directions
as the x and y directions and the two components as x-component and y-component.
From the properties of right angled triangle, we have
Fx/F = cos  Fx = F cos FY
Fy/F = sin  Fy = F sin F

NOTE: θ
(i) It should be remembered that the two directions x and FX y need not be
horizontal and vertical. But the angle between them must be 90o.
(ii) The component along that axis with respect to which the angle is
measured is always F cos F
y x
Fx = F sin, Fy = F cos
θ
Example (4): Resolve the 500N force into its rectangular components.
y
500N
y x

30o
500N
o
30
x
Fx = 500 cos30 = 433N Fx = 500sin30 = 250N
Fy = 500sin30 = 250N Fy = 500cos30 = 433N

(ii) The Force whose rectangular components are known:

After completing the parallelogram (in this case a rectangle) and using the property
of a right angled triangle we have
 Fy 
F = Fx2  Fy2 and  = tan 1   Fy F
 Fx  θ
FX
Determination of the resultant of coplanar concurrent force system
( By resolution into rectangular components)

Procedure:
(i) Select a set of convenient reference axes and indicate them clearly.

(ii) Resolve the given forces into their rectangular components.

(iii) The components along the x-axis form a system of collinear forces. They can be
replaced by a single force of magnitude equal to the algebraic sum of the magnitude of
the components.
Rx =  Fx and Ry =  Fx
(iii) Knowing the two rectangular components of the resultant, determine its magnitude
and direction using:
 RY 
 
(i) R = Fx2  R 2y and  = tan-1  R  Ry R
 X 
θ
RX
This resultant force acts at the same point where the given force system act.
Hence show the resultant in the given space diagram.

NOTE: To determine the algebraic sum of the components, indicate any one
direction as positive direction and the components acting in that direction as
positive.
Example(5): Find the resultant of the force system shown .
1732N
y
y 2000N 1000N

388.2N
1500N
45o o
30o
15 1449N
x 15o
x
Rx =  Fx+ = 1000 + 1449 = 2449N
2120N
Ry =  Fy+ = 1732 + 388.2 = 2120N
R
R = 24492  21202 = 3239N θ
 2120  2449N
 = tan  2449 
-1 
= 40.88 o

Example (6): Find the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in figure:
y

51.3N 85N
170N
150N 147.2N
141N
20o 30o x
50o 135N
40o
210N 45N
70N 150N
53.6N 160.9N
150N
Rx =  Fx+ = 147.2 + 135 – 45 –141 = 96.2N
96.2N
Ry =  Fy+ = 85 – 160.9 – 53.6 – 150 + 51.3 = 228.2N θ
R
R = 228.2 2  96.2 2 = 247.6N 228.2N
 228.2 
 = Tan 1   = 67.14
o

 96.2 
Example(7): Determine the resultant of the six forces acting on the bracket as shown
in figure. 76.6N
100N y
70.48N
75N 64.28N
40o o 40o 25.65N
30 o 20o 150N
20 o x
150N 15o
15
45o 217.3N
o 30o
30 225N 58.23N
200N 216.5N
250N 200N
125N
Rx =  Fx+ = 64.28 – 70.48 – 150 + 217.3 – 125 = 63.9N
Ry =  Fy+ = 76.6 – 25.65 – 58.23 + 216.5 – 200 = 9.22N

63.9N
R = 9.22 2  63.9 2 = 64.56N
θ
 9.22  R
 = Tan 1   = 8.21
o

 63.9 
9.22N

Example(8): If the resultant of the force system is a 500N force acting horizontally to
the right, determine P and .
1414N
2000N
1414N
o
45 R = 500N
20 o
θ 469.8N
P cosθ
500N P
171N P sinθ
Rx+ =  Fx+
444.2N
500 = 1414 + P cos - 469.8 P cos = 444.2N
Ry+ =  Fy+ θ
0 = 1414 – P sin - 171  P sin = 1243N
R
P = 444.2 2  12432 = 1320N
 1243 
 = Tan 1   = 70.34
o 1243N
 444.2 
Observations:
(i) When an unknown force is to be determined and if the answer obtained is
negative, it will only imply that the assumed sense is wrong. In the above example,
P cos = -444.2N. This means that P cos is acting in the opposite direction i.e.
acting towards the left. P sin = 1243N. The positive value implies that the assumed
sense of Psin is correct, i.e. it acts downward as assumed originally.

(ii) It will be more appropriate to show the actual direction of the force in the
answer with an arrow rather than writing the answer with a minus sign.

(iii) The vector diagram of the two components must be drawn before determining
the magnitude and direction of the unknown force, since the correct sense and
direction can be obtained only from this diagram.

Example(9): The resultant of three forces of which two are shown in figure is a 35kN
force acting at 30o to the horizontal as shown in figure. Determine the third force.
F3 sinθ
F2 = 10kN 10kN
F3 cosθ
o
30 F1 = 20kN Rx = 30.1kN 20kN
R = 35kN

Ry = 17.5kN
 50.31kN
Let F3 be the third force as shown in figure. θ
Rx+ =  Fx+ F3
-30.31 = 20 + F3 cos  F3 cos = 50.31kN
Ry+ =  Fy+ 27.5kN
- 17.5 = 10 + F3 sin  F3 sin = 27.5kN
 27.5 
F3 = 50.312  27.5 2 = 57.43kN ;   Tan 1   = 28.66o
 50.31 

Example(10):
If the resultant is a horizontal force of 300N, determine the value of angle  for the tension
T2 to be a minimum and find the corresponding values of T1 and T2.
T2 300N
o
20
θ
T1 90o T2
20o
T1 Force Triangle

Consider the force triangle. For T2 to be minimum, the angle between T1 and T2
must be 90o. From the property of right angled triangle
T1 = 300 cos20 = 281.9N and T2 = 300 sin20 = 102.6N,  = 70o

EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

Equilibrium: When the resultant of all the forces acting on a body is zero, it is said to
be in equilibrium.
Two Force System in Equilibrium: If a body is acted upon by only two forces and
is in equilibrium, then the two forces have the same magnitude, same line of action and
opposite sense.

Polygon Rule: If a body is in equilibrium under the action of several coplanar

concurrent forces, the force polygon formed by arranging the forces in a tip to tail fashion
will close upon itself i.e. the tip of the last force will meet the tail of the first force.

400N 300N

30o 173.2N
300N 400N
200N
o
200N 30
173.2N Force Polygon
NOTE:
If there are only three forces, then the force polygon formed will be a triangle and
the sine or cosine rule can be applied to determine the unknowns.
Algebraic Condition:
The two rectangular components Rx and Ry of the resultant must be zero.
Rx =  Fx = 0 and Ry =  Fy = 0
These are two independent equations of static equilibrium of coplanar concurrent force
system, using which a maximum of two unknowns can be determined.

Example(11): Determine F1 and F2 for equilibrium. 400N

 Fy+ = 0
i.e F2 cos30 - 400 = 0  F2 = 461.9N F1
 Fx + = 0
i.e F1 - 461.9 sin30 = 0  F1 = 230.9N 30o
F2
Lami’s Theorem:
Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three coplanar concurrent
forces, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two
forces.
S Q

(180-β) S
Let P, Q and S be in equilibrium β γ
Then according to Lami’s theorem, P (180-)
P/sin = Q/sin = S/sin
Proof: P (180-γ)
Q
Consider the force triangle. Using sine rule
P/sin(180-) = Q/sin(180-) = S/sin(180 - ) Force Triangle
But sin(180-) = sin
P Q S
   Hence the proof.
sin  sin sin 

Equilibrant:
Equilibrant of a force system is that single force which acing along with the given
system of forces keeps the body in equilibrium.

Equilibrant has the same magnitude and the same line of action as that of the
resultant but of opposite sense. Hence to determine the equilibrant, the resultant of the
system may be found as usual and show its sense reversed.

Example(12): Determine the equilibrant of the force system.

To find the resultant: 56.7N
72o
Rx =  Fx+ = 100 – 43.3 = 56.7N 175N
Ry =  Fy+ = 200 – 25 = 175N 175N
200N
72o
R = 1752  56.7 2 = 184N 56.7N
 175  30o Resultant Equibrant
–1   100N
 = tan  56.7  = 72 o

50N
Law of superposition:
Action of a given system of forces on a body will no way be changed if we add or subtract
from them another system of forces in equilibrium.

Law of Action and Reaction:

Any pressure on a support causes an equal and opposite pressure from the support so
that action and reaction are two equal and opposite forces. This principle is nothing but
the Newton’s third law.

Two kinds of forces which act on a body are:

(i) Active forces: The gravity force (self weight) and all applied forces form the set of
active forces.

(ii) Reactive forces: These forces replace the supports. They are the forces exerted
by the supports on the body consistent with the nature of constraints.

A body will be in equilibrium if the active and reactive forces together represent a
system of forces in equilibrium.

Thus to investigate the conditions of equilibrium, it is necessary that we isolate the

body in question from all other bodies so that a complete and accurate account of all
forces that act on the body ( active and reactive) may be taken. The diagram of such an
isolated body with all the external forces acting on it is called a FREE BODY DIAGRAM.
Free body diagram is the key to the understanding of mechanics. It is the tool by which
the cause and the effect are clearly separated. Hence construction of free body diagram
is the first step in the analysis of every problem in mechanics.

Space Diagram & Free Body Diagram:

Space Diagram: A sketch showing the physical conditions of an engineering problem

is called the space diagram.

Free Body Diagram (FBD): It is obtained from the given space diagram by choosing
a significant particle/particles and drawing a separate diagram showing this
particle/particles and all the forces acting on it.

Forces acting on the free body are:

(i) Gravity Force (Self weight) which always acts through the centre of gravity and
directed vertically downward.

(ii) Externally applied forces.

(iii) Reactive forces: These are the action of all other bodies which were in contact with it
and are removed.
Some useful Guide lines for drawing free body diagrams:

(i) Compressive Forces: They are indicated by arrow directed towards the free
body.

(ii) Tensile Forces: Forces trying to pull the particles of a body apart are called
tensile forces. They are indicated by arrow directed away from the body.
F F F F

Compressive Force Tensile Force

(iii) Action of smooth surfaces: The force of reaction will be normal to the surface
and is indicated by arrow directed towards the free body.

(iv) Action of flexible members: (rope, chain, string, belt etc.) They can be
subjected to only tensile force. Their action is therefore indicated by arrow directed away
from the body. (pull).

(v) Flexible cable passing over smooth pulley: The tension on either side of
the pulley will be equal.

(vi) Action of smooth walls: Wall cannot pull the body towards it but exert a push
on the body. Action is indicated by an arrow directed towards the body

(vii) Action and reaction forces between two bodies in contact will be always equal and
opposite.

(viii) If the contact surfaces are rough, the contact force will involve two components,
normal component and a tangential component (friction force).

Note: After drawing the free body diagram, the unknown forces involved are to be
determined by carefully selecting the most appropriate method which involves
minimum effort.

The following points may be remembered:

(a) If only three forces are involved:-

(i) Form the force triangle and apply sine or cosine rule.

(ii) Apply Lami’s theorem if and only if the sense of the unknowns are known.

(iii) If one of the unknowns is horizontal or vertical select horizontal and vertical reference
axes and determine the unknowns using Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0

(b) When the number of forces involved are more than three:
(i) If one of the unknowns is along horizontal or vertical, use Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0 to
determine the unknowns with horizontal and vertical reference axes.
(ii) If the unknowns are not along horizontal or vertical, they can be determined by
horizontal and vertical summation but will involve the solution of simultaneous equations.

(iii) By selecting one of the reference axes along any one of the unknowns (rotated axes),
one can avoid the time consuming exercise of solving the simultaneous equation, and is
in fact a very effective and powerful tool in solving a variety of problems.

Construction of Free Body Diagram

Procedure:
(i) Decide which body or combination of bodies is to be isolated.

(ii) Show a separate diagram showing the complete boundary of the isolated body.

(iii) All forces acting on the isolated body are represented in their proper position on the
diagram of the isolated body.

(iv) If the sense of an unknown force cannot be predicted, it may be assumed to have
arrow towards or away from the free body. If the solution obtained is a positive quantity, it
will imply that the assumed sense is correct and a negative solution implies that the
assumed sense is wrong. It is important to be consistent with the assigned sense of the
unknown forces through out the calculations. i.e either assume the sense as away from
the body or towards the body.

NOTE:
(a) Show clearly the coordinate axes.

(b) The force arrows should be clearly distinguished from any other arrows, which may
appear in the sketch.

(c) Permitted colour combinations can be used to make the diagrams more legible.

(d) Remember Free Body Diagram is the most important single step in the solution of
problems in mechanics.

(e) Indicating the unknown reaction forces in the given space diagram will help in
selecting the body or bodies to be isolated, since at a time only two unknowns can be
determined.

Two Important Theorems:

Theorem (1) If a body is in equilibrium under the action of only two forces, then the two
forces must have the same magnitude, same line of action and opposite sense.

Theorem (2) If a body is in equilibrium under the action of only three forces, then the
three forces must either be parallel or concurrent.
The above theorems will be proved in the next chapter but may have to be applied in
solving some of the problems of this section.

Example (13)
Determine F1 and F2 if the system is in equilibrium.
F2 3kN
3kN y’ o
F2 F1 20 x’
20o 50 o

8kN 50o F1
16kN 40o 8kN

Let x’ axis be along F1 Axes rotated

 Fy’ = 0 i.e 8 cos50 - 3 sin50 - F2 cos20 = 0  F2 = 3.03kN
 Fx’ = 0 i.e F1 - 8 sin50 – 3.03 sin20 – 3 cos50 = 0  F1 = 9.09kN

Observations:
(i) By selecting the new reference axes x’ and y’, the mathematical simplifications
involved in solving a simultaneous equation is completely avoided.

(ii) After selecting the new reference axes (rotated axes), it is very important to determine
and indicate clearly the angles made by the forces with the new axes of reference before
attempting to write the equations.

Example (14)
The homogeneous cylinder shown in figure has a mass of 40kg and rests on smooth
surfaces. Determine the reactions at A and B.

392.4N y 392.4N
30o x
40kg
A
B RA RA
60o 30o o o
60 30 RB RB
Space Diagram Space Diagram with Free Body Diagram
all forces marked with axes rotated
 Fx = 0 i.e -392.4 sin30 + RA = 0  RA = 196.2N
 Fy = 0 i.e RB – 392.4 cos30 = 0  RB = 340N

Example (15):
Two smooth cylinders A and B each of weight 200N and diameter 400mm rest in a
horizontal channel with vertical walls and base width 720mm as shown in figure. Find the
reactions at P, Q and S.
720mm 200N
200N
B RS 200N
B S
RS
RP A B’ 36.87 o
p A

Q RAB
RQ F B D of B
Space Diagram Space Diagram with
all the forces marked
 B
400mm
From triangle ABB’,
 320  θ
 = Cos 1   = 36.87
o
A B’
 400  320mm

FBD of Cylinder B 200N 333.3N

 Fy = 0 i.e RAB sin 36.87 – 200 = 0  RAB = 333.3N
 Fx = 0 i.e. 333.3 cos36.87 – RS = 0  RS = 266.7N
RP 36.87o
FBD of cylinder A
 Fx = 0 i.e. RP – 333.3cos36.87 = 0  RP = 266.7N
 Fy = 0 i.e. RQ – 333.3sin36.87 – 200 = 0  RQ = 400 RQ
F B D of A
Example (16)
Two smooth spheres are kept as shown in figure. Determine the reactions at all contact
points. Sphere 1 is of radius 1m and sphere 2 is of radius 0.5m.
1000N 200N 1000N 200N

C RC 2
2 1
1 θ
D 60o RD
RA
A 30o
B
60o 30o RB
Space Diagram with
Space Diagram all the forces marked
–1  0.5 
 = sin   = 19.47
o

 1.5  200N
FBD of Sphere 2 30o
 Fx = 0 i.e. RC cos 19.47 – 200 sin30 = 0
 RC = 106.1N RC
 Fy = 0 i.e. RD – 200 cos30 – 106.1 sin19.47 = 0 19.47o
 RD = 208.6N RD
FBD of Sphere 2 1000N
FBD of Sphere 1
30o
 Fx = 0 i.e. RA – 106.1cos19.47 – 1000 sin30 = 0 19.47o
 RA = 600N 106.7N
 Fy = 0 i.e. RB + 106.1sin19.47 – 1000cos30 = 0
 RB = 831N
RA RB
Example (17) FBD of Sphere 1
Two cylinders A of weight 3000N and B of weight 8000N rest on smooth inclines as
shown in figure. They are connected by a bar of negligible weight hinged to each cylinder
at their geometric centres by smooth pins. Find the force P required to hold the system in
the given position.
3000N 8000N
P P
A o 45 o
A 45 o 20
20o R1 60o FAB 3000N
o B
60
FBD of cylinder A B
45 o Space diagram with 30o R2
Space Diagram all the forces marked
 Fy = 0 i.e. FABcos 40 – 3000 sin60 = 0 y
FAB = 3392N i.e. R1 – 3000 cos60 – 3392 sin40 = 0 60o x
R1 = 3680N

FBD of cylinder B FAB

y 8000N 40o
 Fy = 0 R1
i.e. R2 – 8000cos45 – 3392cos25 = 0 45 o P FBD of cylinder A
R2 = 8731N 25o
 Fx = 0 3392N
i.e. –P – 8000sin45 + 3392 sin25 = 0
P = 4223N R2
FBD of cylinder B
Example (18)
A 100kN load is hung by means of a rope. Determine the pull applied in the horizontal
direction, which will make the rope inclined at 120o to the direction of the pull.
(b)Determine also the least pull required to keep the rope in the same position.
T
30o

A P
120o
A P 100kN
FBD of point A
100kN
 Fy = 0 i.e. T cos30 – 100 = 0  T = 115.5kN
 Fx = 0 i.e. P – 115.5 sin30 = 0  P = 57.74kN

(b)To find the minimum force P P

T o
30 P 90o
100kN
θ
A T 30o
Consider the force triangle 100kN
Force Triangle
For P to be minimum, the angle between P and T must be 90o.
Also from the force triangle
P = 100 sin30  P = 50kN and  = 30o
Example (19)
A roller of radius 300mm weighing 2000N is to be pulled over a curb of height 150mm by
a horizontal force P applied to the end of a string wound around the circumference of the
roller. Find the magnitude of P
(b)Also find the least pull applied through the centre of the wheel just to turn it over the
curb. P 2000N
P C

30o RB

O
P θ
B B O’
2000N
150mm A RB
FBD of C
Space diagram with
all the forces marked
Observations:
(i) At the time of the roller moving over the curb, the contact at A will be lost and
hence reaction at A i.e. RA = 0

(ii)Since only three forces now keep the roller in equilibrium and two of them meet
at C, the third force namely the reaction at B must pass through C.

From triangle BOO’ angle BOO’ = 60o ( since 00’ = 150mm and B0 = 300mm,)
From triangle BCO, angle BCO = 30o

Consider the free body diagram of the point C

 Fy = 0 i.e. RB cos30 – 2000 = 0  RB = 2309N
 Fx = 0 i.e. 2309 sin30 - P = 0  P = 1155N

(b) Let P be applied at an angle  to the horizontal.

2000N

P P RB 30o P
o
θ 30
θ O 2000N
O 90o
B 60o
2000N RB
RB
FBD of O Force Triangle
In this case, since P and the 2000N force meet at O, the reaction at B pass through
0(three force system in equilibrium)
Consider the force triangle. For P to be minimum, the angle between P and R B must be
90o.
Pmini. = 2000 cos30 = 1732N and RB = 2000 sin30 = 1000N (from force triangle)

Example (20)
Determine the tension in the wires AB, BC and CD and also the inclination of the
segment CD to the vertical.

A A
30 o
D 30o
TAB D
B θ B
θ TCD
50 o
C 50o TBC
C
Consider the FBD20kN
of joint B 20kN
30kN 30kN
 Fx = 0 i.e. TABsin20 – 20sin50 = 0
 TAB = 44.8kN TAB
 Fy = 0 i.e. 44.8cos20 – 20cos50 - TBC = 0 y x
20o
 TBC = 29.24kN 29.24kN
TCD B
50o θ TBC
50o
Consider FBD of joint C C 20kN
FBD of joint B
30kN
FBD of Joint C
 Fx = 0 i.e. –29.24sin50 + TCDsin = 0

TCD sin = 22.4 (1)

 Fy = 0 i.e 29.24cos50 + TCDcos - 30 = 0
TCDcos = 11.2 (2)
Tan  = (22.4/11.2)   = 63.43o and TCD = 25kN

Example (21)

A wire is fixed at two points A and D as shown in figure. Determine the angle  and the
tension in the various segments.

A A
o
30 D D
TAB
30o
60o o
B B θ 60 TCD
θ C TBC C
20kN
20kN
25kN 25kN

FBD of joint B TAB

30o
 Fx = 0 i.e. TABsin30 – TBCsin = 0
 TAB = 2TBCsin……….(1)
B
 Fy = 0 i.e -TBCcos - 20 + (2TBCsin) cos30 = 0 θ
 TBC(1.732sin - cos) = 20 ---------(2) 20kN TBC
FBD of joint B
FBD of joint C
 Fx = 0 i.e. TCDsin60 - TBCsin = 0 TCD
TBC o
 TCD = 1.155TBCsin……….(3) θ 60
 Fy = 0 i.e. TBCcos + ( 1.155TBCsin)cos60 – 25 = 0 C
 TBC(cos + 0.577sin) = 25………(4)
From equations (2) & (4) 25kN
cos + 0.577sin = 1.25 i.e 2.25cos = 1.588sin FBD of joint C

1.732sin - cos   = 54.79o From eqn. (4) TBC = 23.85kN;

From eqation(3) TCD =22.5kN
From eqn (1) TAB = 38.97kN
 CHAPTER – II
COPLANAR NON-CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

Moment of a force:

Moment of a force is the rotational effect of a force on a body. The moment of a

force about any point A is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance from A to the line of action of force .
MA = Fd Nm

Moment of a force has both magnitude and sense. It may either be clockwise or
anti-clockwise. Moment may be added algebraically if a sign convention is adopted.

Varignon’s Theorem (The theorem of moments)

Statement: The moment of a force about any point in its plane is equal to the algebraic
sum of the moments of the moment of its components about the same point.

Explanation:
Consider the force F acting at point A and let P and Q be its components in any
two directions. The moment of F about any point B is Fd. Moment of P and Q about the
same point is Pd1 and Qd2. Then according to the theorem,
Fd = Pd1 + Qd2.

Proof:
Let the reference axes have the origin at A and x-axis perpendicular to the line AB and y-
axis along the line AB. Let  be the angle formed by F with the x-axis y
Fd = F(AB cos) = AB(F cos) = AB Fx ………….(1)
Similarly Pd1 = P(AB cos1) = AB(P cos1) = AB Px……….(2) B d2
Qd2 = Q(AB cos2) = AB(Q cos2) = AB Qx……..(3) Q
From (2) and (3) d F
Pd1 + Qd2 = AB(Px + Qx) = ABFx = Fd from (1) d1
 Fd = Pd1 + Qd2 Hence the proof. θ2 θ
A P
θ1

Note: While adding the moments, the sense ( clockwise or anticlockwise) of each
moment must be considered.
Example (1)
Assuming clockwise moment as positive, compute the moment of the 450N force about
the points A, B, C, D and E.
E E
A A
450N
270N

36.87o
D D
360N

B C B C
MA = -270x1 – 360x3 = 1350Nm(anticlockwise)
MB = -270x1 + 360x3 = 810Nm (clockwise)
MC = 270x4 + 360x3 = 2160Nm (clockwise)
MD = 270x5 = 1350Nm (clockwise)
ME = 0 (the 450N force passes through E)

Example (2)
Determine the y-coordinate of the point A if the 361N force has a clockwise moment of
400Nm about 0. Also find the x and y intercepts of the line of action of the force.
y y 200N
361N
2 33.69o
2m A 3 A 300N
yA
yA yi
x x
O xi O
To find yA

MFo = moment of its components about O

400 = 300 yA – 200x2  yA = 2.67m

To find the x intercept

400 = 200 xi  xi = 2m

To find the y intercept

400 = 300yi  yi = 1.33m
Couple:
Two forces of the same magnitude, parallel line of action and opposite sense form a
couple.
F
Moment of the couple M = FdNm(clockwise)
d
F F

Properties of couples:

(i) Moment M of a couple is a constant.

Consider the moment about C F F
of the two equal and opposite forces F and F.
MC = F(x+d) – Fx = Fd(clockwise) C B A
x d

Hence moment of a couple is equal to the product of the magnitude of one of the
forces and the distance between their line of action. It is independent of the moment
centre or the point of application. A couple is therefore fully defined by the magnitude of
the moment it produces and its sense- clockwise or anticlockwise.

(ii) Equivalent couples:

Couples produce rotation of the body. Two systems of forces are equivalent if they
have the same effect on the body. Hence two couples having the same moment (same
magnitude and sense) are equivalent.
200N
100N 200mm
100mm
200N
100N

M = 100×200 = 20Nm M = 200×100 = 20Nm

The two couples are equivalent.

(iii) Couples add algebraically.

Two couples may be replaced by a single couple of moment equal to the algebraic
sum of the moment of the given couples.

20Nm 50Nm 30Nm

(iv) Resolution of a force into a force-couple system:

Consider a force F acting at B. (Fig: (a). Suppose for some reason we would have
it act at A to produce the same effect. Consider two equal and opposite forces applied at
A. (Fig: (b). This will not change the original effect of the system (principle of
superposition.).
 We observe that F at B and F’ at A form a couple of moment M = Fd. As couple is
independent of its point of application, the force F acting at B is replaced by a force at A
and the couple of magnitude M as shown in Fig: (c).
F F F F
d d B d B
A B A A
M = Fd
Fig: (a) Fig: (b) F’ Fig: (c)

Statement: A force F acting at any point B may be moved to any other point A
provided a couple is added, the moment of the couple M to be added is equal to the
moment of F in its original position B taken about the new point A.

Example:(4)
Replace the 50N force by a force-couple system at A.

7075Nmm
A A
50N
150mm

B 43.3N B

250mm 50N
25N

Couple M = 25×250 – 43.3×150 = 7075Nmm

(v) Combining a force and a couple into a single force

Consider a force F and a couple M shown in Fig:(a). To reduce this system to a

single force F, move the force F until its moment about A is equal to the moment M of the
couple to be eliminated. The direction of F will remain unchanged but the new line of
action will be at a distance d from A given by Fd = M.
F
F
M
d
A A B
Fig: (a) Fig: (b)

Example: (5):

Replace the force-couple system shown by a single force and indicate its magnitude,
direction and line of action.
200Nm 800N
0.5m
0.25m
A 800N A
d = M/F = 200/800 = 0.25m above A
Example (6)

Replace the force-couple system by a single force and indicate its magnitude, direction
and line of action.
Moment of the couple M = 5040 = 2000Nmm

The distance through which the 100N force is to be moved is given by :

d = M/F =2000/100
 d = 20mm to the left of A as shown in Fig:(b)
50N

40mm
20mm
A A
50N 100N
100N
Fig: (a) Fig: (b)
Example: (7)

Replace the force couple system by a single force and locate its line of action from O
(i) on the line AB (ii) on the line CD.
960N 960N
C 831.6N
120N 22.9mm
A O 60o B O 60o
480N 50mm
100mm
D 120N

Fig: (a) Fig: (b) Fig: (c)

Moment of the couple M = 1200.2 = 24Nm (anticlockwise)

Distance along AB: x = M/Fy = 24x103/831.6 = 28.8mm (right of O)

Distance along CD: y = M/Fx = 24x103/480 = 50mm (below O)

Resultant of Coplanar Non-concurrent Force System:

Procedure
(i) Clearly indicate the reference axes in the diagram.

(ii) Resolve the forces into x and y components.

(iii) Determine the rectangular components of the resultant using:

Rx =  Fx and Ry =  Fy
RY R
(iv) Indicate Rx and Ry in a vector diagram and find
θ
R =  (Rx)2 + (Ry)2 and  = tan –1(Ry/Rx)
RX
(v) Compute the moment of all the forces about the origin of the coordinate axes.
Assume the intercept of the resultant as x and y and indicate the assumed line of
action of the resultant in the diagram.
To find the x-intercept:

 MF + = Moment of the resultant ( according to Varignon’s theorem)

= Rx  (y ) y = MF/Rx
llly MF = Ry  (x) x = MF/Ry

Note: A negative sign of x-intercept or y-intercept will imply that the position
initially assumed is wrong and that the correct point through which the resultant
passes is in the opposite quadrant.
Indicate clearly the magnitude, direction and location of the resultant in a neat
diagram.

Example (8)
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the force system and locate its
line of action.
250N 150N 250N
o 106.1N
45 B
A 500mm B A
106.1N

300mm
R (Assumed line of action)

25N x 108.3N
D
50N o C 30o O C
30 125N y 62.5N
43.3N
To determine R and  250.3N
Rx =  Fx = -25 + 108.3 + 106.1 = 189.4N
Ry =  Fy = -43.3 – 62.5 + 106.1 +250 = 250.3N R
R = 189.4 2  250.3 2 = 313.9N
 250.3  θ
 = tan –1  189.4  = 52.9o 189.4N

To find the line of action

M + = 62.5500 + 106.1300 – 106.1500 = 10030Nmm R=313.9N

To find x intercept: 52.9o

 MF + = Ryx) +
10030 = -250.3 x  x = 40mm to the left of O
To find y intercept: 53mm
 MF + = Rxy +
10030 = -189.4 y  y = 53mm above O 40mm O

Note: x-intercept and y-intercept values are negative implying that the intercepts
are in the opposite quadrants as indicated in the diagram.
Example: (9)
A square plate of 300mm side is subjected to five forces acting at the corners, mid points
and quarter point of the sides. Determine the location and magnitude of the resultant.
500N 433N
500N o 500N
60 250N
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm
o
500N 30
433N
300mm 300mm
250N R

300N 300N
A A 225mm 75mm
225mm 75mm
300N
300N
To find R and  200N
Rx =  Fx = 250 + 250 – 300 = 200N
θ
Ry =  Fy = -433 – 500 + 433 + 300 = 200N
R
R = 2002  2002 = 282.8N
 200 
 = tan -1   = 45
o
200N
 200 

To find the line of action R = 282.8N

 MF + = 250150 – 433150 + 250300 – 300225
= 19950Nmm 99.75mm
To find the x intercept: 45o A
 MF + = Ry(x) + 99.75mm
-19950 = 200(x) x = 99.75mm (left of O)
 MF + = Rxy +
-19950 = 200(y) y = 99.75mm (below O)

Example: (10)
Determine completely the resultant of the five forces shown.
70.7kN 22.36kN
100kN

50kN
70.7kN 70.7kN
44.72kN
44.72kN
100 50kN 100kN 70.7kN
mm 100 A
A mm 141.4kN 141.4kN
22.36kN
To find R and 
Rx =  Fx = 44. 72 + 70.7 + 70.7 – 44.72 – 141.4 = 0
Ry =  Fy = - 22.36 + 70.7 – 70.7 + 22.36 = 0
 Resultant force R = 0 26.77kNm
Consider moment about O
 M = 44.720.1 + 70.70.2 + 70.70.2 + 70.70.2 – 44.720.2
- 22.360.5 = 26.77kNm(clockwise.

Hence the resultant of the force system is a pure couple of magnitude 26.77kNm
clockwise.

Example (11)
Determine the force F and the moment M required to adjust the resultant of the force
system acting on the frame to pass through the points B and E shown in figure.

200N
200N Line of action of the resultant
200
200mm
B F Sin45
B F 175N 87.5N
200mm 200
M M
45o 30o Fcos45 151.6N
200 200 E 200 200 200 E 200
mm mm mm 200 200
300N mm 300N
30o 130N
150N
 ME = 0 since the resultant passes through E. 75N
i.e. 2000.4 + 3000.4 + M + 87.50.2 + 1300.2 – 750.2 = 0
 M = 228.5x103Nmm

 MB = 0 Since the resultant passes through B.

i.e. 2000.2 – 228.5103 + 87.50.6 + 151.60.2 + 1300.4 –750.6 + (Fsin45) 0.4 +
(Fcos45) 0.2 = 0
 F(0.6xsin45 + 0.2xcos45) = 98.68 F = 232.7N

Example: (12)
For the configuration shown in figure, the resultant R acting at B is the resultant of the
force system, including the unknown vertical force FC through C and the unknown force
FA at A. Determine the unknowns.
650N FC 600N
FC
12 125mm
100mm 5 Fsin C 250N
C
F 100mm 100mm
1000Nm
1000Nm Fcos
 RX=225N
A B A 100mm 100mm B
100mm 100mm
4 R=375N
400N 3 400N RY=300N
25N
Rx+ =  Fx+
FA
225 = FA(cos) + 250 FA(cos) = 25N
4550N
MB + = 0 since the resultant passes through B.
i.e. FA(sin)0.2 + 1000 – 4000.1 – 6000.125 + 2500.1 = 0
FA(sin) = 4550 N

FA = 25 2  45502 = 4550N  = tan –1(4550/25) = 89.69o

Also Ry+ =  Fy+ -300 = -4550 –400 + FC + 600  FC = 4050N

EQUILIBRIUM OF COLANAR NON CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM

A rigid body is said to be in equilibrium if the external forces acting on it form a
system of forces equivalent to zero. i.e. a system which has no resultant force or resultant
couple.
Hence the necessary and sufficient condition for a rigid body to be in equilibrium are:
 Fx = 0 ,  Fy = 0 ------------- No Translation.
M = 0 ------------ No rotation.
In other words, the forces acting on a rigid body if in equilibrium, do not impart to
the body , any translation or any rotation.

Translation: Motion from one point to another point is called translation.

Rotation: Motion about a point is called rotation.

Alternate form of equilibrium condition:

 A
B 
Consider three non-collinear points A, B and C. 
C
If  MA = 0, Resultant may be a force through A.
Now if  MB = 0, resultant if still exists must be a force along the line AB.
MC = 0 implies that the system is in equilibrium.
Hence  MA = 0,  MB = 0, MC = 0 where A, B C are any three points not on a straight
line.

Statically Determinate Structures:

For a system to be statically determinate, there must be no more unknowns than
there are independent equations of static equilibrium.

In a planar system, number of independent equations available are three, namely:

Fx = 0, Fy = 0,  M = 0

Hence the maximum number of unknowns for a planar system to be determinate is

three.
Statically Indeterminate Structures:
If the number of unknowns are more than the number of available equations of
equilibrium, the structure is statically indeterminate.

The unknowns are generally the support reactions.

R=T

Types of Supports and Reactions:

T
(i) Flexible cables, ropes etc. T
Tensile force directed along the cord and directed
away from the body.
W
One unknown force of known direction.

(ii) Action of smooth surfaces: W

A force normal to the surface of contact directed towards the body.
One unknown force of known direction.

(iii) Smooth roller supports:

Reaction force perpendicular to the surface on which the roller can move.
One unknown force of known direction.

(iv) Smooth pin or hinge support:

Prevents translation in any direction but allows rotation.
Two unknowns ; a force of known magnitude and unknown direction.

(v) Fixed supports:

It prevents translation and rotation:
Three unknowns; an unknown force of unknown direction and a couple.

o oo
o 90o M
RX
RX
R RY
R RY
R
Roller Support Hinge (pin) Support Fixed Support
Two Special Conditions of Equilibrium:

1. Two Force System

Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under the action of only two forces, then the two
forces must be equal in magnitude, opposite sense and collinear.
F2
Proof:
Consider a body in equilibrium under the action of two forces F1 and F2 Ao
Since the system is in equilibrium,
 MA = 0 Bo
The line of action of F1 must pass through A
F1
i.e. Line of action of F1 must be along AB. F2
Also  MB = 0 since the system is in equilibrium. o
 The line of action of F2 also must be along AB. A
Hence the two forces must be collinear.
B
Also  Fx = 0 ( x-axis along AB) o

 F1 – F2 = 0 i.e. F1 = F2 F1
Hence the two forces have the same magnitude, opposite sense and same line of action.

2. Three Force System.

Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three non-parallel forces, then
they must be concurrent.

Proof:
Consider a body in equilibrium under the action of three non parallel forces F1, F2 and F3.
Since the forces are non parallel, let the two forces , F2
say F1 and F2 meet at D. o F1
oA B
Since the system is in equilibrium,
o
MD = 0 i.e. the line of action of F3 must pass through D o D
Hence the three forces are concurrent. C
F3

Type of Loading (Applied Forces) on Structures:

(1) Concentrated load or point load. W
Assumed to act at a point.
R1 R2
(2) Uniformly distributed load (udl) or rectangular load
The intensity of the applied load is same throughout.
Equivalent point load W = Total load = wL
This equivalent point load acts through the C.G of the rectangle.

wL
w/m L
w/m
2
L L L
(a) (b) (c)

Representation of uniformly distributed load Equivalent point load

(3)Uniformly varying load (Triangular load)

1
w/m 2 wL
L 2
3
L L

Representation of triangular load Equivalent point load

(4) Trapezoidal load w1L ½(w2-w1)L
w2/m L/2

w1/m

L (2/3)L
Representation of Trapezoidal load Equivalent point load

This can be considered as two loads. A udl of intensity w1/m and a triangular load of
intensity (w2-w1)/m. Hence may be replaced by two point loads acting through their
respective C.G.

Example (13)
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B for the beam loaded as shown.
50kN 50kN (202)=40kN

A 20kN/m RBX RBsin35

B
1m 2m A 1m 2m 1m B
1m
o
35 RBY RB
RBcos35
Free Body Diagram of the Beam
 MA + = 0 i.e. 501 + (202)3 – RB cos354 = 0 RB = 51.9kN
 Fx = 0 i.e. RAx – 51.9sin35 = 0 RAx = 29.8kN
 Fy = 0 i.e. RAy – 50 – 202 + 51.9cos35 = 0 RAy = 47.5kN

Example (14)
Determine the reactions at A and B for the beam loaded as shown.
34.64kN
40kN 6kN/m
RAX 5kN/m 8kNm
A 20kN B
4m 2m 2m 2m 3m
RAY

 MA + = 0 i.e. (54)2 + 34.646 + 8 – RB10 + ½(63)12 = 0  RB = 36.38kN

Fx+ = 0 i.e. RAx – 20 = 0 RAx = 20kN
 Fy+ = 0 i.e. RAy – 54 – 34.64 – ½(63) + 36.38 = 0  RAy = 27.26kN
Total reaction at the hinge A
RA
RA = 20 2  27.26 2 = 33.81kN
 27.26  27.26kN
 = tan –1  20  = 53.73o 
20kN
Example (15)
Determine the reactions at the supports A and B for the frame loaded as shown.
RAY
A RAX A
100N 34.2N
100mm 20o 100mm
150N 94N 200N
100mm 200N 96.4N
100mm
40o B 114.9N B
150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm 150mm
RB
 MA + = 0 i.e. 940.1 + 96.40.15 + 114.90.2 + 2000.3 – RB0.45 = 0
RB = 237.4N
 Fx+ = 0 i.e. RAx – 94 – 114.9 = 0 RAx = 208.9kN
 Fy + = 0 i.e. RAy – 34.2 – 96.4 – 200 + 237.4 = 0  RAy = 93.2N

RA
Total reaction at the hinge A 93.2N

RA = 208.9 2  93.2 2 = 228.7N 

 93.2 
 = tan  208.9  = 24.04o
–1  208.9N

Example (16)
A cylinder of mass 30kg rests in a right angled frame as shown. Find the reactions at the
hinge and roller support.
293.4N
254.9N B
180mm B o 147.2N
30

30kg 600mm
600mm RB
30o A
A
RAX RAY

Forces resolved parallel to the frame

 MA + = 0 i.e. –147.290 + 254.990 – RB600 = 0 RB = 16.2N
 Fx = 0 i.e. RAx – 147.2 = 0  RAx = 147.2N
 Fy = 0 i.e. RAy – 254.9 + 16.2 = 0  RAy = 238.7N RA

Total reaction at the hinge A

238.7N  147.2N
RA = 238.7 2  147.2 2 = 280.4N o
 238.7  30
 = tan –1  147.2  = 58.3o

= 58.3 + 30 = 88.3o (with the horizontal)

Example (17)
Two identical prismatic bars PQ and RS each of weight 7.5N are welded together to form
a Tee and is suspended in the vertical plane as shown. Find the angle  made by the bar
PQ with the vertical when the 10N load is applied at S.
.
o P
o P



(L/2)sin
o
R
Ro 7.5N (L)sin
Q
Q (L/2)cos-Lsin
o
S 7.5N oS
10N
10N
MP + = 0 i.e. –7.5(1/2L sin) – 7.5(L sin) + 10(1/2L cos - L sin) = 0
( 3.75 + 7.5 + 10) sin = 5 cos Tan = 5/21.25
 = 13.24o

Example (18)
Two links AB and DE are connected by a bell crank as shown. Knowing that the tension
in AB is 900N, find the tension in the link DE and the reaction at C.

oD
100mm 150mm
100mm 150mm
D o 540N A
o
A
o
o E o112.5mm 75mm TDE
75mm 90 o
oB
C 900N 720N 36.87 o C RCX
o
TDE
TAB RCY

 MC + = 0 i.e. –720100 – 54075 + TDE150 = 0 TDE = 750N

 Fx = 0 i.e. –540 + RCx = 0  RCx = 540N
 Fy = 0 i.e. –720 + RCy – 750 = 0  RCy = 1470N
CHAPTER – III

CENTROIDS AND SECOND MOMENT OF AREAS

1. CENTROIDS

Centre of Gravity (C.G)

Centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the resultant force of gravity acts.

Centre of gravity of flat plate.

The location of the centre of gravity can be done analytically by the application of
the principle of moments, i.e. moment of the resultant is equal to the moment sum of its
parts.

Consider a flat plate of irregular shape divided into small elements of weights w1,
w2, w3, etc. These gravity forces form a set of parallel forces, the resultant of which is the
total weight W of the plate. Let the coordinates of the elemental weights be (x1,y1), (x2,
y2), (x3, y3) etc.
y W
Taking moment of weights about y – axis, z w1
W X = w1x1 + w2x2 + w3x3 -------- wnxn. w2
= wi xi w3
Similarly
WY = w1y1 + w2y2 + w3y3 -------- wnyn
=  wi yi
Also W = w1 + w2 + w3 + --------- wn 0 x
=  wi

X=
 w ixi & Y =  wiyi
 wi  wi
(X, Y ) are the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the plate.

Centroid of lines and areas.

In the case of a homogeneous plate of uniform thickness, the magnitude of the

weight w of an element may be expressed as:
w = ta
Where,  = weight per unit volume, t = thickness , a = area of the element.
Substituting the above values in the formula for X and Y we get:

𝐗 =  
wx ( ta)x  ax

 w  ta  a
llly 𝒀 =
 ay
a
The point of coordinates X , Y is known as the centroid of the area A of the plate.
Centroid:
Centroid of an area is defined as the point corresponding to the centre of gravity of a
plate of unit thickness.

The above equations can also be written in the following form:

𝑿 = ( dA x)/ dA & 𝒀 = ( dA y)/ dA where dA is an elementary area.

Note: If the plate is non homogeneous, the above formula cannot be used to determine
the centre of gravity but they still define the centroid of the area.
y
Centroid of lines: x dl
𝑋 L =  dl x 𝑋 = ( dl x)/  dl y
Similarly 𝑌 =( dl y)/  dl x
O

First moment of area:

The product of the area and the perpendicular distance from the centre of area to
the axis of moment is defined as the first moment of area or simply as the moment of
area.

Centroidal axis: An axis passing through the centroid is known as the centroidal axis.
The first moment of an area about its centroidal axis is zero.
Since the centroid is on the axis, X = 0

But X =
 ax = 0  a x = 0
 a

Line of symmetry:
A line which divides the given area into two parts such that one is the mirror image
of the other is called a line of symmetry.

If the given area has a line of symmetry, its centroid is located on that line.
If the given area has two lines of symmetry, the centroid is located at the point of
intersection of the two lines.

45o
Determination of Centroid by Direct Integration:

(1) Centroid of an arc of a circle. y

Let x-axis be along the axis of symmetry. x=r cos
 Y = 0 (Since the centroid lies on the axis)
Consider an elemental length of the arc dL = r d r dL
L X =  dL x d
   x
L =  
rd = 2 r  O 
 
 dL x =  (rd )(r cos )  r  cos d = 2 r sin
2 2

 

2r sin 
2
r sin 
 X = =
2 r 
𝝅 𝟐𝒓
Special case: Semi circular arc i.e.  = ; X =
𝟐 𝝅
y
x cos
(2) Centroid of a circular sector:
r dx
x
Let the axis of symmetry be chosen as x-axis d
 Y = 0  0 x
Consider an elemental area at a radial distance x, O 
thickness dx between  and (  + d)
𝒅𝑨×𝒙
dA = x d dx X =
𝒅𝑨
𝑟 𝛼 𝑟 𝛼
A =  dA = 0 −𝛼
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 = 0
𝑥(𝑑𝑥) −𝛼
𝑑𝜃 = r2 
𝑟 𝛼 2r 3 sin 
 dA x = (𝑥𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 −𝛼
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 =
3
2 3
r sin 
2 sin 
X = 3 2 
r  3
𝝅 4r
Special case: Semi-circular area,  = X =
𝟐 3

(3)Centroid of a triangular area: h (h-y)

Consider a small strip of thickness dy at a height y
from the base.
b h b( h  y ) dy
 x = x
x (h  y ) h y
Y =  (dA y)/  dA
h h b
 dA =  xdy  (b / h) (h  y )dy  (b / h)  (h – h /2)
2
= ½ bh
0 0

 
h
bh 2
 dA y = (b/h)  (h  y )ydy  (b / h ) hy / 2  y / 3  1 / 6 bh
2 3 2
 Y=  h/3
0 6bh / 2
𝐡
Centroid of a triangular area is at a height of from its base.
𝟑
Centroid of composite areas:
The centroid of a composite area can be located using the principle of moments,
i.e. the first moment of a composite area with respect to x and y axes is equal to the sum
of the first moment of its parts about the same axes.
Divide the plane area into a finite number of regular areas such as rectangles,
triangles semi-circles etc.
If a1, a2, a3 etc are the areas of regular units with their centroids (x1, y1); (x2, y2);
(x3, y3) etc, then
 a𝑋 = a1x1 + a2x2 + a3x3 + ------------------an xn
 a𝑌 = a1y1 + a2y2 + a3y3 + -------------------an yn

X
 ax and Y 
 ay
a a
CENTRID OF SOME OF THE REGULAR AREAS

Sl.N Figure Area X Y

o

1 bd d/2
d
𝒀
Y
b

h
2 (1/2)bh h/3

𝒀
b

3 (1/2)r2 0 0.424 r
C
𝒀=0.424r
r

4 r (1/4) r2 0.424 r 0.424 r

𝒀=0.424r
Example (1)
With respect to the coordinate axes, OX and OY, locate the centroid of the shaded area
shown.
y

60mm
60mm
60mm 2 3

60mm m 60mm 1

O x
140mm 140mm 60mm
a  a 1  a 2  a 3  140  60  1 / 2(140  60)  1 / 260  18255mm 2 2

1 2 1
 ax  (140  60)70  ( 2140  60) 3 140  2 60 2
(140  0.424  60)  1915  10 3 mm 3

1 60 1
 ay  (140  60)30  2140  60(60  3
)  60 2 (60)  927.3  10 3 mm 3
2

X
 ax  1915  10  104.9mm
3
Y
 ay  927.3  103  50.8mm
a 18255 a 18255

Example (2)
Determine the centroid of the shaded area shown.

60mm 60mm

50mm 2 3
90mm

40mm 4 1 40mm

O
35mm 75mm 35mm

 a  40  110  50  60  1 450  2 1
2 90  75  5988mm 2

 ax  (40  110)55  (50  60)30  1

4 50 2 (60  0.424  50)  1 2 90  75  25  407.1  10 3 mm 3

 ay  40  110  20  50  60  65  1
4 50 2 (40  0.424  50)  1 2 90  75  30  301.9  10 3 mm 3

X
 ax  407.1  10  68mm;
3
Y
 ay  301.9  10 3
 50.42mm
a 5988 a 5988
Example (3)
Locate the centroid of the shaded area with respect to the axes shown.

140mm 2 2
240mm
100mm 100mm 1
60mm
60mm 4
x
40mm 60mm 60mm 40mm 200mm
150mm 150mm 3

150mm 150mm
a = 100200 +1/2 200140 + 150150 – 1/2602 = 50845mm2
 ax  100  200  100  1 2 200  140  2 3 200  150  150  (75)  1 2 602  100  1614  103 mm 3
140
 ay  100  200  50  1
2 200  140  (100 
3
)  150  150  ( 75)  1 2 60 2 (0.424  60)

 1222  10 3 mm 3

X
 ax  1614  10 3
 31.74mm Y
 ay  1222  10 3
 24.03mm
a 50845 a 50845

Example (4)
Determine the centroid of the shaded area with respect to x and y axes shown.
y

100mm
100mm 2 1
x
O
100mm 100mm
3
100mm 100mm

 a  100  100  100  100  100  17854mm

1
4
2 1
2
1
2
2

 ax  100 (0.424  100)  100  100( 100) 

1
4
2 1
2
1
3
1
2 100  100( 1 3 100)  333  10 3 mm 3

X
 ax  17854  18.65mm  Y
 a 333  10 3

Due to symmetry = X  Y = 18.65mm

Example (5)
It is required to shift the centroid of the rectangle from 0 to 01 ; 001 = 20mm. This is
accomplished by removing a rectangular portion of 200mm width symmetrical about x-x
axis. Find the area of the portion removed.

y
y

B
20mm
200mm x
600mm O O1

1000mm

Since the centroid of the remaining portion is at 01, X = 20mm

 a = 1000600 – 200 B
ax = 0 – 200 B ( - ½ B) = 100 B2

X
 ax  100B 2 ; B 2  40(3000  B)
 a 200(3000  B)
 40  40 2  4  120  10 3
i .e.B 2  40B  120  10 3  0; B  327mm
2
Area of the portion removed = 200 B = 200327 = 65400mm2
(2)SECOND MOMENT OF AREAS

Introduction:
Consider hydrostatic pressure acting on the sides of a container. We know that the
pressure at any depth is proportional to the depth from the top. Force on an elementary
area dA located at a distance y from the top therefore will be
dF = Pressure x area = ky(dA)
Moment of this force about the top = ky2(dA) y
Total moment M =  ky2 dA = k  y2 dA dA
ky
In this total moment expression, the integral term  dA y2
is involved.
This integral is known as the second moment of area.
Pressure diagram
Application of this will be extensively involved in the study of strength of materials.

Although the above integral is generally called the moment of inertia of the area about the
axis, a more appropriate term is the second moment of area. The term (dA y) is called
first moment of area. (used in the determination of centroids). This when multiplied by the
moment arm y, we obtain the second moment of the area.

The second moment of area is a purely mathematical property of the area and in
itself has no physicl significnce.
y
Definition: x dA
Consider an area ‘A’ in the x-y plane.
The second moment of area of an elementary area dA r y
About x and y axes are by definition
dIx = y2 dA and dIy = x2 dA O x
z
Second moment of the total area ‘A’

I xx   dAy 2 ----(1) I yy   dAx 2 ------(2)

Second moment of ‘dA’ about O ( z-axis or polar axis) dIz = dA r2

Izz = Ip = J =  dA r2 ------- (3)

The expressions (1) and (2) are known as the rectangular second moment of
inertia and (3) as the polar second moment of inertia.
From the figure: r2 = x2 + y2
Ip = dA r2 = dA( x2 + y2) = dA x2 + dA y2
 Ip = Ixx + Iyy

NOTE: Since the moment of inertia expression involves square of the distance, the
second moment of area ( moment of inertia as is generally called) about any axis
will be a positive quantity. We have seen that the first moment of area involved in
the computation of centroids could be positive or negative and is zero about the
centroidal axis.
Radius of gyration:
Imagine that the entire area be concentrated into a thin strip at a distance rxx from the x
I xx
axis. Then by definition: Ixx = A rxx2  rxx =
A
rxx is known as the radius of gyration of the area about x axis.
Similarly ryy and rzz will be the radius of gyration about y axis and z axis
I yy I
ryy  rzz  zz
A A
Since I zz  I xx  I yy rzz  rxx  ryy
2 2 2
y A

y y
ryy
A
rzz A x
rxx x O
x O
O

Parallel axis theorem:

Statement: Second moment of area about any axis in its plane is equal to the
second moment of area about the parallel centroidal axis plus the product of the area and
the square of the distance between the two axes.
Explanation:
Consider any axis x-x. Let xo-xo be the centroidal axis parallel to the x-x axis. Let d be
the distance between the two axes. Then according to the parallel axis theorem,
Ixx = Ixoxo + A d2
Proof
Consider an elementary area dA located at a distance y from x-x axis and y’ from the
centroidal axis xoxo
By definition Ixx =  dA y2 =  dA(y’ + d)2 =  dA(y’2 + 2dy’ + d2)
=  dA y’2 + 2d dA y’ + d2 dA
dA
But  dA y’ = Ixoxo (by definition)
2
dA
 dAy’ = 0 (first moment of area about the centroidal axis) x y’ xo
o
d  dA = A d
2 2
since  dA = the total area y
2 d
Hence Ixx = Ixoxo + Ad
Similarly Iyy = Iyoyo + A d2 and Izz = Izozo + A d2 x x
where d is the corresponding distance between the axes.

Note:
(1) The axes between which the transfer is made must be parallel.
(2) One of the axes must pass through the centroid.
(3) If transfer is required between two non centroidal axes, it is therefore obvious that it is
necessary to transfer from one axis to the parallel centroidal axis first and then
transfer to the second axis.
(4) The parallel axis theorem holds good for radius of gyration rxx2 = rxoxo2 + d2 where
d is the distance between the two axes.
Second moment of area by integration:

(1) Second moment of a rectangular area about its base and the
centroidal axis parallel to the base.
b
To find second moment of area about the base:
Consider a thin strip of thickness dy at a distance y from base.
By definition,
d
 by 3 
d
bd 3 xo d xo
I x x   dAy   (bdy )y  
2
  2

0  3 0 3 dy
To find about the centroidal axis parallel to the base. y
I xx  I xoxo  Ad 2 x x
We have by the parallel axis bd 3 d bd 3
I xoxo   (bd )( ) 2  I xoxo 
3 2 12

(2)Second moment of a triangular area about its base and centroidal

axis parallel to the base.
To find second moment of area about the base:
Consider a thin strip parallel to the base.
Let x be the width of the strip
From similar triangles:
x hy b
  x  (h  y ) - - - - - - - (1)
b h h
dy
By definition: x h
I xx   dAy 2 y
h xo xo
b  hy 3 y 4 
h
b bh 3
  (h  y )y 2 dy     
h h 3 4 0 12 x x
0 b
To find about the centroidal axis parallel to the base :
We have I xx  I xoxo  Ad 2
bh 3 1 h bh 3
I xoxo   2 bh ( ) 2  I xoxo 
12 3 36

(3)Second moment of a circular area about its diameters and about the
polar axis through its centre.
Consider an elemental area located at a radial y
dx
distance x and of thickness dx between  and (  + d) x
d
dA = x dx d; dIxx = dA(x sin) Ixx =  x dx d(x sin)
2 2
r 2

  x dx  1 2(1  cos 2)d
3

0 0
2
  sin 2  r 4 r 4
4
r
 2   ; Due to symmetry I x x  I yy 
4  4  0 4 4
(4)Second moment of area of a semi-circular area:
yo
(a) About its diameter
r 

 x dx  1 2(1  cos 2)d

3

0 0 dx
Ixx=  x
  sin 2 
r4 r 4 xsin d
 2   

4 4  0 8 x
Ixx = Iyoyo = (1/8) r4

(b) About the centroidal horizontal axis parallel to the diameter.

We have Ixx = Ixoxo + Ad2
Ixoxo = (1/8) r4 – ½  r2(0.424 r)2 = 0.11 r4

y yo
(5)Second moment of a quarter circular area :
(a) about the diameters

/2
(1  cos 2)d r 4
r

 x dx    I yy
3
Ixx = xo xo
0 0
2 16

(b) about the centroidal axis parallel to the diameter x

yo
Ixoxo = Ixx – Ad2 = (1/16) r4 – (1/4)  r2(0.424 r)2 = 0.055 r4 = Iyoyo

Second moment of composite areas:

The second moment of a composite area can be determined after dividing it into a finite
number of regular areas like square, rectangle, triangles etc. The second moment of the
composite area is equal to the sum of the second moment of the individual areas.

Example: (6)
Calculate the second moment of area and the radius of gyration about x-axis of the
shaded area shown.

20mm 3
20mm
1
40mm
20mm 2
20mm
X X
O O 40mm 40mm
40mm 40mm
a = 8040 – ½ 4040 – ¼  202 = 2086mm2
80  403 40  403   20 2
Ixx =   0.055  20 
4
(40  0.424  20) 2  1172  103 mm 4
3 12 4
I xx 1172  10 3
rxx    23.71mm
A 2086
Example (7)
Determine the second moment of the shaded area about an axis passing through its
centroid and parallel to the x-x axis.
200mm

200mm 200mm
200mm
X X
300mm 300mm
Y=240.7mm
x x x x
400mm
A = a = 400500 -  (100)2 = 168.6103mm2
40.58  106
 ay  400  500  250   1002  300  40.58  106 mm 3  Y 
168.6  10 3
 240.7mm

400  5003  1004

I XX   400  500  (9.3) 
2
  1002  (59.3) 2  3995  106 mm 4
12 4

Example (8)
Find the spacing between the two areas such that: Ixx = Iyy. The two rectangles are
60mm x 20mm. y
y
20mm
Ixx = 2 (1/12)60203 + 6020(10 +d/2)2
and Iyy = 2(1/12) 60320
Ixx = Iyy x x
d
i.e. (1/12)2060 2 = 2(1/12)6020 + 26020(10+d/2)2
3 3

i.e. (10 + d/2)2 = 266.7  d = 12.66mm 20mm

60mm
Example (9)
With respect to point 0 locate the centroid and the second moment of area about the
centroidal x-x and y-y axes.

y y X=55mm

d=30mm
3 1
24
Y=37.48mm 2
5mm x
40mm O 100mm 40mm 50mm O 100mm 40mm 50mm
To locate the centroid:
90  80  40 2
 a  100  80 
2

2
  15 2  13406mm 2

90  80  130  40 2
 ax  100  80  50  2

2
( 0.404  40)   15 2  125  737  10 3 mm 3
 90  80  26.67  402
 ay  100  80  40  2

2
 40   15 2  20  502.4  103 mm 3

737  10 3
502.4  10 3
X   55mm Y  37.48mm
13406 13406

To determine Ixx
100  80 3 90  80 3 90  80  404  40 2
I XX   100  80  2.5 2    10.83 2    2.5 2
12 36 2 8 2
154
  15 2  17.5 2  6784  106 mm 4
4
80  1003 80  90 3 80  90 40 2
I YY   80  100  5 
2
  75  0.11  40 
2 4
 71.96 2
12 36 2 2
15 4
  15 2  70 2  38.53  106 mm 4
4

Example (10)

Compute the distance ‘x’ so that Ixx = Iyy 23.06mm

X yo
yo
1
6mm
xo X’ xo 2 xo
xo
200mm 180mm

10mm 3 10mm
75mm yo 6 75mm
Consider one of the channels:
a = 7510 + 6180 + 7510 = 2580mm2
59490
ax = 751037.52 + 18063 = 59490mm3  X  23.06mm
2580
 10 3  75 2 6  1803
I x ox o    75  10  95  2   16.47  10 6 mm 4
 12  12
 10  75 3 
I yoyo    10  75  14.44 2  2  180  6 3 / 12  180  6  20.03 2  1.454  10 6 mm 4
 12 
Now consider the composite section:
I xx  16.47  10 6  2  32.94  10 6 mm 4
 
I yy  1.454  10 6  2580( X'23.06) 2 2 where X'  X/2
We have I xx  I yy
32.94  10 6  2.908  10 6  5160( X'23.06) 2  ( X' - 23.06)2  5820
X'  99.35mm Hence X  198.7mm
Example (11)
Find the radius of gyration about the x-x axis of the shaded area shown.

56.6mm X
2
X 40mm X 3

1
80mm 56.6mm
80mm

113.2  56.6 2   204

A = 80   20  5143mm
2 2 2
I XX  2  3295 103 mm 4
12 4
I 3295  10 3
rx x    25.31mm
A 5143

Example (12)
Determine the second moment of the shaded area about x-x axis.

2.5mm

2.5mm

x x
5mm 10mm 5mm
20  5 3 10  2.5 3
I XX    195.3mm 4
12 12
 CHAPTER – IV
SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS
Consider a bar of constant cross sectional area loaded at its ends by a pair of
oppositely directed forces acting along the longitudinal axis of the bar. For static
equilibrium, the magnitude of the forces must be equal.
If the forces are directed away from the bar, the bar is said to be in tension and if
the forces are directed towards the bar, the bar is in compression.

x x
P P P P

x x
Bar in tension Bar in compression

P
P’ P P’

Under the action of the external load, the material undergoes deformation. But the
particles of the material exert a resisting force. When this resisting force is equal to the
applied force, deformation stops.
If the portion right of the section x-x is removed, the internal resisting force at
section x-x must balance the external load P on the left portion. This resisting force per
unit area is called stress.

STRESS:
It is defined as the internal resistance per unit area.

Simple stress:
If the stress is constant or uniform at all points of the cross section, it is called stress.

Simple Direct Stress (denoted by  )

If the applied load is axial, the stress developed will be uniform and normal to the cross
sectional area and is called simple direct stress. It is also called axial stress or normal
stress.
At equilibrium:
Applied force = resisting force
i.e. P = stress  area
Applied load P
Hence simple direct stress  = 
Resistingarea A
Load
UNIT: Stress = = N/m2; 1N/m2 is called Pascal denoted by (Pa)
Area
Other units:
1 N/mm2 = 106N/m2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
1 kN/mm2 = 109N/m2 = 103MN/m2 = 103MPa = 1 GPa
Hence 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2; 1 GPa = 1 kN/mm2 = 103 N/mm2
 Compressive load
Compressive stress  =
Cross sectional area

Tensile load
Tensile stress  =
Cross sectional area

Simple shear stress ( Denoted by  )

Shear stress is caused by force acting along or parallel to the resisting area. If the
stress is uniform over the resisting area it is called simple shear stress.

Consider the rivet connecting the two plates subjected to shear

P
P P
P
Rivet connection FBD of the rivet

Shearing force P
Shear stress  = 
Resistingarea c/s area of rivet
This shear stress is called direct shear or simple shear.

Single shear: If only one cross sectional area resist the applied shear force as in the
above case, it is said to be in single shear.

Double shear: In double shear, the applied shear force is resisted by two cross sectional
area as in the case of a butt joint shown below.

P/2
P P
P/2

Joint before failure

FBD of the failed rivet

P P

Joint after the right joint fails

In this case the applied load ‘P’ is resisted by two cross sectional area.
Shearing force P
Shear stress  = =
Resistingarea 2 A

STRAIN
We have studied the relationship between load, area and stress. We now consider
the major field of strength of materials, namely, the change in shape, i.e. the
deformations that accompany a loading.
Strain: It is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
 Change in length dL
Linear strain (denoted by  ) = 
Original length L
It is also called axial strain, simple strain, normal strain
Extension Decrease in length
Tensile strain  = , Compressive strain 
Original length Original length
L + dL L - dL

P P
P P
P L
Tensile strain Compressive strain

Shear strain (denoted by )

Shear deformation is expressed in terms of the angle of displacement.
DD'
Shear strain = tan  =   (  is very small) D’ D C’ C
AD
Change in volume dV 
Volumetric strain  V  
Original volume V
A B
Change in area
Superficial strain =
Original area

STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM

If a specimen of structural steel (mild steel) is gripped between the jaws of a
testing machine and a tensile load is gradually increased and the corresponding
elongation over a gauge length is observed, the following results can be obtained:
Load Change in length
Normal stress = and Linear strain =
Original c/s area Original length
Having obtained numerous pairs of values of normal stress ‘  ‘ and normal strain
‘’, the experimental data may be plotted with stress as ordinate and strain as abscissa.
The diagram so obtained is called the stress-strain diagram for the material.
The Strain-strain diagram assumes differing forms for different materials.

Typical stress-strain diagram for ductile material (mild-steel)

U
b (Nominal)
YP
Stress( )

EL
PL
O
Strain ( )
PL Proportional limit stress EL Elastic limit stress
YP Stress at yield point (yield stress) U Ultimate stress (Maximum stress)
b Nominal breaking stres
Definition of terms:

(i) Proportional limit: The point on the stress-strain curve up to which the curve is a
straight line is called the proportional limit. Proportional limit stress is the maximum
stress up to which the stress-strain relationship is linear.
Lpad at Proportional limit
Proportional limit stress = Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original c/s area
(ii) Elastic limit: It is the maximum stress that may be developed during simple
tension test such that there is no residual deformation when the load is removed.
Elastic limit occurs beyond proportional limit. For many materials, the numerical
values of elastic limit and proportional limit are almost identical.
Load at Elastic limit
Elastic Limit Stress = Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original c/s area
(iii) Elastic and Plastic range: The region of the stress-strain curve extending from
the origin to the proportional limit is called the elastic range. The region of the
curve extending from the proportional limit to the point of rupture is called the
plastic range.

(iv) Yield point: It is the point on the stress-strain curve at which there is an increase
in strain without appreciable change in stress. At this point there is appreciable
deformation without any corresponding increase in load.
This phenomenon of yielding is peculiar to structural steel (mild steel). Other
grades of steel and steel alloys do not possess it.

(v) Yield stress: The stress at yield point where considerable deformation occurs
without appreciable change in stress is call the yield stress.
Load at yield poit
Yield Stress = Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original c/s area
(vi) Yield strength: Yield stress is also known as the yield strength of the material.
For materials which do not possess well defined yield point, yield strength ( proof
stress) is estimated by the off-set method.

(vii) Ultimate strength ( Ultimate stress): It is the highest ordinate on the stress-strain
curve. It is the maximum stress to which a material can be subjected.
Maximum load
Ultimate stress =
Original c/s area
(viii) Rupture strength ( Stress at failure): For structural steel (mild steel ), this is some
what lower than ultimate strength. This is due to the phenomenon of necking.

P P

Formation of necking at failure

As failure occurs, material stretches very rapidly and simultaneously narrows

down. This phenomenon is called necking.
Failure Load
True (actual) failure stress =
c/s area at the neck
Failure load
Nominal failure stress =
Original c/s area
(ix) Gauge length: The length over which deformations are measured.
Final length - Initial length
(x) Percentage elongation = x100
Initial length
(xi) Percentage reduction in c/s area =
Originalc/ sarea  c / sareaatneck A  AU
x100  0 x100
Originalc/ sarea A0
P
Off-set method:
Draw a line parallel to the initial tangent line at an
Initial Tangent
arbitrary off-set strain. Usually at 0.2% strain or 0.002m/m strain.
The intersection of this line with the stress-strain diagram is
defined as the yield strength of the material. It is also called as
the Proof Stress. Stress

0.2% Strain
(xii) Modulus of resilience:
Work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile load is gradually
increased from zero to proportional limit is defined as modulus of resilience. This
may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from origin to the
proportional limit. It is the energy per unit volume a material can store without
undergoing any permanent deformation.

(xiii) Modulus of toughness:

The work done on a unit volume of material as a simple tensile load is
increased from zero to the value causing failure is defined as the modulus of
toughness. This may be calculated as the entire area under the stress –strain
curve from origin to rupture.

PL
Modulus of
Stress

Stress

Modulus of toughness
resilience

O O
Strain Strain

Properties of Materials:

(i) Elasticity: When a material is subjected to gradually increasing load, within

certain limits, when the applied load is removed, the material regains its original
shape and size. This property of the material is called elasticity. Materials
possessing this property are called elastic material
.
(ii) Homogeneous material: A material having the same elastic properties at all
points in the body is called homogeneous material.
(iii) Isotropic Material: A material having the same elastic properties in all direction at
any point of the body is called isotropic material.

(iv) An-isotropic Material: A material which does not posses any kind of elastic
symmetry is called an-isotropic material.

(v) Plasticity: It is the property by virtue of which a material can retain permanently
the deformations when the applied load is removed. Such materials are called
plastic material.

(vi) Malleability: It is the property by virtue of which a material can be converted into
thin plates by the application of compressive force. It is the plastic response of the
material to compressive force without failure.

(vii) Ductility: It is the property by virtue of which a material can be drawn into thin
wires by the application of tensile force. It is the plastic response to tensile force
without failure. Such materials are called ductile material.

(viii) Brittleness: It is the property by virtue of which a material can fail without
undergoing appreciable deformations. Such materials are called brittle material.

(ix) Tenacity: The ultimate tensile strength of a material is called tenacity.

(x) Hardness: The resistance to scratching or indentation is called hardness.

WORKING STRESS AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

Working Stress: It is defined as the maximum stress that can be allowed on a material
when it is used as a structural member. Working stress is also called allowable stress,
safe stress, permissible stress.

Working stress is obtained by dividing yield stress or ultimate stress by a suitable number
called factor of safety.
Yield stress
Working stress = ( Ductilematerials )
Factor of safety
Ultimate stress
= ( Brittlematerials)
Factor of safety
Factor of safety : It is the ratio of yield/Ultimate stress to allowable or working
stress.
Yield stress / Ultimate stress
Factor of safety =
Working stress

Factors on which factor of safety depends:

(i) Reliability of the material.
- Uniform and homogeneous materials – low factor of safety.
- Non-uniform (wood, concrete etc) materials – higher factor of safety.
(ii) Certainty with which the maximum load is determined.
- Higher the certainty smaller the factor of safety.
(iii) Nature of loading on the structure.
 - Gradually applied or suddenly applied
- Acting in one direction or reversing.
(iv) Effect of atmospheric corrosion and wear
(v) Possible manufacturing errors/defects.
(vi) Consequence of a failure (break down).

Stress-Strain curve of a typical brittle material: High carbon steel

Cast iron
Ultimate stress
( breaking stress) Aluminium
Stress

Stress
Concrete

O O
Strain Strain
Stress strain curve for cast iron Comparative curve for different materials

HOOKE’S LAW
For most of the materials , up to a certain limit of stress ( proportional limit) the
stress is proportional to strain, i.e. the stress-strain relationship is linear.
Stress
Stress  strain i.e.  cons tan t .
strain

(i) Axial stress and linear strain:

Axial stress 
Axial stress  Linear strain   E
Linear strain 
E – is called the modulus of elasticity of the material or Young’s modulus.

(ii) Young’s Modulus(E): It is defined as the ratio of axial stress to linear strain for
stresses within proportional limit.
Axial stress  
E=   Linear strain  
Linear strain  E

Linear deformation dL = L
E
Load P PL 
But stress  =   Linear deformation dL =  L
Area A AE E
For the above equation s to be valid strain must be uniform over the length L. The
conditions to be satisfied are:

(a) Load must be axial

(b) Material must be homogeneous and of constant cross section.
(c) Stress must be within the proportional limit.
(iii) Shear stress and shear strain.
Shear stress 
Shear stress  shear strain i.e.  G
Shear strain 
G – is called the modulus of rigidity ( modulus of elasticity in shear) It is also denoted by
V
the notations C, N. If V is the shear force and A – the resisting area then  
A
 V
Shear strain   
G AG
(iv) Volumetric stress and volumetric strain.
Volumetric stress 
Volumetric stress  volumetric strain i.e.  K
Volumetric strain  V
K – is called the bulk modulus of the material.
V  
V    Change in volume dV  V
V K K
TANGENT MODULUS:
The ratio of change of stress with respect to strain is known as the tangent
d
modulus of the material. It is essentially an instantaneous modulus given by E t  at
d
any instant.

The Young’s modulus is the slope of the ET X

d
initial straight-line portion of the
stress-strain curve d
Stress 

d d
E = slope =
d
d
O Strain 

POISSON”S RATIO (, 1/m )

When a bar is subjected to simple tensile load, there is increase in length of the
bar in the direction of the load, but is accompanied by a decrease in the lateral
dimension.
Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to linear strain for stresses with
in the proportional limit.
y
Poisson’s ratio  = -
x
The minus sign indicates a decrease in lateral dimension when x is positive as in the
case of tensile load.

BIAXIAL ND TRIAXIAL STRESSES:

If an element is subjected to tensile stresses in the x and y directions, the strains in the x

direction due to the tensile stress x is given by x  x
E
y

x
P P
At the same time, the tensile stress y in the y direction will produce lateral strain
y
(Contraction ) in the x direction given by  x  
E
  1
x  x    ( x    y )
y
The resultant strain in the x direction
E E E
y
y

1
Similarly y  ( y    x ) x x
E x

y
Similarly under tri-axial stress system:
 x   x   ( y   z );  y   y   ( z   x );  z   z   ( x   y )
1 1 1
E E E

NOTE:
All the above equations are valid for compressive stresses also provided we
assign positive sign for tensile stresses and elongation and negative sign for
compressive stresses and compression.

Complementary Shear D
Consider an element ABCD of thickness ‘t’ subjected to vertical shear. C
Force on the face AD =  (AD) t 
Force on the face BC =  (BC) t 
Consider the equilibrium of the element
∑Fy = 0, ∑Fx = 0 , but ∑ M ≠ 0 There is a net clock-wise moment A B
M = VхAB. As the element is in equilibrium, there must be another pair of forces on the
face AB and DC such that they produce moment of equal magnitude and of opposite
sense. D
’
C
Let  ’ be the intensity of shear stress
V’ =  ’ ABx t 
At equilibrium V = V’ 
 ’ ABx t x AD =  AD x AB x t A B
Hence  ’ =  i.e. In a strained material, shear stress is always accompanied by
balancing shear of same intensity and at right angles to itself. This balancing shear is
called Complementary Shear. Thus a state of pure shear will always be represented as
below.
D
’ ’
C D C
 
 OR 
A B A B
Direct stress due to state of pure shear C
’ σn 45o
D C
 
 45o
A B
A B 
AB a
From the figure AC = =
cos 45 cos 45
Consider a square element of side ‘a’ subjected to shear stress  . Let σn be the intensity
of normal stress on the diagonal AC. Resolving forces in the direction of σ n we get:
a
σn. AC.1 = .AB cos45 + . BC cos45 = 2 . a cos 45 =σn
   cos 45
i.e. σn = 
Intensity of normal tensile stress on a plane AC is numerically equal to the intensity of
shear stress. Similarly the intensity of normal compressive stress 

The Elastic Constants of a Material:

(i) Young’s Modulus (E)

It is the ratio of axial stress to linear strain for stresses within the proportional limit.
Axial stress 
E=  Unit : kN/mm 2 (GPa)
Linearstrain 

(ii) Rigidity Modulus (G)

It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain for stresses within the proportional
limit.
Shear stress 
G=  Unit : kN/mm 2 (GPa)
Shear strain 
(iii) Bulk Modulus (K)
It is the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain for stresses within the
proportional limit.
Volumetric stress 
K=  Unit : kN/mm 2 (GPa)
Volumetric strain  V

(iv) Poisson’s Ratio (  , 1/m)

It is the ratio of the lateral strain to linear strain for stresses within the proportional
limit.
Lateral strain   y
 = 
Linear strain x
Relationship between Linear strains and Volumetric strain:
y
Consider a cube of side ‘a’ subjected to three mutually
Perpendicular equal tensile stresses. z
Let ‘a’ be the change in dimension of each side.
ax = a x, ay = a y, az = a z
Initial volume Vo = a3 x x
z
y
 Final volume V = (a + a x )(a + y )(a + z)
= a3( 1 + x ) ( 1 + y ) ( 1 + z ) = a3 ( 1 + x + y + z + xy + yz + zx + xyz )

Since strain is very very small, the product of strains can be neglected.

V = a3 ( 1 + x + y + z ) = a3 + a3 ( x + y + z )

Change in volume dV = V – Vo = a3 ( x + y + z )
dV
Volumetric strain v =  x + y + z
V0
Volumetric strain = sum of the linear strains.

Case (i) If x = y = z =  Then v = 3

Volumetric strain = Three times the linear strain.

Case (ii) Circular bar

dL dD dL dD
x = and  y   z  v = x + y + z = 2
L D L D
Volumetric strain = Longitudinal strain + Twice the diametrical strain.

Theoretical maximum value of Poisson’s ratio

Consider cube subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal tensile stresses
x 
x   ( y   z ) 
E E
Strain
y  
y   ( z   x )
E E

  
  
( x   y )
E E 
But x =  y = z =  

Hence x = y = z = (1  2 )
E
3
Volumetric strain  V  (1  2 )
E
To have the same sign for  and v 1 - 2  0 i.e.   ½

Also  cannot be negative. If  is negative, it will imply that an increase in length in one
direction will be accompanied by an increase in the lateral dimension which is physically
impossible.
Hence 0    ½
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS:
(1) Relationship between Young’s modulus, Rigidity modulus and Poisson’s ration
(E,G, )

Consider a square element ABCD subjected to a state of

Simple shear. Due to shear, the element will get distorted D’ D C
Such that the diagonal BD will be under tension and AC
Under compression. E
Let the shear stress cause shear strain distorting the 
Diagonal BD to BD’. Let DE be perpendicular to BD’
BD' BD A B
Strain in the diagonal BD = 
BD
BD'BE D' E
= = Since distortion is very small BD  BE
BD BD
As the angle of distortion is very small, we assume angle BD’D  45o

AD
Also BD = and D' E  DD' cos45
cos 45
DD' cos2 45 DD' 1 
 Strain in the diagonal BD =   2  ….. (1)
AD 2AD 2G
  y 
But strain in the diagonal BD = x   (1   ) (2) Since x =  and y = - 
E E E
 
From (1) and (2)  (1   )  E = 2G ( 1 +  )
2G E

(2) Relationship between E , K and  ( Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and

Poisson’s ratio )

Consider a cube subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal tensile stresses .

 y z  
Strain  x  x  (  )  (1  2 )   y   z
E E E E 

3
Volumetric strain  V   x   y   z  (1  2 ) …….. (i)  
E

 
But bulk modulus K = Volumetric strain  V  ……. (ii) 
V K
 3
From (i) and (ii)  (1  2 )  E = 3K(1- 2 )
K E
(3) Relationship between E, G and K
E E
We have E = 2G( 1 +  ) 1 +  =   1 …… (1)
2G 2G

E
Also we have E = 3K (1 - 2)  1 - 2 =
3K
 E 
i.e.  = ½ 1  ……. (2)
 3K 
  E  E
From (1) and (2) ½ 1  = 1
 3K  2G

E1 1  3  3K  G  9GK
i.e.   i.e. E   3 E 
2  G 3K  2

 3GK 
 3K  G

Note: The elastic constants are not independent.

(a) Elongation of a tapering flat plate of constant thickness ‘t’ and the width varying
uniformly from D to d over the length L when subjected to an axial force P.

d P DX P D

t dx
x
t
L
( D  d) Dd
Width at any distance x , Dx = d x = d + kx where k =
L L
Cross sectional area = t ( d + kx )
PL Pdx Pdx
Elongation over the small length dx =  
AE A x E t(d  kx )E
L

 t(d  kx)E  tkE log (d  kx)

Pdx P L
Total elongation over the length L dL = e 0
0

PL D
 dL = loge  
Et ( D  d ) d

(b) round bar of length L tapers uniformly from a diameter D at one end to diameter
d at the other end. Determine the elongation caused by an axial tensile load P.

P P D
d Dx

x dx
L
( D  d )x D-d
Diameter at the section, Dx = d   d  kx where k 
L L

Cross sectional area Ax = (d  kx) 2
4
Pdx 4Pdx
Elongation over the small length dx = 
A x E E(d  kx ) 2
L
4P   1 
L
4 Pdx
Total elongation over the length L dL =  
0
E (d  kx) E (k )  (d  kx)  0
2
 L
 
 4PL  1   4PL  1 1  4PL
=     Total elongation dL =
E( D  d )  ( D  d )x  E( D  d )  D d  EDd
d
 L  0

(c) Elongation produced by the self weight of a bar of uniform diameter D when
suspended vertically.
Let  be the mass density of the material .
Weight per unit volume = g
Force on the elemental length dy = weight of the portion below it dy
L
P = (volume)g = g( ¼ D y) 2
Elongation
Pdy g 4 D ydy
 2
gydy y
over the small length dy = = =
AE  D2E E
4

gL2
L
1
E 0
Total elongation over the length L = dL =  gydy 
2E
4P P
If P is the total weight of the bar then P = g( ¼ D2L) gL = 
D 2
A
PL
Total elongation dL =
2AE
PL
We know total elongation due to an axial load P =
AE
Hence elongation of a uniform bar due to its own weight is half that produced by an
axial load equal to its self weight applied at the free end.

(d) Elongation due to the self weight of a conical bar when suspended vertically
from its base.
Force on an elemental length dy of the cone located at a height y from bottom
P = weight of the portion below it
= (volume)g = 1/3 (Ay)g
Pdy
Elongation over the small length dy = dy
AE
gAydy gydy
 =  L y
3 AE 3E
g gL2
L
Total elongation dL =  ydy 
0
3E 6E
SUMMARY:
Load P
Simple direct stress   Unit : N/mm 2  MPa
Area A
Shear force V
Simple shear stress   Unit : N/mm 2  MPa
Area A
Change in length dL
Linear strain  
Original length L
Shear strain = Angle of distortion = 
Axial stress  PL
Young’s Modulus E   Unit : kN/mm 2  GPa
Linear strain  Adl
 PL
Linear deformation dL = L
E AE
Shear stress 
Rigidity modulus G=  Unit : kN/mm 2  GPa
Shear strain 
Volumetric stress 
Bulk Modulus K=  Unit : kN/mm 2  GPa
Volumetric strain  V

Change in volume dV  V0
K
1 Lateral strain y
Poisson’s ratio ,  
m Linear strain x
Relationship among the elastic constants:
9GK
E  2G(1   ) , E  3K(1 - 2 ) , E
3K  G

u
u = b
y
EL
PL
b
Stress

Stress


Strain Strain
Ductile Material Brittle Material

Proportional limit Stress

Load at proportional limit PPL
 PL   Unit : N/mm 2  MPa
Original c/s area A0
Load at elasticlimit PEL
Elastic limit stress  EL  
Original c/s area A0
Load at yield point PYP
Yield stress (yield strength) Y  
Original c/s area A0
 Maximum load PU
Ultimate stress (Maximum stress)  U  
Original c/s area A 0
Load at failure P
Nominal breaking stress =  F
Original c/s area A 0
Load at failure P
True breaking stress =  F
c/s area at the neck A U
Yield stress/Ultimate stress
Working stress (safe stress, permissible stress) =
Factor of safety
Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strains V  x  y  z

Strains: x-direction  x 
E
1
  1

 x  ( y   z ) , y - direction y   y  ( z   x )
E

1

z – direction  z   z  ( x   y )
E

PL D
Elongation of a tapering plate dl = loge  
tE( D  d ) d
4PL
Elongation of a tapering round bar dl =
EDd
gL2 𝑃′𝐿
Elongation due to self weight: (i) Uniform bar dl = = 2𝐴𝐸
2E
where P’ = total weight of the bar
Example (1)
A specimen of steel bar 25mm in diameter and 200mm long (gauge length) has an
extension of 0.16mm at a load of 80kN. Elastic limit load is 160kN and the maximum load
180kN. The breaking load is 150kN. Total extension is 56mm and the diameter at
fracture is 18mm. Find: (i) Elastic limit stress (ii) Ultimate stress (iii) true stress at failure
(iv) Nominal failure stress (v) Young’s modulus of the material (vi) %
elongation (vii) % reduction in c/s area.
d 02  25 2
Original c/s area A 0    491mm 2
4 4
 18 2
c/s area at the neck A U   254.5mm 2 Gauge length Lo = 200mm
4
P 160  10 3
(i) Elastic limit stress  EL  EL   325.9MPa
A0 491
U 180  10 3
(ii) Ultimate stress U    366.6MPa
A0 491
PF 150  10 3
(iii) True Failure stress f    589.4MPa
AU 254.5
PF 150  10 3
(iv) Nominal failure stress  f    203.7MPa
A0 491
 PL 80  10 3  200
(v) Young’s modulus E     203.7  10 3 N / mm 2  203.7GPa
 AE 491 0.16
Change in length 56
(vi) % Elongation  100   100  28%
Original length 200
A  AU 491  254.5
(vii) % reduction in c/s area = 0  100   100  48 %
A0 491

Example (2)
For the axial loads applied as shown, determine stresses in each material and the total
deformation. Take EA =70GPa, EB = 100GPa, ES = 200GPa.

2 AS = 1000mm2
AA = 700mm AB = 800mm2
Aluminium Steel Brass
20kN 10kN
15kN 15kN
500mm 600mm 700mm

20kN Aluminium 20kN Brass 10kN

10kN
(C) (T)
Steel
5kN 5kN
(C)
FBD of Aluminium FBD of Steel FBD of Brass

The Aluminium and steel bar are in compression and the Brass bar in tension.
 Stresses:
20  10 3
Stress in Aluminium A   28.57MPa(C)
700
5  10 3
Stress in Steel S   5MPa(C)
1000
10  10 3
Stress in Brass B   12.5MPa(T)
800
     
Total deformation dl  dl A  dl S  dl B   L   L   L
E A E S E B
 28.57  500 5  600 12.5  700
=    0.142mm
70  10 3
200  10 3
100  10 3
Minus sign implies that the net deformation is decrease in length.  dl = 0.142mm
(decrease)

Example (3)
An Aluminium rod is fastened to a steel rod as shown. Find the maximum value of the
load P that will satisfy: (i) Total elongation  1mm (ii) Stress in Aluminium  80MPa,
(iii) Stress in steel  140MPa. Take: EA = 70GPa, and ES = 200GPa, c/s area of AA
= 600mm2, c/s AS = 300mm2.
Aluminium
Steel
4P
2P 2P
0.8m 2.8m

2P 2P

2P 2P
Free body diagram of the bars shows that Al is in compression and Steel in tension.

Deformation consideration:
PL PL
Total deformation dl = (dl)A + (dl)S = ( )A  ( )S
AE AE
 2P  800 2P  2800
=   1mm
600  70  10 3
300  200  10 3
 P  18100N i.e. P  18.1kN
Stress consideration:
2P
Stress in Aluminium A =  80 P  ½ 80600 = 24000N
600
 P  24kN
2P
Stress in steel S =  140  P  1 2 140  300  21000N
300
 P  21kN
Hence the maximum value of load P to satisfy the above conditions is P = 18.1kN
Example (4)
A bar of length 800mm is attached between two rigid supports A and B and axial loads
are applied as shown. Determine the reactions at A and B.
A C D B
C D
300kN 600kN

275mm 150mm 375mm

A C D B
(300 – RA) RB
RA RA B
(C) C D (T)

(300 + RA) (300 + RA)

(C)

Let the reaction at A be RA as shown.

Since the supports are rigid, total deformation = 0 i.e. (dl)AC + (dl)CD + (dl)DB = 0
 R A x 275 ( 300  R A )150 ( 300  R A )375
i.e.   0
AE AE AE
i.e. (275 +150 +375)RA = 67500
RA = 84.38kN, RB = 300 – 84.38 = 215.6kN

Example (5)
A round bar shown in figure is subjected to a tensile load of 200kN. What must be the
diameter of the middle portion of the bar if the stress there is 215MPa. Find also the
length of the middle portion if the total extension of the bar is 0.2mm. Take E = 206GPa.

0.25m
200kN 200kN
50mm
A B C D
L

Let d be the diameter of the middle portion.

P 4  200  10 3 4  200  10 3
Stress in the middle portion = 215 =  d 
A  d2   215
diameter of the middle portion d = 34.42mm
P 4  200  103
Stress in the end portions     101.9MPa
A  502

101.9( 250  L) 215  L

Total elongation dl = (dl)AB+CD + (dl)BC=   0.2
E E
i.e. L(215 – 101.9) = 0.2206103 – 250101.9 = 15725
Length of the middle portion L = 139mm, and d = 34.42mm
Example (6)
For the rigid cross bar supported by a steel and a bronze rods each of diameter 25mm,
find the position of the 60kN load such that the cross bar remains horizontal. Compute
also the stresses and extension of each bar. Take ES = 200GPa, EB = 100GPa.

1.05m
Let PS and PB be the forces in the steel and bronze rods

Bronze
Steel
Respectively. Consider the FBD of the cross bar AB.
For equilibrium of the cross bar: 60kN
 Fy = 0 x
i.e. PS + PB – 60 = 0 A B
PS + PB = 60 ………. (1) PS PB
Deformation equation:
Since the cross bar remains horizontal: (dl)S = (dl)B

 PL   PL  E  E
i.e.      PS  PB  S  ( the ratio S is calledthe ' modular ratio'.
 AE  S  AE  B  EB  EB
PS = 2 PB ……….. (2)
Using (2) in (1) we get, 3 PB = 60 Hence PB = 20kN and PS = 40kN

Taking moment about A:

60  (x) – 20  1.05 = 0  The position of the 60kN load x = 0.35m from A.
x25 2
Cross sectional area of the steel and bronze rods =  491mm 2
4
PS 40  10 3
Stress in steel rod  S    81.47MPa
AS 491
Stress in bronze = B =40.74MPa
 81.47  1000
Extension of each bar dl = L dL = 0.407mm
E 200  10 3

Example (7)
CE is steel rod of 18mm diameter and DF is of copper of 18mm diameter. If A is hinged,
find the stresses in each rod and the reaction at A. The Bar AB is rigid. Take: ES =
200GPa, EC = 100GPa.

ESteel 10kN PS PC 10kN

1m
1m
oA C B A C 1m D 1m B
1m 1m D 1m S C
C’
Copper 1m D’ B’
F RA
FBD of the bar AB
Let PS and PC be the forces in steel and copper rods respectively. Consider the FBD of
the beam AB. Since the beam is in equilibrium,  MA = 0
i.e. – PS  1 – PC  2 + 10  3 = 0  PS + 2 PC = 30 ……. (1)
Deformation compatibility equation:
(dl ) S (dl ) C  PL   PL 
From similar triangles   (dl)C  2(dl ) S i.e.    2 
1 2  AE  C  AE  S
E 
But LS = LC = 1m and AS = AC PC = 2 C  xPS
 ES 
 PC = PS ……… (2)
Using (2) in (1) we have 3 PS = 30  PS = PC = 10kN
Cross sectional area of the rods = ¼ 18 = 254.5mm2
2

10  10 3
Stress in steel rod S   39.3MPa(T) , Stress in copper rod  39.3MPa(C)
254.5
Also  Fy = 0 i.e. RA +10 +10 – 10 = 0 Reaction at the hinge A = 10kN

Example (8)
Find the total elongation of a bar of length 1.5m having 40mm diameter over 1m of its
length and the diameter varying uniformly from 40mm to 20mm over the remaining
length. Take E = 200GPa.
A B C
160kN 160kN
40mm d = 20mm

1m 0.5m

4PL 4PL'
Total elongation dL = (dl)AB + (dl)BC = 
 E 40 2
 EDd
4  160  10  1000
3
4  160  103  500
=   1.273mm
  200  103  402   200  103  40  20
Example (9)
A flat plate is trapezoidal in shape. Thickness is 15mm and it tapers uniformly from a
width of 60mm to 10mm in a length of 300mm. Find the elongation under an axial pull of
100kN. Take E = 200kN/mm2.
300mm 15mm
15mm
100kN 100kN
10mm 60mm

PL  D 100  10 3  300  60 
Elongation dL = loge    loge  
tE( D  d )  d  15  200  10 (60  10)
3
 10 
Elongation dl = 0.358mm

Example (10)
A 30mm diameter bar was subjected to a tensile load of 72kN and the measured
extension on a gauge length of 300mm was 0.15mm and the change in diameter was
0.00488mm. Determine the Poisson’s ratio and the values of the three modulus of the
material.
We have P = 72kN, L = 300mm, d o = 30mm, Ao = ¼  302 = 706.9mm2, dL =
0.15mm and d(D) = 0.00488mm.

PL 72  103  300
Young’s modulus E =   203.7  103 N / mm 2  203.7GPa
A(dL ) 706.9  0.15
0.15  0.00488
Linear strain  x   500  10 6 , Lateral strain  y   162.7  10  6
300 30
6
- Lateral strain  162.7  10
Poisson’s ratio  =    = 0.325
Linear strain 500  10 6

Also we have E = 2G (1 +  )
E 203.7
 Modulus of rigidity G =   76.84GPa
2(1   ) 2(1  0.325)
Also we have E = 3K(1-2)
E 203.7
 Bulk modulus K    194GPa
3(1 - 2 ) 3(1  2  0.325)

Example (11)
A steel rod 800mm long has a rectangular cross section of 60mmx40mm. It is subjected
to a tensile load of 200kN along its longitudinal axis. Find the change in dimensions and
volume. Take E = 200kN/mm2, and  = 0.3.
40mm
y
40mm
60mm
60mm
x 200kN
200kN

z 800mm
200  10 3
Stresses: x   83.3MPa,  y   z  0
60  40
Strains:
E
 
 x   x  ( y   z )  83.3  0.3(0  0) 
1 1
E
83.3
E
1
E
 
 y   y  ( z   x )  0  0.3(0  83.3) 
1
E
 25
E
1
E
 
 z   z  ( x   y )  0  0.3(83.3  0) 
1
E
 25
E
Volumetric strain  V   x   y   z  83.3  25  25 
1 33.3
E E
Change in dimensions:
83.3
Change in length dL =  x  L   800  0.333mm
200  10 3
 25
Change in depth d(d) =  y  d   60  7.5  10  3 mm
200  10 3

 25
Change in breadth d(b) =  z  b   40  5.0  10  3 mm
200  10 3
33.3
Change in volume dV =  V  V   (800  60  40)  320mm 3
200  10 3
Example (12)
A bar of steel 50mm30mm in cross section and 600mm long is subjected to a tensile
load of 150kN along its longitudinal axis and a compressive load of 750kN on the
50mm600mm face and a tensile load of 360kN on the 30mm600mm face. Find the
change in dimensions and volume of the bar. Take: E = 200kN/mm2 ,  = 0.3. What
longitudinal load acting alone will produce the same longitudinal strain as in the above
case?
Stresses:
150  10 3 360  10 3 750  10 3
x   100MPa(T),  y   20MPa(T),  z   25MPa(C)
50  30 30  600 50  600
360kN 750kN
y 30mm
30mm
x 50mm
50mm
150kN 150kN
z
750kN 360kN
600mm

Strains: x   E
1

 x  ( y   z )  100  0.3( 20  25) 
E
1 101.5
E
 1
E

 y   y  ( z   x )  20  0.3( 25  100 
1
E
 2 .5
E
E
1

 z   z  ( x   y )   25  0.3(100  20) 
1
E
 61
E
 V   x   y   z  101.5  2.5  61 
1 38
E E
Change in dimensions:
101.5  600
Change in length dL =  xL   0.305mm
200  10 3
 2.5  50
Change in depth d(d) = yd   0.625  10  3 mm
200  10 3

 61  30
Change in breadth d(b) = zb   9.15  10  3 mm
200  10 3

38
Change in volume dV = VV  ( 30  50  600)  171mm 3
200  10 3
(b) Let Px be the longitudinal load which acting alone produces the same longitudinal
strain.
 P
Strain due to Px =  x  x  x
E AE
Px 101.5
  Hence Px  101.5  30  50N  152.3kN
30  50  E E
 CHAPTER – V

KINEMATICS
Dynamics:
Study of bodies which are in motion.

(a) Kinematics: Study of the geometry of motion without regard to the agent (force)
causing the motion.

(b)Kinetics: Study of the relationship existing among the force acting on the body, the
mass of the body and the acceleration of the body. In other words, we study the force
required to produce a given acceleration or the acceleration produced by a given force
and the resulting motion.

Rectilinear motion: Motion along a straight line.

Displacement: Displacement of a particle is the position co-ordinate of the particle at

any instant of time. It is defined by choosing a fixed origin and positive directions along
the axis. The distance x from the origin with the appropriate sign defines completely the
position (displacement) of the particle.
x
0 P(x,t) x+
Velocity (v): Rate of change of displacement with respect to time.
Change in displacement x
Average velocity vave =  Unit : m/s
Time t
x dx
Instantaneous velocity = Lt ( )  v
t dt
Hence v = first derivative of displacement function with respect to time.

Acceleration (a): Rate of change of velocity with respect to time.

Change in velocity v
Average acceleration aave = 
Time t
v dv
Instantaneous acceleration = Lt (  = a Unit: m/s2
t dt
a = First derivative of velocity function with respect to time.
dv d dx d2x
a=  ( ) 2
dt dt dt dt

a = Second derivative of displacement function with respect to time.

dv dv dx dv
Also a =  ( )  v( )
dt dx dt dx
dv d2x dv
Hence acceleration a = - - - - (1) ; a = 2
- - - -(2) ; a = v( ) - - - - - -(3)
dt dt dx
Example : Displacement is given by the relation x  6t 2  t 3 . Obtain the velocity and
acceleration functions.
dx d
Velocity v   (6t 2  t 3 )  12t  3t 2
dt dt
dv d
Acceleration a =  (12t  3t 2 )  12  6t
dt dt

Motion Curves: The curve obtained by plotting position co-ordinate, velocity and
acceleration against time is known as motion curve.

Equations of motion under constant acceleration:

If the acceleration of a particle remains constant during the motion, the following
equations can directly be used.
We have
v t
dv
a   dv   adt i.e v  v o  at where v o is velocityat time t  0
dt vo o
t
dx x at 2
 v  v o  at i.e  dx   ( v 0  at )dt i.e. x - x 0  v 0 t 
dt xo
0
2
where xo is the displacement at time t = 0.

x v
dv dv
Also we have a = v   adx   vdv i.e v 2  v 02  2a( x  x 0 )
dt dx x0 v0

If the particle is at the origin when time t = o, (at the start of observation), then the above
equations further get simplified as:
at 2
v  v 0  at , x  v 0t  , v 2  v 02  2ax
2

Example (1)

The position of a particle moving along a straight line is described by the relation
s  t 3  3t 2  24t  48 where s is in m and t in sec. Find:
(i) Time at which velocity becomes zero.
(ii) Total distance traveled between t = 2sec. And t = 6 sec.

Displacement s = s  t 3  3t 2  24t  48
ds d 3
Velocity v =  (t  3t 2  24t  48)  3t 2  6t  24
dt dt
Velocity v = 0 i.e. 3t 2  6t  24  0 i.e. t 2  2t  8  0
2  22  4  8 2  6
t    4 sec .
2 2
Displacement when t = 4sec. s 4  4 3  3  4 2  24  4  48  32m
To find the distance traveled between 2 sec. And 6 sec.
Displacement at t = 2 sec. s 2  2 3  3  2 2  24  2  48  4m
Displacement at t = 6 sec. s 6  6 3  3  6 2  24  6  48  12m

- 32m. - 4m 12m
0 x+
t=4sec t=2sec Origin. t=6sec
. . .
Distance traveled d = (32-4) +32+12 = 72m

Example (2):
t3
Motion of a particle is defined by the relation: x   3t 2  8t  2 where x in m and t in
3
sec. Determine: (i) Time when velocity is zero (ii) Displacement and the total distance
traveled when the acceleration is zero.
dx d t 3
Velocity v =  (  3t 2  8t  2)  t 2  6t  8
dt dt 3
dv d
a=  (t 2  6t  8)  2t  6
dt dt

To find the time when velocity is zero:

6  62  4  8 6  2
V=0 i.e. t 2  6t  8  0 i.e. t   t 1  2 sec,t 2  4 sec .
2 2

Displacement when velocity is zero:

23 43
t = 2sec; x=  3  2 2  8  2  8.67m , t = 4 sec; x=  3  4 2  8  4  7.33m
3 3

To find time when acceleration is zero:

a = 0 i.e. 2t – 6 = 0  t = 3 sec.

Displacement when acceleration is zero

33
x  3  3 2  8  3  2  8m
3

2m 8m 8.67m
0 x+
Origin t=0 t = 3sec. t = 2sec.

Total distance traveled when acceleration is zero = (8.67-2)+ (8.67 –8) = 7.34m

Example (3):
Acceleration of a particle is defined by the relation a  64  12t 2 where a in m/s2 and t in
sec. It is known that at t = 0, v = 0 and x = +25m. Determine:
(i) Time when velocity is again zero. (ii) Position, velocity at t = 5 sec.
(iii) total distance traveled by the particle from t = 0 to t = 5 sec.
Acceleration a = 64  12t 2   dv   (64  12t 2 )dt i.e. v  64t - 4t 3  C1
At t = 0, v = 0  C1  0 i.e v  64t - 4t 3
dx
Also  v i.e.  dx   (64t - 4t 3 )dt  x  32t 2  t 4  C 2
dt
At t = 0, x = +25m  C2  25,  x  32t 2  t 4  25

To find the time when velocity is zero:

v=0 i.e t(64-4t2) = 0 t = 4 sec.
Displacement when t = 4 sec: x = 32  4 2  4 4  25  281m

To find the position and velocity at t = 5 sec:

Displacement at t = 5 sec x = 32  5 2  54  25  200m
Velocity at t = 5 sec. v = 64  5  4  5 3  180m / s

To find the distance traveled from t = 0 to t = 5 sec.

25m 200m 281m
0
x+
Origin t = 0. t = 5sec. t = 4sec.

d = (281 – 25) + (281 – 200) = 337m

Example (4)
Acceleration of a particle moving along a straight line is given by a = 2 – 3t. After 5 sec.
from the start of observation, its velocity is 20m/s. After 10 sec. from the start of
observation the particle was 85m from the origin. Find:
(i) Acceleration, velocity and the distance from the origin at the start of the
observation.
(ii) The time after start of observation its velocity becomes zero and the distance from
the origin.

Acceleration a = 2 – 3t = dv/dt
3t 2
 v = dv =  (2 – 3t)dt = 2t   C1 , At t = 5 sec., v = 20m/s
2
3  52 3t 2
 20 = 2  5   C1 i.e. C1  47.5,  v  2t -  47.5
2 2
3t 2 t3
dx/dt = v  dx =  v dt i.e. x =  ( 2t   47.5)dt  t 2   47.5t  C 2
2 2
3
10
At t = 10 sec, x = 85m  85 = 102   47.5  10  C 2 , i.e. C 2  10
2
t3
x  t 2   47.5t  10
2
(i)To find x,v and a at the start of observation:
t = 0: a = 2m/s2, vo = 47.5m/s, xo = 10m.
(ii)To find the time when velocity becomes zero:
3t 2
v = 0 i.e. 2t   47.5  0  3t 2  4t  95  0
2
4  4 2  3  4  95 4  34
t  , t  6.33 sec.
2 3 6
6.33 3
Displacement at t = 6.33 sec: x = 6.33 2   47.5  6.33  10  224m
2
(iii)To find the time when acceleration is zero:
a = 0 i.e. 2 – 3t = 0  t = 0.667 sec.
3  0.6672
Velocity at t = 0.667 sec. v = 2  0.667   47.5  48.2m / s
2
0.6673
Displacement at t = 0.667 sec x = 0.6672   47.5  0.667  10  42m
2

10m 42m 85m 224m

0
Origin t=0 t = 0.667sec. t = 10sec. t = 6.33sec.

Example (5)

The x and y components of displacement in motion at a point are given by the equations:
x = 4t2 +2t and y = t3 + 3. Find the velocity and acceleration at t = 2 sec.

In this case the components of velocity and acceleration can be obtained by

differentiating and the total velocity and acceleration can be obtained by vector addition.
d d
v x  (4t 2  2t )  8t  2 and v y  (t 3  3)  3t 2
dt dt
d d
a x  (8t  2)  8m / s 2 and a y  ( 3t 2 )  6t
dt dt
At t = 2 sec: vx = 82 + 2 = 18m/s, vy = 322 = 12m/s,
ax = 8/s2, ay = 6x2 = 12m/s2

vy=12m/s ay=12m/s2
a
v
 
vx=18m/s ax=8m/s2
v= 182  122  21.63m / s ,   tan -1 (12 / 18)  33.69o
12
a  8 2  12 2  12.42m / s 2 ,   tan -1 ( )  56.310
8
EXAMPLES OF MOTION UNDER CONSTANT ACCELERATION:

Example (6)
A particle moves under constant acceleration starting from rest. After some time its
velocity is 20m/s. After another 5 sec. its velocity is 30m/s. Find: (i) Acceleration. (ii)
Time taken to attain the velocity of 20m/s. (iii) Total distance traveled to reach the
velocity of 30m/s.

vo= 0 v=20m/s v=30m/s

A a=? B C

t 5sec
x
Consider motion from B to C:

v = vo + at i.e. 30 = 20 + a 5 acceleration a = 2m/s2

Consider motion from A to B:

v = vo + at i.e. 20 = 0 + 2t Time t = 10 sec.

Consider motion from A to C:

x = vot + ½ at2 i.e x = 0 + ½ 2152  x = 225m

Example (7)
A train covers a distance of 1.6km between two stations A and B in two minutes starting
from rest. In the first minute of its motion, it uniformly accelerates and in the last 30 sec.
retards uniformly. Find: (i) Average velocity. (ii) Acceleration and retardation
(iii) Constant velocity.

A a1 B a=0 C a2 D

60sec . 30sec 30sec

x1 x2 x3

Motion from A to B (Accelerated motion)

v  v 0  at  60a 1 x 1  v 0 t  1 2 at 2  0  (60a 1 )  30  1800a 1
Motion from B to C ( Motion under constant velocity)
x 2  vt  (60a 1 )30  1800a 1
Motion from C to D (decelerated motion)
v  v 0  at i.e. 0  v  a 2 30  60a1  30a 2 a 2  2a1
x 3  v 0 t  1 2 at 2  (60a 1 )30  1 2 (2a 1 )302  900a 1

We have, total distance covered = 1600 = x 1  x 2  x x  1800a 1  1800a 1  900a 1

 Acceleration a1 = 0.356m/s2, Deceleration a2 = 0.711m/s2
Constant velocity v = 60a1 = 600.356 = 21.33m/s
Total distance 1600
Average velocity v ave    13 / 33m / s
Total time 120
Example (8)
A cage descends a mine shaft 720m deep in 40 sec. If it starts from rest and moves with
constant acceleration for 200m depth and then moves with constant velocity for 320m
and is brought to rest under uniform deceleration, find: (i) Constant velocity (ii)
Acceleration (iii) Time interval to travel each portion.
v0 = 0 v v v=0
A a1 B C D
200m 320m 200m
t1 t2 t3

Total time t = t 1  t 2  t 3  40 - - - - - - (1) Motion

from A to B (Accelerated motion)
v
v  v 0  at  0  a 1 t 1  a1  - - - - - -(2)
t1
v 2 400
x  v 0 t  1 2 at 2 i.e. 200  0  1 2 ( )t 1  1
2 vt 1  t1  - - - - - -(3)
t1 v
Motion from B to C ( a = 0)
320
x  vt i.e. 320  vt 2  t2  - - - - - - - (4)
v

Motion from C to D (decelerated motion)

v
v  v 0  at i.e. 0  v  a 2 t 3  a2   - - - - - -(5)
t3
v 2 400
x  v 0 t  1 2 at 2 i.e. 200  vt 3  1 2 (  )t 3  1
2 vt 3  t3  - - - - - (6)
t3 v
400 320 400
But t 1  t 2  t 3  40 
i.e.   40  Constant velocity v  28m/s
v v v
400 320 28
t1   14.29 sec  t 3 , t 2   11.43 sec ., a 1   1.96m / s 2 , a 2  1.96m / s 2
28 28 14.29
Example (9)
Two trains A and B leave the same station on parallel tracks. Train A starts with uniform
acceleration of 1.5m/s2 and attains a speed of 27kmph when the steam is reduced to
keep the speed constant. Train B leaves 40 sec. later with a uniform acceleration of
0.3m/s2 to attain a speed of 54kmph. Find when and where B will overtake A.
2
vo = 0, a = 1.5m/s v = 7.5m/s, a = 0 t
A
t1, x1 (t – t1) , x2
vo = 0, a = 0.3m/s2 v = 15m/s, a = 0
B (t – 40)
t2, s1 ( (t – t2- 40), s2
When train B overtakes train A:
Total distance traveled by A = Total distance traveled by B
 x1  x 2  s 1  s 2 - - - - - - - (1)
Consider motion of train A:
Accelerated motion: v = vo + a t i.e. 7.5 = 0 + 1.5 t1  t1 = 5 sec.
 Also x 1  v 0 t  1 2 at 2  0  0.5  1.5  5 2  x 1  18.75m
Motion with constant velocity: Let t be the total time taken by train A.
x 2  vt  7.5(t - 5)  7.5t - 37.5  x 1  x 2  7.5t  18.75 - - - - - (2)
Motion of train B:
Accelerated motion: v  v 0  at i.e. 15  0  0.3 t 2 t 2  50 sec .
Also s 1  v 0 t  1 2 at 2  0  0.5  0.3  502 s 1  375m
Motion with constant velocity:
s 2  vt  15(t  50  40)  15t  1350  s 1  s 2  15t  975 - - - - - - - (3)

Substituting (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get

7.5t – 18.75 = 15t – 975  t = 127.5 sec.
Total distance traveled = x1 + x2 = 7.5127.5 – 18.75 = 937.5m.

Example (10)
A balloon is rising at a uniform speed of 3m/s when a stone is released from it. If the
stone takes 10 sec. to strike the ground, determine how high was the balloon when the
stone was released.
y+
vo = 3m/s
Select the position of the balloon as the origin and y-axis upward
positive. Initial velocity of the stone = velocity of the balloon = +3m/s
When the stone strikes the ground, displacement = - y O x
We have,
y = vot + ½ gt2 i.e. -h = 310 – 4.905102 h
 h = 490.5m

Hence height of the balloon at the time of release of stone = 460.5m,above ground.

Example (11)
An object falls from an unknown height. In the last second of its motion, it travels a
distance of 53.9m. Determine: (i) Height from which the object falls. (ii) Time taken to
reach the ground. vo = 0
O x
Select y-axis downward as positive.
x+
Consider the motion during (t-1) sec.
h – 53.9 = vot + ½ gt2 = 0 + 4.905(t-1)2 ------ (1) (t – 1)
Consider motion in t sec. h –53.9m
h = vot + ½ gt2 = 0 + 4.905 t2 --------- (2)
(2) – (1) gives: t
h
53.9 = 4.905 t2 – (t – 1 )2 i.e. 10.99 = 2t – 1 1 sec
Time taken to reach the ground t = 5.994 sec.
y+
From equation (2)
Unknown height h = 4.905 (5.994)2 = 176.2m
Example (12)
A ball is tossed up with a velocity of 10m/s directed vertically upward from a point 20m
above the ground. Find: (i) The maximum elevation reached above the ground. (ii)
Time taken to strike the ground. (iii) The velocity with which it strikes the ground.
y+
v=0
The point of projection is taken as origin and y-axis upward positive.
To find the maximum height reached.
ymax
At maximum height, v = 0
We have v2 – vo2 = 2ay
0 - (10)2 = - 2x9.81(ymax) O vo = 10m/s
x
ymax = 5.1m above point of projection
Maximum height reached above ground = 5.1 + 20 = 25.1m
To find the time taken to strike the ground: 20m
When the stone strikes the ground, its displacement y = - 20
We have, y = vot + ½ at2
i.e. – 20 = 10t – 4.905 t2 v
10  102  4  4.905  20 10  22.19
t =   3.28 sec . Ground
2  4.905 9.81
To find the velocity of strike: v  v 0  at  10  9.81  3.28  22.18m / s 

MOTION OF PROJECTILES.
In the study of motion of projectiles, the effect of wind, air resistance etc. are neglected.

It is convenient to resolve curvilinear motion into rectilinear motion along x and y axes
with the origin at the initial point of flight. The only force acting on the particle is its self
weight. Therefore the total acceleration at all positions is due to gravity and is directed
vertically downward. Hence the rectangular components of acceleration
a x  0, a y  9.81m / s 2 . If y - axis is taken positiveupward, then a y  9.81m / s 2

All the equations of rectilinear motion can be applied independently in the x and y
directions.

Motion in the x-direction Motion in the y-direction.

ax  0 v y  v 0 y  gt
v x  v 0x y  v 0y t  1 2 gt 2
x  v 0x t v 2y  v oy
2
 2gy
Show that the path of a projectile is a parabola:
y+
x = vox t = (vo cos) t
 t = x/(vocos) -------- (1) vo
P(x,y) v
Displacement in the y – direction:
voy = vosin
y = voy t – ½ gt2 y
= vosinx/(vo cos)- ½ gx/(vocos)2 ymax

0 x
vox = vocos
1 gx 2
 y  x tan   2
This is the equation of a parabola ( second degree equation ).
v 02 (cos ) 2
Hence the path of a projectile is a parabola.

Note: The maximum height reached, time of flight, range etc. can be determined
using the basic equations of motion starting from the fundamentals.

Example (13)
A cricket ball thrown by a fielder from a height of 2m, at an angle of 30o upward with the
horizontal with an initial velocity of 20m/s, strikes the top of the wickets 0.5m above the
ground. Find:
(i) How far was the fielder from the wicket? (ii) Velocity with which the ball strikes the
wicket.
When the ball strikes the wicket, its displacement = - 1.5m
We have displacement in the y – direction y  v 0 y t  1 2 gt 2 i.e. - 1.5  10t - 4.905 t 2
i.e. 4.905t 2  10t  1.5  0

10  102  4  4.905  1.5 10  11.38

t    2.18 sec
2  4.905 9.81

Distance of the fielder from the wicket x = vo t = 17.322.18 = 37.74m

To find the velocity of strike:

vx = vox = 17.32m/s, vy = voy – gt = 10 – 9.812.18 = 11.39m/s
11.39
v= 17.32 2  11.39 2  20.73m / s and   tan -1 ( )  33.330
17.32
y+ vo = 20m/s
voy = 10m/s

17.32m/s O 30o x+
 vox = 17.32m/s
11.39m/s 2m
v 0.5m
Ground
Striking velocity
Example (14)
An aeroplane is traveling horizontally at a velocity of 200kmph at an altitude of 600m
above the ground at the time of release of a bomb. Determine at what distance and at
what angle should the pilot sight the target on the ground to score a hit.

When the bomb strikes the target, displacement y = - 600m.

y = voy t – ½ gt2 i.e. – 600 = 0 – 4.905 t2  t = 11.06 sec.
Horizontal distance to the target x = vox t = 55.5611.06 = 614.5m

600
The angle at which the pilot should site the target is given by   tan 1 ( )  44.320
614.5

y+
vo = 200kmph = 55.56m/s
0 x+
 = 44.32 o

600m

x = 614.5m

Example (15)
The position of an anti-aircraft gun is as shown. At t = 0, the plane passes the position A
flying horizontally at a constant velocity of 800kmph. Determine:
(i) What time of firing the bullet will hit the plane?
(ii) How far is the plane from the gun when it is hit? B t’ A
(iii) Velocity of the bullet as it hits the plane.
vo = 222m/s
y+

voy = 279.6m/s vo = 500m/s 800m

34o x+
O
vox = 414.5m/s 5000m
Consider the flight of the bullet

y  v 0 y  1 2 gt 2 i.e. 800  (500sin34)t - 4.905t2 i.e. 4.905t2  279.6t  800  0

279.6  279.6 2  4  4.905  800 279.6  250
t   3.02 sec .,54 sec
2  4.905 9.81
The distance of the plane from the gun when the bullet strikes the plane
x = vox t = 500(cos34) 3.02 = 414.53.02 = 1253m
Time taken by the plane to travel (5000-1253)m = 3747m at constant velocity of 222m/s
 t’ = 3747/222 = 16.88 sec.
Time of firing = t’ – t = 18.88 – 3.02 = 13.86 sec after sighting the plane at A

To find the velocity of strike:

v x  v 0 x  414.5m / s, v y  v 0 y  gt  279.6  9.81  3.02  250m / s

250
 v  414.5 2  2502  484m / s,   tan -1 ( )  31.10
414.5

Example (16)
A ball is projected from point A with an initial velocity of 10m/s perpendicular to the plane.
Find: (i) Maximum height reached (ii) Location where it strikes the plane
(iii) Striking velocity y+
.
vo = 10m/s ymax
voy = 8.66m/s
A 60o x
10m/s x+
vox = 5m/s
90o
A y

s
30o

From the slope of the plane: tan30 = y/x

 y = 0.577 x ------ (1)

To find ymax:

v 2y  v 02y  2gy, At y max , vy  0

o  8.66 2  2  9.81xy max  y max  3.82m from the point of projection.

To find the time of flight:

x  v 0 x t  5t - - - - - -(2) - y  v 0y t  1 2 gt 2  8.66t  4.905t 2

 y  8.66t  4.905t 2 - - - - - - - (3) Substituting (2) & (3) in equation (1)
- 8.66t  4.905t2  0.577  5t i.e. t  2.354 sec.

Displacement: x = 5t = 52.354 = 11.77m &, y = 0.577 x = 0.57711.77 =6.79m

Distance along the plane where it strikes s = x 2  y 2  11.77 2  6.79 2  13.59m

To find the striking velocity:

v x  v 0 x  5m / s , v y  v 0 y  gt  8.66  9.81  2.354  14.43m / s 
14.43
v  5 2  14.43 2  15.27m / s ,   tan -1 ( )  70.890
5
Example (17)
A ball thrown down the incline strikes at a distance S = 78m. If the ball rises to a
maximum height of 19.63m, above the point of projection, compute its initial velocity and
the angle of projection.

From the inclination of the plane, tan = 1/3  = 18.43o

y+
vo vo
19.63m
 vo sin 19.63m
 vo cos x = 74m x+
18.43o
78m
1 y = 24.7m
3 78m

Coordinate of the point of strike: x = 78 cos18.43 = 74m, y = 78 sin18.43 = 24.7m.

We have v 2y  v 02 y  2gy, At y max , v y  0,  0 - (v 0 sin ) 2  2  9.81  19.63
 vo sin = 19.62m/s ---------- (1) ; x = (vo cos)t = 74 --------(2)
y = v 0 sin(t )  1 2 gt 2 i.e. - 24.7  19.62 t - 4.905 t 2
19.62  19.622  4  4.905  24.7
 4.905t 2  19.62t  24.7  0 i.e t 
2  4.905
19.62  29.49
  5 sec
9.81
From (2), x = (vocos) 5 = 74 vo cos = 14.8m/s
19.62
Initial velocity vo = 19.62 2  14.8 2  24.58m / s and   tan -1 ( )  530
14.8
 CHAPTER – VI

APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S SECOND LAW AND

D’ALEMBERT’S PRINCIPLE
Newton’s Second Law:

If the resultant force acting on a particle is not equal to zero, the particle will have
an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant force and will take place in
the direction of the resultant .
Resultant Force  Acceleration
 F = ma where m = Mass of the body (kg), a = Acceleration (m/s2)

UNIT FORCE:

Consider a body of mass 1kg, having an acceleration of 1m/s2. Then according to

Newton’s II law,
F = m a = 1 kgm/s2 = 1 Newton (N)
1 N: It is the force which gives an acceleration of 1m/s2 on a body of mass 1 kg.

Weight of a body:

Since a body subjected to its own weight acquires an acceleration equal to the
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’, from Newton’s II law:
F = ma i.e. W = m g
For mass = 1 kg, weight W = 19.81 kgm/s2 = 9.81 N.
Hence 1kg mass = 9.81N.
We know that a given system of forces can be reduced to a single force called its
resultant. By selecting x-axis along the direction of the resultant, we have:

 Fy = 0 and  Fx = m a
Hence we have the following equations: y F2 x
 Fx = m a ……….(I)
v = vo + at ……….(2) F3 R = ma
2
s = vot + ½ at ………(3)
v2 – vo2 = 2as……….(4)
F1

Example (1)
A motorist traveling at a speed of 72kmph suddenly applies brakes and comes to stop
after skidding 48m. Find: (i) Time taken to stop. (ii) Coefficient of friction between tyre and
road surface. W
y+ vo = 20m/s v=0
vo = 72kmph = 20m/s x+ x+
v = 0 and ,s = 48m.
W 48m
N1 = W
We have v2 – vo2 = 2as
i.e. 0 – 202 = 2a48  a = - 4.17m/s2 ( Deceleration)

According to Newton’s II law: F = ma

i.e. -  W = (W/g)(-4.17)  Coefficient of friction  = 0.425.
To find the time taken to stop:
v = vo + at i.e. 0 = 20 – 4.17 t  t = 4.80 seconds.

Example (2)

A 100kg block rests on a horizontal surface. Find the magnitude of force P required to
give the block an acceleration of 2m/s2. Take s = 0.35 and k = 0.3.

 Fy = 0 i.e. N1 – 0.5P – 981 = 0  N1 = 981 + 0.5P ……. (1)

0.5P 981N
P y+

30o 100 kg
0.866P x+

0.3N1
N1
According to Newton’s II law F =ma
i.e. 0.866P – 0.3(981 + 0.5P) = 100 2 P = 690.4N

Example (3)

A particle of weight 2kN is pulled up a smooth plane by a force F = 1.5kN as shown.

Determine the acceleration and the force of the plane on the block.

0.26kN 2kN
F = 1.5kN 1.477kN 2cos30

10o
2kN x+ y+

2sin30
30o 30o
N1
 Fy = 0 i.e. N1 – 2 cos30 + 0.26 = 0  N1 = 1.472kN ( Force of the plane on the
block)
 Fx = ma i.e. 1.477 – 2sin30 = (2/9.81) a Acceleration a = 2.34m/s2
Example (4)

For the two blocks connected by an inextensible cable passing over a smooth pulley
shown when released from rest, find: (i) Acceleration. (ii) Tension in the cable (iii)
Distance moved in 3 seconds. Take:  = 0.2 between the plane and the block.

1500N
o
1449N 15
o T o
1500N
A T
388N A
B 0.2N1
o B
15
800N
N1
800N
Observations:

In solving problems of connected bodies, the following procedure may be adopted:

(i) From the geometry of motion, determine the relationship of the displacement. The
same relationship will exist for velocity and acceleration.
In the above problem, since the two blocks are directly connected both the blocks
will have the same displacement. i.e. xA = xB = x  vA = vB = v and aA = aB =
a
(ii) Resolve the forces parallel and normal to the surface along which the bodies
move.
In the normal direction  Fy = 0
Thus we have for block A,  Fy = 0 i.e. N1 – 1500cos30 = 0 N1 = 1449N
(iii) Determine the correct direction of motion by comparing the force components in
the direction of motion.
In the above problem, leftward force is 388N and the force causing rightward
motion is 800N. Hence the system when released will move rightward.
(iv) Apply friction force opposite to the direction of motion.

Consider the motion of both the blocks together:

 F =  m a ( Since both the blocks have the same acceleration)

800 – 388 – 0.2(1449) = (800+1500)/9.81a i.e. 122.2 = 234.4 a
Acceleration a = 0.521m/s2

To determine the tension in the cable.

Consider FBD of any one block: FBD of block B is simpler in this case
 F = m a i.e. 800 – T = (1/9.81)8000.521  Tension T = 757.5N

Distance moved in 3 sec.:

S = vot + ½ at2 i.e. s = 0 + 0.50.52132 = 2.345m
Example (5)
For the connected system of blocks shown , find the velocities of A and B, 2 seconds
after released from rest. Pulleys are of negligible mass and frictionless. Coefficient of
Friction between block A and the pulley is 0.15.

T o
9810N
o o
8496N T
T1
30o
C B
1000kg o
A
A B 0.15N1

400kg 4905N N1 = 8496N 3924N

30o

This problem is a typical connected bodies of type two.

It is obvious that the displacement of block A will be same as that of the pulley C since
both are directly connected. Displacement of block B is twice that of pulley C

Hence from the geometry of motion we have T

xB = 2 x A and vB = 2 vA, aB = 2 aA C T

Consider the FBD of pulley C

Since the mass of the pulley is neglected, we have T1
 F = mC aC = 0 i.e. T1 – 2T = 0  T1 = 2T

To decide the direction of motion, unlike the previous problem, the force at the end
parallel to the direction of motion attached to tension T1 = 2T must be divided by two
before comparing the forces at the two ends.
Thus on the right side force is 3924N and that on the left end is ½ 4905 = 2453N.
Hence the system will move rightward. Now apply friction force in the opposite direction
(leftward.).

Consider FBD of block A:

 F = mA aA i.e. 2T – 4905 – 0.15(8496) = 1000 aA  2T – 6179 = 1000 aA …(1)

Consider FBD of block B:

 F = mB aB i.e. 3924 – T = 400 aB = 800 aA 3924 – T = 800 aA …(2)

(2) x 2 gives 7848 - 2T = 1600 aB

2T - 6179 = 1000aA
Adding 1669 = 2600 aA aA = 0.642m/s2 and aB = 1.284m/s2

Velocity after 2 sec. of release from rest:

vA = voA + at = 0 + 0.642 2 = 1.284m/s and vB = 2.568m/s

Note: The extra explanations given in the solution of the above two problems need
not be reproduced in the answer. They are given to make the concept clear to the
learner.
Example (6)
An elevator having a mass of 500kg is ascending with an acceleration of 4m/s2. The
mass of the operator is 65kg. Determine the tension in the cable supporting the lift. If the
operator is standing on a spring scale, what will be the scale reading?

T
659.81N
To find the cable tension: a = 4m/s2
F = ma
T – 5659.81 = 565 x 4 4m/s2
 T = 7803N (Tension in the cable.)
R
To find the scale reading: 5659.81N
Let R be the scale reading. Consider the FBD of the operator and scale.
 F = m a i.e. R – 659.81 = 654  R = 898N ( Scale reading)
 CHAPTER – VII

PRINCIPLE OF WORK- ENERGY AND POWER

The Work-Energy principle relates directly force, mass, velocity and displacement.

Work of a Force
Work done by a force F during the displacement ‘ds’ is the scalar quantity given
by dU = F.ds.

If the force is inclined to the direction of displacement, the work done is the product:
dU = (F cos)ds where  is the angle F makes with the direction of displacement.
F
Total work done during the finite displacement
is obtained by integrating the above expression: 
ds
s2
U 1 2   Fds If the force is constant during the motion, work done = Fs
s1

where s = s2-s1

Unit: Nm (Joule)
Work done is positive if the direction of displacement and direction of force are
same. Work will be negative if the direction of force and displacement are opposite. Work
done by friction force is always negative.

Work done by gravity force:

Work done by the weight of a body is equal to the magnitude of its weight
multiplied by the vertical displacement of the centre of gravity.

Derivation of Work – Energy Equation:

We have according to Newton’s II law

dv
F = ma But acceleration a = v
ds
dv
F = mv
ds
v

 Fds   mvdv  1 2mv  1 2 mv 0

2 2

v0

F ds is the total work done during the displacement ‘s’. If the force ‘F’ remains constant
during the displacement then  F ds = F s and ½ mv2 is the Kinetic Energy of the
particle.

Hence 1 mv 02  Work done  1 2 mv 2

2

i.e. Initial K.E + Work done = Final K.E.

System of Particles:
When a problem involves several particles we may either consider each article
separately or write the expression of work energy for the entire system as:

 1 mv 02   Work done 
2  1 mv 2
2

Advantages of Work-Energy Method:

(i) To find the velocity, it is not necessary to determine the acceleration.
(ii) Forces which do no work are eliminated from the solution of the problem.
(iii) All quantities involved are scalar and can be added directly.

Disadvantages:
(i) By using Work-Energy method, acceleration cannot be determined.
(ii) Forces which do no work also cannot be determined.
(iii) Forces which are normal to the path of the particle do no work and hence cannot
be found using work-energy method.

Power: (P) Rate of doing work.

Work done Displacement
Average power =  Force x
Time Time
If the force is constant during the motion, Power = Force x Velocity
P = F x V and Pmax = F x Vmax
Unit : Nm/s = Watt (W) ; 1 kNm/s = 1 kW
Output Work
Efficiency  = If the work is done at constant rate,
Input Wor k
Power output
Efficiency  =
Power Input
Potential energy: It is the work a body can do by its weight by virtue of its position.

Conservative Force: If the work done by a force is independent of the path followed
and is equal to the change in potential energy, the force is said to be conservative force.

Principle of Conservation of Energy:

Statement: Under the action of conservative force, the sum of K.E and P.E of the system
remains constant.

Proof: Consider a pendulum released with no initial

velocity at A1 and allowed to swing in the vertical plane.
L
At A1: A1 o

Potential Energy = WL
Kinetic Energy = 0
L W
Total Energy = PE + KE = WL
At A2: sin
A
Velocity v  2gL
Kinetic energy = ½ W/g(2gL) = WL A2
W
Potential energy = 0
Total energy = PE + KE = WL
W
Consider any intermediate position A:
W
Velocity v = 2gL sin   Kinetic Energy  1
2 ( 2gL sin  WL sin
g
Potential energy = WL – WL sin
Total Energy = KE + PE = WL sin + ( WL – WL sin) = WL Hence the proof.

Note: Weight of a body and the force exerted by a spring are conservative forces.
Friction forces are non-conservative force, since work done by a friction force
depends on the path followed and is always negative.

Example (1)
An automobile of mass 2000kg is driven down a 5o incline at a speed of 90kmph when
the brakes are applied causing a constant braking force of 7.5kN. Determine
the distance traveled by the automobile before coming to stop.
19.62kN
vo = 25m/s
v=0
1.71kN

7.5kN d 5o
W = 20009.81N = 19.62kN
Let ‘d’ be the distance moved
Using Work-Energy equation: 1
2 mv 02  W.D  1
2 mv 2
i.e. ½ 2252 + (1.71 – 7.5) d = 0 Distance moved d = 107.9m

Example (2)
A bullet of mass ‘m’ is projected with an initial velocity vo along a horizontal plane. If it
v 02
covers a distance ‘s’ before coming to rest , show that  =
2gs
Fy = 0 i.e. –W + N1 = 0 W
vo v=0
 N1 = W
Using Work-Energy equation

N1 s
W 2 N1 v 02
2 mv 0  W .D  v0   W s  0  
2 2
2 mv i.e. 1 2
1 1
g 2gs
Example (3)
A block of weight 2500N is being dragged along a horizontal ground as shown, with a
force of 1000N for 30m starting from rest. If  = 0.2 between the block and the surface,
determine the velocity attained. If the dragging force is now removed, find how much
further the block will move.
2500N 2500N
1000N 500N
v v=0
o
2500N 30
866N

0.2N1 30m 0.2N1 d

N1 N2
To find the velocity:
Fy = 0 i.e. N1 + 500 – 2500 = 0  N1 = 2000N

Using work-energy equation

2500xv2
1
2 mv 02  W.D  1
2 mv 2 i.e. 0  ( 866 - 0.2x2000)30   v  10.47m/s
2x9.81

To find the distance moved after the 1000N force is removed:

Fy = 0 i.e. N2 = 2500N
Using Work-Energy equation:

1
2 mv 02  W.D  1
2 mv 2 ; vo = 10.47m/s, v = 0, let d be the distance moved.
2500  10.47 2
 0.2  2500  (d)  0  d  27.96m
2  9.81

Example (4)

A block of 400kg is held at rest on an inclined plane of inclination 15o to the horizontal.
When released, the body slides down the incline and continues to move along the
horizontal surface.  = 0.1 for both the surfaces. Find: (i) Maximum potential energy
possessed by the body. (ii) Maximum velocity attained. (iii) Distance moved
along the horizontal plane.
1016N

379N 3924N
v=0
v
30m N1 = 3790N
o 31.1m
15
392.4N d
N2 = 3924
(i) Potential energy = Wh = 4009.8130tan30 = 31.55kNm (kJ)

To find maximum velocity:

Maximum velocity will be at the bottom of the incline.

Using Work energy equation: 1

2 mv 02  W.D  1
2 mv 2 i.e. 0  (1016 - 379)31.1 1 2 400v 2
 v max = 9.95m/s

To find the distance moved along the horizontal surface:

Let d be the distance moved. vo = 9.95m/s, v = 0 ; Using work-energy equation:

½ m vo2 + Work done = ½ m v2 i.e. ½ 400 9.952 – 392.4(d) = 0
 d = 50.5m
Example (5)
For the connected system of blocks shown in figure, determine the velocity when block B
has moved 10m starting from rest. Pulley is smooth and of negligible mass.  = 0.2
between block A and the plane.
1472N
o 20o T
o

150kg
T
A
276.6N
B 503.5N
20o 1383N
300kg
2943N
Consider the motion of the entire system:
Using work-energy equation  ½ mvo2 + W.D =  ½ mv2
i.e. 0 + (2943 – 503.5 – 276.6)10 = ½ 450v2  v = 9.8m/s

Example (6)
A bullet of mass 50g is fired at a velocity of 500m/s towards a fixed target 40mm thick.
The average resistance to penetration of the target on the bullet is 100kN. The bullet
emerges from the target and penetrates a wooden backboard to a depth of 50mm. Find
the average resistance offered by the backboard on the bullet.

500m/s 100kN R v=0

40mm 50mm
Let R be the average resistance to penetration of the backboard.
Using work-energy equation : 1 2 mv 02  W.D  1 2 mv 2 vo = 500m/s, v = 0, m = 50g
50 40 50
i.e. 1 2  5002  (100  10 3  R 0
1000 1000 1000

 Average resistance R = 45103N = 45kN

Example (7)
A car weighing 10kN accelerates from rest to a speed of 45kmph in 50m against a
resistance of 10N/kN weight of the car. Using the average force determine the maximum
power developed by the engine.
10kN
vo = 0 v = 12.5m/s
F

(10/1000)10 = 0.1kN 50m

Let F be the average engine pull required.

Using work-energy equation: ½ mvo2 + work done = ½ mv2
i.e. 0 + ( F – 0.1) 50 = ½ (10/9.81) 12.52
 Engine pull F = 1.693kN
 Maximum power developed = Pmax = F v max = 1.69312.5 = 21.16kN

Example (8)
A train weighs 120kN. The tractive resistance on level is 20N/kN. What power is required
to move the train at a uniform speed of 36kmph:
(i) Up an incline 1 in 300 (ii) On a level track (iii) Down an incline 1 in 300.
Take  = 70% for motor and drive.
Case(1): Up an incline 1 in 300
120kN
v = 10m/s
(1/300)120 = 0.4kN F
1
300
(20/1000)120 = 2.4kN

Let F1 be the engine pull required.

Since the speed is constant,  F = 0 i.e. F1 – 2.4 – 0.4 = 0  F = 2.8kN
Power = P = F v = 2.810 = 28kW
Power output 28
Power developed by the engine: =   40kW
Efficiency 0.7 120kN

Case (ii) On level track: F2

2.4kN
Let F2 be the pull required. Since speed is constant,  F = 0 i.e. F2 – 2.4 = 0
Engine pull F2 = 2.4kN; Power = 2.410 = 24kW
Engine power = 24/0.7 = 34.29kW 120kN
0.4kN
Cade (iii) Down a slope 1 in 300:
F3
Let F3 be the pull required. 2.4kN 1
300
F=0 i.e. F3 + 0.4 – 2.4 = 0 Engine pull F3 = 2.0kN

Power P = 210 = 20kW. Engine power = 20/0.7 = 28.57kW

 CHAPTER –VIII

APPLICATION OF IMPULSE-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE

Impulse momentum principle relates force acting on a body, mass of the body , velocity
and time.

Linear Momentum:
The product of the mass of the body and its linear velocity is known as linear
momentum or simply as momentum of the body.
Momentum = m v
Ns 2 m
Unit: m v = (W/g) v = = Ns
m s

Linear Impulse:
The product of the magnitude of the force and the time during which the force acts
is called the linear impulse or simply as impulse.
Impulse = F t

Unit: Ns

Impulse Momentum Equation:

dv
We have, according to Newton’s II law: F = m a = m
dt
t V t
  Fdt   mdv  mv  mv 0 But  Fdt  Total Impulse
0 V0 0

If F is constant during the time ‘t’, then impulse = Ft.

 mvo + Impulse = mv

Statement:
The final momentum of a particle acted up on by force F during a given interval of
time may be obtained by adding its initial momentum and the impulse of force during the
time interval.

System of particles:
When several particles are involved, we may consider each particle separately or we may
write the above equation in the form:
 mvo +  Impulse =  mv

Internal forces occur in pairs of equal and opposite sense having the same line of action
and their sum is zero.

Conservation of momentum:
When the sum of the impulses of external forces is zero., we have :  mvo =  mv
Statement:
When the sum of the impulses of external forces acting on a system of particles is
zero, the total momentum of the system remains constant.

For example when two particles moving with velocities vo1 and vo2 of masses m1 and m2
respectively collide with each other then:
m1vo1 + m2vo2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Example (1)
A 500N weight moves down a 30o incline with an initial velocity of 3m/s. What is the
velocity of the weight after 10 sec. if  = 0.2 between the plane and the block.
Using Impulse-momentum equation:
500 500
mvo + Impulse = mv i.e. x3  ( 250  86.6)10  v  v  35.06m/s
9.81 9.81
500N

250N vo = 3m/s

86.6N
v=?
N1 =433N
10sec
30o

Example (2)
A train weighing 1000kN is being pulled up a 2% grade. The track resistance is constant
at 5N/kN. The speed is increased from 6m/s to 12m/s in a distance of 300m. Find the
total time required to attain the maximum speed and the maximum power developed.

v = 12m/s
1000kN
vo = 6m/s
(2/100)1000 F 2%
= 20kN 300m

(5/1000)1000 = 5kN
Let F be the pull required. Using work-energy equation: 1 2 mv 02  work done  1 2 mv 2
1000 1000
 6 2  (F  20  5)300   12 2  F  43.35kN
2x9.81 2x9.81
To determine time:
Using Impulse-momentum equation: mvo + Impulse = mv
1000 1000
 6  (43.35  25)t   12  t  33.33 sec.
9.81 9.81
Also maximum power developed Pmax = F Vmax = 43.3512 = 520kW

Example (3)
Two masses 5kg and 3kg rest on two inclines each of inclination 30o and are connected
by a string passing over the common apex. Find the velocity of the 3kg mass after 2 sec
when released from rest. Also find the distance it will cover before changing the direction
of motion if the 5kg mass is
cut off after 2sec of release from rest.
v=0

29.43N o
49.05N 29.43N
vo = 2.45m/s

d
3kg 5kg 3kg
14.72N
30o 30o
30o
14.72N 25.43N
To find the velocity after 2 sec:
Using impulse momentum equation:  mvo + Impulse = mv
i.e. 0 + ( 24.53 – 14.72) 2 = (5+3) v v = 2.45m/s
To find the distance the 3kg block will move further up.
Using work-energy equation: 1 2 mv 02  W.D  1 2 mv 2
i.e. ½ 32.452 – 14.72d = 0  d = 0.61m

Example (5)
A 50kg block rest on a horizontal floor. It is acted upon by a horizontal force that varies
from zero according to the law F = 61t where t is in seconds. If the force acts for 10sec.,
find the speed of the block. Take s = k = 0.25.
490.5N

F = 61 t

N1
N1 = 490.5N
 Fy = 0 i.e. N1 – 490.5 = 0 N1 = 490.5N
Friction force F = N1 = 0.25N1 = 122.6N
The motion of the block will start only when the applied force exceeds the frictional
resistance. Hence when the motion starts after the force is applied is given by:
F = 61t = 122.6  t = 2sec.
To find the velocity after 10seconds:
Using impulse-momentum equation: mvo + Impulse = mv
10
10
 61t 2 
i.e. 0 +  (61t  122.6)dt  50v
2
i.e. 
 2
 122.6t   50v
2
 v  39m/s

Example (6)

The system shown is moving rightward at a velocity of 4.5m/s when the constant force P
is applied to it. Determine the value of P that will give the system a leftward velocity of
9m/s in 10 sec. Take  = 0.3 and pulley to be smooth.
 200N
200N
vo = 4.5m/s v = 9m/s
P
P
60N 500N
60N 200N 53.13o
N2 = 200N 500N
53.13o 90N
90N

300N 4 400N
N1 = 300N 4 400N 3
3
During rightward motion During leftward motion

Let ‘t’ be the time required to reduce rightward velocity of 4.5m/s to zero.

Using impulse-momentum equation:  mvo + Impulse =  mv

i.e. (700/9.81) 4.5 + ( 400 – 90 – 60 – P ) = 0
 ( P – 250 )t = 321.1 ----- (1) P  250N

Consider now the leftward motion of the system:

Using impulse-momentum equation:  mvo + Impulse =  mv
i.e. 0 + ( P – 60 – 90 – 400 ) (10 – t) = (700/9.81) 9
 ( P – 550 ) (10 - t) = 642.2 ------ (2) P  550N
The solution is to be obtained by solving simultaneously the equations (1) and (2).
One of the convenient method is by ‘ successive approximation’.

Solution by successive approximation:

Equation (2) implies that P must be greater than 550N. As a first approximation assume P
value anything greater than 550, say P = 600N.
Using this value of P = 600N in equation (1) we get:
(600 – 550) t = 321.1  t = 0.917 sec.

Second approximation:
Use t = 0.917sec in equation (2)
i.e. (P – 550) ( 10 – 0.917) = 642.2  P = 620.7N
Using P = 620.7N in equation (1)
(620.7 – 250) t = 321.1  t = 0.866sec.

Third approximation:
Use t = 0.866sec. in equation (2)
i.e. (P – 550)(10 – 0.866) = 642.2  P = 620.3N
Use P = 620.3N in equation (1)
(620.3 – 250) t = 321.1  t = 0.867sec.

Fourth approximation:
Use t = 0.867sec. in equation (2)
i.e. (P – 550 ) (10 – 0.867) = 642.2 P = 620.3N
Hence P = 620.3N
Example (7)
A 60g bullet is fired horizontally into a 50kg sand bag suspended on a rope as shown. It
was calculated from the observed angle of swing that the sand bag with the bullet
embedded in it swung to a height of 30mm. Determine what was the speed of the bullet
as it entered the sand bag.

vo v 30mm
60g 50kg

Consider the motion of the sand bag after the bullet enters it. Let ‘v’ be the velocity.
Using work-energy equation: ½ mvo2 + work done = ½ mv2
i.e. ½ 50.06v2 – 50.069.810.03 = 0  v = 0.767m/s

During the impact of the bullet with the sand bag, K.E will be lost but the momentum will
be conserved.
 m1 vo1 + m2 vo2 = (m1+m2)v i.e. 0.06vo + 50 0 = 50.060.767
 vo = 640m/s ( velocity of the bullet).
Example (8)
A 5400N hammer is dropped from a height of 0.9m on to a pile weighing 1300N. The pile
is driven 100mm into the ground. Assuming perfectly plastic impact, determine the
average resistance of the ground to penetration.
During the impact between the hammer and the pile loss of K.E occurs and hence the
work energy equation cannot be applied directly.

To find the velocity of hammer just before striking the pile:

Using W.E equation
½ mvo2 + W.D = ½ mv2 5400N
0 + W0.9 = ½ (W/g) v2 v = 4.2m/s 0.9m

To find the common velocity of pile and hammer

During impact conservation of momentum occurs
m1vo1 + m2vo2 = (m1+m2)v 1300N
(5400/9.81)4.2 + 0 = (6700/9.81)v  v = 3.39m/s R
To find the resistance R
Using work energy equation for the motion of pile and hammer together.
½ mvo2+ work done =½ mv2 i.e. ½ (6700/9.81)3.392 + (6700 – R)0.1 = 0
 Average resistance to penetration R = 45830N = 45.83kN

Example (9)
A gun weighing 300kN fires a bullet weighing 5kN with a velocity of 300m/s. With what
velocity will the gun recoil? If the recoil is overcome by an average force of 600kN, how
long does it take the gun to come to rest? How far does it move?
 vo = 0 v y
300m/s
305kN 300kN + 5kN
x

To find the recoil velocity: Using the equation of conservation of momentum equation,
(m1 + m2)vo = m1v1 + m2v2 i.e. 0 = (300/9.81)v + (5/9.81)300  v = 5.0m/s
300kN
To find the time taken to stop:
vo = 5m/s v=0

600kN t,d
Using impulse-momentum equation: mvo + Impulse = mv
i.e. (300/9.81) 5.0 - 600t = 0  t = 0.255sec.
To find the distance moved:
Using work-energy equation: ½ mvo2 + work-done = ½ mv2
i.e. ½ (300/9.81)5.02 - 600 d = 0  d = 0.637m.
 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS (I/II Semester B.Tech Course)
(common for all branches of Engineering)

Theory Questions
1.Define:
(i) Coplanar force system. (ii) Concurrent force system.
(iii) Non-coplanar force system. (iv) Non-concurrent force system.
(v)Coplanar concurrent force system (vi) Coplanar non-concurrent force system.
(vii) Non coplanar concurrent system (viii) Collinear force system.
(ix) Non coplanar non-concurrent force system. (x) Particle
(xi) Rigid body (xii) Space diagram (xiii) Free body diagram

2. State Newton’s second law and hence define Unit Force.

3. State and explain the principle of transmissibility.

4. Distinguish between:
(i)Resultant and Equilibrant (ii) Composition and resolution
(iii)Particle and rigid body (iv)space diagram and Free body diagram.

5. State, explain and prove Varignon’s theorem.

6. State, explain and prove Lami’s theorem.
7. State, explain and prove Parallel axis theorem.
8. Derive work-enery equation.
9. Derive Impulse-momentum equation.

10.Define the terms with units:

(i) Energy (ii) Power (iii) Impulse (iv) Linear momentum.

11.Define the following terms with expressions and units:

(i) Proportional limit stress (ii) Elastic limit stress
(iii) Yield stress (iv) Working stress
(v) Factor of safety (vi) Ultimate stress
(vii) Poisson’s ratio (viii) Elasticity
(ix) Young’s modulus (x) Rigidity modulus
(xi) Bulk modulus (xii) Ductility (xiii) Plasticity

12.Show that the Poisson’s ratio lies between 0 and ½ .

13. Obtain the relationship between linear strains and volumetric strain.
14.Derive the relationship among the elastic constants of a material:
(i) Relationship among E, G and µ
(ii) Relationship among E, K and µ
(iii) Relationship among E, G and K

15. Derive the expression for the deformation of a uniformly tapering trapezoidal bar of
constant thickness when subjected to an axial load P.
16.Derive the expression for deformation of a bar of circular cross section tapering
uniformly when subjected to an axial load P.
17. Derive the expression for the elongation of a circular bar due to its own weight when
suspended vertically.
 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS (I/II Semester B.Tech Course)
(common for all branches of Engineering)

Theory Question Answers

1. Coplanar force system: In a coplanar force system line of action of all the forces lie in
the same plane.

2. Concurrent force system: In concurrent force system, line of action of all the forces
meet at a single point.

3. Non-coplanar force system: In a non-coplanar force system, line of action of all the
forces do not lie in the same plane.

4. Non-concurrent force system: in a non-concurrent force system, line of action of all

the forces do not meet at a single point.

5. Coplanar concurrent force system: In a coplanar concurrent force system, line of

action of all the forces lie in the same plane and meet at a single point.

6. Coplanar non-concurrent force system: In coplanar non concurrent force system,

line of action of all the forces lie in the same plane but they do not meet at a single point.

7. Non-coplanar concurrent force system: In a non-coplanar concurrent force system,

line of action of all the forces do not lie in the same plane but they do meet at a single
point.
8. Collinear force system: In collinear force system, the line of action of all the foces lie
along the same line.
F1 F2 F3 F4
F1, F2, F3 and F4 are collinear forces

9. Non-coplanar non-concurrent force system: In non-coplanar non-concurrent force

system, line of action of all the forces neither lie in the same plane nor they meet at a
single point.

10. Newton’s second law: If the resultant force acting on a body is not equal to zero, the
body will have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant and in
the direction of the resultant.
Let F be the resultant then F α a where ‘a’ is acceleration
i.e. F = m×a where ‘m’ is mass of the body in kg.
Unit force: According to Newton’s second law F = ma
When mass m = 1kg and acceleration a = 1m/s2 F = 1kgm/s2 = 1N (Newton)
1 Newton (N) : It is the force required to produce an acceleration of 1m/s2 on a body of
mass 1kg.

11. Principle of Transmissibility:

Statement: The external effect of a force will remain the same for all points of application
along its line of action.
P A B P
Explanation: The external effect of
the force P will be the same whether it is applied at A as a push or at B as a pull provided
it acts along the line AB.

12. Resultant and Equilibrant:

(i)Resultant: Resultant of a force system is that single force which acting alone produces
the same effect as that due to the given system of forces.
(ii) Equilibrant: Equilibrant is that single force which acting along with the given force
system keeps the body in equilibrium. Equilibrant will have the same magnitude and line
of action as that of the resultant with sense reversed.

13.Composition and Resolution:

(i) Composition: Composition is the process of combining two or more forces into a
single force (called resultant) such that it acting alone produces the same effect as that
due to the given system of forces.
(ii) Resolution: Resolution is the reverse process of composition in which a given single
force is replaced by two or more forces (called components) such that they acting
together produce the same effect as that due to the given single force.

14.Particle and Rigid body:

(i) Particle: A Particle in mechanics is a small amount of matter which may be assumed
to occupy a point in space. In Mechanics, a particle may be as large as a car, ship etc if
its rotational motion is not considered.
(ii) Rigid body: A rigid body is madeup of large number of particles occupying fixed
positions with respect to each other. Hence a rigid body will not undergo any deformation
under the action of external forces.

15.Space diagram and Free body diagram:

(i) Space diagram: Space diagram is the sketch showing all the physical conditions of an
engineering problem.
(ii) Free body diagram (FBD): Free body diagram is obtained from the given space
diagram by isolating a significant particle and showing all the forces that were acting on it.
Forces acting on a free body are: (a) Gravity force (self weight) It acts through the centre
of gravity directed vertically downward. (b) Any externally applied forces. (c) Action of
bodies which were in contact with it and are removed.

16.Varignon’s theorem: Statement: Moment of a force about any point in its plane is
equal to the algebraic sum of the moment of its components about the same point.

Explanation: Let F be the force and P and Q the components

of F acting at point A. Let B be any point in its plane. Let y
F
d, di and d2 be perpendiculars from B to the line of action
of F, P and Q respectively from B. Then according to the B o d2 Q
d
theorem F.d = P.d1 + Q.d2 P
d1 x
Proof: Let y-axis be along the line AB and x-axis θ2 θ
perpendicular to AB. Let θ,θ1,θ2 be the angles made by θ1
F,P,Q respectively with x-axis. A
Moment of F about B = MF = F.d = F(ABcosθ) = AB(Fcosθ)
i.e. MF = F.d = AB.Fx --------------- (i)
Similarly moment of P about B = MP = P.d1 = P(ABcosθ1) = AB(Pcosθ1)
i.e MP = P.d1 = AB.Px ------------- (ii)
Similarly MQ = AB.Qx ------------(iii)
Hence P.d1 + Q.d2 = AB(Px + Qx) = AB.Fx = F.d (from (i)
Thus F.d = P.d1 + Q.d2 Hence the proof.

17.Lami’s theorem: Statement:If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three

coplanar concurrent forces, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle
between the other two.
Explanation: (180 – β)
S
Let P, Q and S be in equilibrium. S Q
According to Lami’s theorem α
(180 – α)
𝑷 𝑸 𝑺 β P
= = γ
𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡ (𝟏𝟖𝟎−∝ (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟖𝟎−𝜷 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟖𝟎−𝜸
P Q
But (sin180 – α) = sinα (180 – γ)
𝐏 𝐐 𝐒
i.e. = = Hence the proof. Force Triangle
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛂 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛃 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛄

18. Parallel axis theorem:

Statement: Second moment of an area about any axis x-x in its plane is equal to the
second moment of the area about its centroidal axis parallel to x-x axis and the product of
the total area and square of the distance between the two axes.
Explanation: Let x-x be the required axis and xo-xo
the parallel centoidal axis. Let ‘d’ be the distance dA
between the two axes. Then according to the theorem
y’
Ixx = I xoxo + Ad2 xo
x
xo
Proof: Consider an elementary area ‘dA’ located C.G
at a distance ‘y’ from x-x axis and (y’) from the y
parallel centroidal axis xoxo.
Second moment of area Ixx = 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦 2 (by definition) d
′ 2 2 ′ 2
= 𝑑𝐴 × (𝑑 + 𝑦 ) = 𝑑𝐴(𝑑 + 2𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦′ )
= d2 𝑑𝐴 + 2d 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦′ + 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦′2 x x
But d2 𝑑𝐴 = A d2 where ‘A’ is the total area.
𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦′ = 0 Since first moment of an area about its centroidal axis is zero.
and 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑦′2 = Ixoxo by definition Hence Ixx = Ixoxo + Ad2

19. Work Energy equation:

We have according to Newton’s second law F = ma
𝑑𝑣
But Acceleration a = v× i.e F×dx = m×v×dv Integrating
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑣 𝑥
i.e 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑥 =
0 𝑣𝑜
𝑚𝑣 × 𝑑𝑣 = ½ mv2 – ½ mvo2 But 0 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑥 = total work done
i.e. Total work done = change in kinetic energy
i.e. ½ mvo2 + Work done = ½ mv2 Initial KE + Work done = Final KE
If F is constant during the motion, then work done = F× S where S is displacement.
If several particles are involved, the above equation can also be written in the form
½ mvo2 + Work done =  ½ mv2

20. Impulse-momentum equation:

𝑑𝑣
We have according to Newton’s second law F = ma But acceleration a =
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑣
i.e F×dt = m×dv Integrating
0
𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑚𝑑𝑣
 𝑡 𝑡
i.e.
0
𝐹𝑑𝑡 = mv – mvo But
0
𝐹𝑑𝑡 = Imulse of the forces . If the Force F is costant
𝑡
during the motion then
0
𝐹𝑑𝑡 = F.t Hence mvo + Imulse = mv
i.e. Initial momentum + Impulse = Final momentum.
If several particles are involved, the above equation can also be written as:
m×vo + Impulse = m×v

21.Definition of terms:
(i) Energy: Energy is the capacity to do work Unit: Nm, kNm

(ii) Power: Power is the rate at which work is done Unit: Nm/s = Watt (W), kNm/s = kW

(iii) Impulse: It is the product of force and time during which it acts
Impulse = Force × time = F×t Unit: Ns

(iv) Linear momentum: It is the product of the mass of the body and its linear velocity
Momentum = m×v Unit: Ns

22.Define with expressions and unit:

(i) Proportional limit stress (σPL): Proportional limit stress is the maximum stress up to
which the stress-strain relationship is linear, i.e. stress is proportional to strain.
Load at Propotional limit 𝜎
Proportional limit stress σPL = c = 𝑃𝐿 Unit: MPa, N/mm2
Original area 𝐴0
s

(ii) Elastic limit stress (σEL): Elastic limit stress is the maximum stress up to which the
material remains perfectly elastic, i.e. the material regains its original shape and size
once the applied load is removed.
Load at elastic limit P
Elastic limit stress σEL = = EL Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original cross sectional area Ao

(iii) Yield Stress (σY): Yield stress is the stress at which there is considerable strain
without appreciable change in stress. This occurs in ductile materials only. Yield stress is
also called the yield strength of the material.
Load at yield P
Yield stress σ = = Y Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original cross sectional area Ao

(iv) Working stress: Working stress is the maximum stress to which a material can be
subjected under actual service condition. It is obtained by dividing yield/ultimate stress by
a suitable number called factor of safety. It is also called safe stress, allowable stress,
permissible stress etc.
Yield stress
Working stress = ( For ductile materials)
Factor of safety
Ultimate stress
= (For brittle materials) Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Factor of safety

(v) Factor of safety: Factor of safety is defined as the ratio of yield or ultimate stress to
the working stress. It is a mere number.
Yield stress Ultimate stress
Factor of safety = = No unit.
Working stress Working stress
(vi) Ultimate stress (σU): Ultimate stress is the maximum stress to which a material can
be subjected. It corresponds to the highest point on the stress-strain curve.
Ultimate load P
Ultimate stress σU = = U Unit: N/mm2, MPa
Original cross sectional area Ao

(vii) Poisson’s ratio (µ): Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain when
the stresses are within proportional limit.
Lateral strain −ϵ
Poisson’s ratio µ = = Y No unit
Linear strain ϵX

(viii) Elasticity: Elasticity is the property of a material by virtue of which it can regain its
original shape and size when the applied load is removed. Materials possessing this
property are known as elastic materials.
It is a property and hence no unit.

(ix) Young’s modulus (modulus of elasticity) (E): Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio
of axial stress to linear strain when the stresses are within proportional limit.
Axial stress σ
Young’s modulus E = = Unit: kN/mm2, GPa
Linear strain ϵ

(x) Rigidity modulus ( modulus of elasticity in shear) (G): Modulus of rigidity is defined
as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain when the stresses are within proportional limit.
Shear stress τ
Modulus of rigidity G = = Unit: kN/mm2, GPa
Shear strain γ

(xi) Bulk modulus (K): Bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of volumetric stress to
volumetric strain when the stresses are within proportional limit.
Volumetric Stress 𝜎
Bulk modulus K = = Unit: kN/mm2, GPa
Volumetric strain 𝜖 𝑉

(xii) Ductility: Ductility is the property of a material by virtue of which it can be drawn into
thin wires by the application of tensile force. Materials possessing this property are known
as ductile materials.
This is a property of a material and no unit.

(xiii) Plasticity: Plasticity is the property of a material by virtue of it, material can retain
the deformations permanently even after the applied load is removed. Materials
possessing this property are known as plastic materials.

𝟏
23. Show that Poisson’s ratio lies between 𝟎 ≤ 𝝁 ≤
𝟐
Consider a cube subjected to three mutually perpendicular σ
tensile stresses σ
𝟏
Strain in the x-direction 𝜖𝑋 = 𝜎𝑋 − 𝜇(𝜎𝑌 + 𝜎𝑍 = εY = εZ σ σ
𝐄
𝜎
= (1 − 2𝜇) = εY = εZ
𝐸
But volumetric strain εV = εX + εY + εZ σ
3σ
∈V = (1 − 2μ) ---------- (i) σ
E
∴ To have the same sign for either side of the above relation (1-2µ) > 0
i.e. Poisson’s ratio µ≤ 0
𝜎
Also we have lateral strain εY = - µ If µ is negative, it will imply that a positive strain in
𝐸
one direction will be accompanied by a positive strain in the lateral direction which is
1
physically impossible. Hence µ ≥ 0 Thus 0 ≤ 𝜇 ≤
2
σ
24. Relationship between linear strain and volumetric strain:
Consider a cube of side ‘a’ subjected to mutually y
Perpendicular tensile stresses a σ
σ
Let the strains in the three directions be εX, εY, εZ a
Change in the dimensions will be a×εX, a×εY, and a×εZ z
σ a
Final dimensions of the cube a(1+εX), a(1+εY) & a(1+εZ)
Initial volume Vo = a3 σ
3
Final volume v = a (1+εX)(1+εY)(1+εZ)
3
= a (1+εX+εY+εZ+ εXεY+εYεZ+εZεX+εXεYεZ) But strains being very very small, the
product of these quantities will be negligibly small and can be neglected when compared
with unity.
3
∴Final volume = a (1+εX + εY + εZ)
3 3 3
Change in volume dV = a (1+εX + εY + εZ) – a = a (εX + εY + εZ )
dV a 3 (∈X +∈Y +∈Z )
Volumetric strain εV= = = εX + εY + εZ
Vo a3

25. Relationship between E, G and µ

Consider a square element ABCD subjected to a state of
Simple shear. Due to shear, the element will get distorted D’ D C
Such that the diagonal BD will be under tension and AC
Under compression. E
Let the shear stress cause shear strain distorting the 
Diagonal BD to BD’. Let DE be perpendicular to BD’
BD' BD A B
Strain in the diagonal BD = 
BD
BD'BE D' E
= = Since distortion is very small BD  BE
BD BD
As the angle of distortion is very small, we assume angle BD’D  45o
AD
Also BD = and D' E  DD' cos45
cos 45
DD' cos2 45 DD' 1 
 Strain in the diagonal BD =   2  ….. (1)
AD 2AD 2G
  y 
But strain in the diagonal BD = x   (1   ) (2) Since x =  and y = - 
E E E
 
From (1) and (2)  (1   )  E = 2G ( 1 +  )
2G E
26.Relationship between E , K and  ( Young’s modulus, bulk modulus and
Poisson’s ratio )

Consider a cube subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal 

 y z  
tensile stresses . Strain  x  x  (  )  (1  2 )   y   z
E E E E
3
Volumetric strain  V   x   y   z  (1  2 ) …….. (i)  
E

 
But bulk modulus K = Volumetric strain  V  - (ii) 
V K
 3
From (i) and (ii)  (1  2 )  E = 3K(1- 2 )
K E

27.Relationship between E, G and K

E E
We have E = 2G( 1 +  ) 1 +  =   1 …… (1)
2G 2G
E  E 
Also we have E = 3K (1 - 2)  1 - 2 = i.e.  = ½ 1  ……. (2)
3K  3K 
 E  E
From (1) and (2) ½ 1   = 1
 3K  2G
E1 1  3  3K  G  9GK
i.e.   i.e. E   3 E 
2  G 3K  2

 3GK 
 3K  G

28. Deformation of tapering trapezoidal bar.

Consider a very small length of the bar at a distance ‘x’ from one end.

d P DX P D

t dx
x
t
L
( D  d) Dd
Width at any distance x , Dx = d x = d + kx where k =
L L
Cross sectional area = t ( d + kx )
PL Pdx Pdx
Elongation over the small length dx =  
AE A x E t(d  kx )E
L

 t(d  kx)E  tkE log (d  kx)

Pdx P L
Total elongation over the length L dL = e 0
0

PL D
 dL = loge  
Et ( D  d ) d

29. Deformation of tapering circular bar.
Consider a very small length of the bar at a distance ‘x’ from one end.

P P D
d Dx

x dx
L
( D  d )x D-d
Diameter at the section, Dx = d   d  kx where k 
L L

Cross sectional area Ax = (d  kx) 2
4
Pdx 4Pdx
Elongation over the small length dx = 
A x E E(d  kx ) 2
L
4P   1 
L
4 Pdx
Total elongation over the length L dL =  
0
E (d  kx) E (k )  (d  kx)  0
2

L
 
 4PL  1   4PL  1 1  4PL
=     Total elongation dL =
E( D  d )  ( D  d )x  E( D  d )  D d  EDd
d
 L  0

30. Elongation due to self weight: bar of uniform diameter

Let  be the mass density of the material .
Weight per unit volume = g
Force on the elemental length dy = weight of the portion below it dy
L
P = (volume)g = g( ¼ D2y)
Pdy g  4 D 2 ydy gydy y
Elongation over the small length dy = = =
AE  D2E E
4

gL2
L
1
Total elongation over the length L = dL =  gydy 
E0 2E
4P P
If P is the total weight of the bar then P = g( ¼ D2L) gL = 
D 2
A
PL
Total elongation dL =
2AE
PL
We know total elongation due to an axial load P =
AE
Hence elongation of a uniform bar due to its own weight is half that produced by an
axial load equal to its self weight applied at the free end.