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Handbook of Cereals, Pulses,
Roots, and Tubers
Handbook of Cereals, Pulses,
Roots, and Tubers
Functionality, Health Benefits,
and Applications

Edited by
Sneh Punia

Anil Kumar Siroha

Manoj Kumar
CRC Press
Boca Raton and London
First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted
to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission
to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us
know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for iden-
tification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Punia, Sneh, editor. | Siroha, Anil Kumar, editor. | Kumar, Manoj (Chemical scientist), editor.
Title: Cereals, pulses, roots, and tubers : functionality, health benefits, and applications / edited by Sneh Punia,
Anil Kumar Siroha, Manoj Kumar.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2022. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021014714 (print) | LCCN 2021014715 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367692506 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780367726027 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003155508 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Cereal products. | Root crops. | Tubers. | Grain--Health aspects.
Classification: LCC TP434 .C48 2022 (print) | LCC TP434 (ebook) | DDC 664/.7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014714
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014715

ISBN: 978-0-367-69250-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-72602-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-15550-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Palatino
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents

List of Abbreviations................................................................................................................................. ix
Preface...................................................................................................................................................... xv
Editors..................................................................................................................................................... xvii
Contributors............................................................................................................................................. xix

Section I Cereals and Pseudocereals

1. Wheat: Contribution to Healthy Diet and Health......................................................................... 3
Nisha Chaudhary, Priya Dangi, Manju Lata Mishra and Vinod Kumar

2. Agronomic, Environmental and Genotype Effects on Phenols, Antioxidants and

Amino Acid Content of Wheat....................................................................................................... 35
Ali Yigit and Osman Erekul

3. Biotechnological Advancements to Explore Crop Based Studies on Nutritional Aspects....... 53

Shourabh Joshi, Rakesh Kumar Prajapat, Pawan S. Mainkar, Vinod Kumar, Neeshu Joshi,
Rahul Bharadwaj, Sunita Gupta and N. K. Gupta

4. Rice Processing and Properties..................................................................................................... 71

Priya Dangi, Nisha Chaudhary, Ayushi Gupta and Isha Garg

5. Oat (Avena Sativa): Functional Components................................................................................ 89

Sneh Punia, Anil Kumar Siroha and Manoj Kumar

6. Postharvest Processing of Foxtail Millet and its Potential as an Alternative

Protein Source............................................................................................................................... 105
Nitya Sharma and J. K. Sahu

7. Proso Millet Flour and Starch: Properties and Their Applications.........................................115

Anil Kumar Siroha and Sneh Punia

8. Beta-glucan (β-glucan)...................................................................................................................133
Priya Dangi, Nisha Chaudhary, Riya Joshi and Saranya Prabha

9. Barnyard Millet—Composition, Properties, Health Benefits, and Food Applications..........149

Parveen Kumari, Priyanka Kajla and Dipanshi Kaushik

10. Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana L.)—Properties and Health Benefits................................. 157
Parveen Kumari, Priyanka Kajla and Shrestha Naudiyal

11. Antinutritional Factors in Cereals...............................................................................................173

Vivek Saurabh, Sumit B. Urhe, Anurag Upadhyay and Sampada Shankar

12. Nutritional Value, Bioactive Compounds, and Potential Health Benefits of Maize
and Maize-Based Food Products................................................................................................. 193
Florence A. Bello, Margaret O. Edet and Lawrence J. Iwok
v
vi Contents

13. Grain Amaranth: Processing, Health Benefits, and Applications........................................... 221

Babatunde Olawoye, Oseni Kadiri and Timilehin David Oluwajuyitan

14. Chia Seeds—A Renewable Source as a Functional Food.......................................................... 235

Nisha Chaudhary, Priya Dangi, Rajesh Kumar and Sunil Bishnoi

15. Buckwheat: Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Applications.............................. 253

Jayashree Potkule, Sneh Punia, Manoj Kumar

16. Functional Potential of Quinoa.................................................................................................... 267

Nisha Chaudhary, Priya Dangi, Rajesh Kumar, Sunil Bishnoi and Kusum Ruhlania

Section II Pulses
17. Pinto Beans as an Important Agricultural Crop and its Health Benefits............................... 289
Twinkle Kesharwani and C. Lalmuanpuia

18. Antinutritional Factors in Legumes............................................................................................ 305

Priya Dangi, Nisha Chaudhary, Deepali Gajwani and Neha

19. Processing, Nutritional Composition, and Health Benefits of Lentils......................................319

Aderonke Ibidunni Olagunju and Olufunmilayo Sade Omoba

20. Faba Bean Properties, Functionality, and its Applications.......................................................333

Nikita Wadhawan, Sagar M. Chavan, Seema Tanwar and N. K. Jain

21. Pigeon Peas Possess Significant Protein and Starch Fractions with Potential
as a Functional Ingredient in Food Applications....................................................................... 343
Aderonke Ibidunni Olagunju and Olufunmilayo Sade Omoba

22. Kidney Beans: Nutritional Properties, Biofunctional Components, and Health Benefits...........357
Arashdeep Singh, Antima Gupta and Savita Sharma

23. Black Gram: Bioactive Components for Human Health and Their Functions...................... 377
Barinderjit Singh, Reetu and Gurwinder Kaur

24. Rice Beans: An Underutilized Legume with Nutritional Potential and Health
Promoting Compounds................................................................................................................. 393
Neha Sharma, Gurkirat Kaur and Arashdeep Singh

25. Adzuki Beans (Vigna Angularis): Nutritional and Functional Properties..............................413

Prachi Jain, C. Lalmuanpuia, Antima Gupta and Arashdeep Singh

26. Lupine: A Versatile Legume with Enhanced Nutritional Value............................................... 427

Prabhjot Singla, Sucheta Sharma and Arashdeep Singh

27. Mung Beans: Bioactive Compounds and Their Potential Health Benefits.............................. 449
Barinderjit Singh, Gurwinder Kaur and Reetu

28. Nutraceutical and Health Benefits of Pulses.............................................................................. 461

Nikita Wadhawan, Chavan Sagar Madhukar and Gaurav Wadhawan
Contents vii

Section III Oilseed Crops

29. Sesame: An Emerging Functional Food .................................................................................... 477
Sneh Punia, Anil Kumar Siroha and Manoj Kumar

30. Flaxseed: An Underrated Superfood with Functional Properties............................................491

Alok Mishra and Amrita Poonia

31. Soy Bean Processing and Utilization............................................................................................515

Nikita Wadhawan, Sagar M. Chavan, N. K. Jain and Seema Tanwar

Section IV Roots and Tubers

32. Roots and Tubers: Functionality, Health Benefits, and Applications.......................................531
Adeleke Omodunbi Ashogbon

33. Potatoes: Processing, Properties, and Application.....................................................................551

Oseni Kadiri, Babatunde Olawoye and Timilehin David Oluwajuyitan

34. Sweet Potato Starch: Properties and Its Bioactive Components.............................................. 569
Prixit Guleria, Roshanlal Yadav and Baljeet Singh Yadav

35. Structure and Properties of Lotus Seed Flour and Starch....................................................... 583
Sukriti Singh

36. Antinutritional Factors and Their Minimization Strategies in Root and Tuber Crops........ 597
Uma Prajapati, Vikono Ksh, Manoj Kumar and Alka Joshi

Index....................................................................................................................................................... 625
List of Abbreviations

α alpha
β beta
Γ gamma
λ lambda
% Percentage
2D-DIGE Two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis
∆Hgel Enthalpy of gelatinization
µg- Microgram
4-MBG 4-methylthio-3-butenyl glucosinolate
a* Redness
AA Alpha amylase
AAPH 2,2’-Azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride
AC Amylose content
ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme
ACR Acrylamide
AFLP Amplified fragment length polymorphism
AG Amyloglucosidase
AIA α-amylase inhibitor activity
Ais Amylase inhibitors
ALA α-Linolenic acid
AM Amylose
ANF Antinutritional factor
ANN Annealing
AP Amylopectin
AR Aldose reductase
AT Autoclaving treatment
b* Greenness
BA Brabenderamylograph
BBI Bowman-Birk inhibitor
B Branching enzyme
BCAA Branched chain amino acids
BD Bulk density
BQPM Boiled quality protein maize
BU Brabender unit
BV Breakdown viscosity
°C Degree centigrade
Ca Calcium
C Colocassia
CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute
CHD Coronary heart disease
CHO Carbohydrate
CIAE Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering
CIP/IPC International Potato Center
cP Centipascal
Cp Specific heat
CNVs Copy number varieties

ix
x List of Abbreviations

CPV Cool paste viscosity

CQPM Raw quality protein maize
CTI Chymotrypsin inhibitor
Cu Copper
cv. Cultivar
CVD Cardiovascular disease
Da Dalton
DAD Diode array detection
D Dioscorea
DE Diosgenin equivalent
DF Dietary fiber
DHA Docosahexaenoic acid
DHT Dry heat treatment
DM Dry matter
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DPPH 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate
DS Degree of substitution
DSC Differential scanning calorimeter
DW Dry weight
e.g. Such as
EAAI Essential amino acid index
EAAs Essential amino acids
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
EPA Eicosapentaenoic Acid
ER Estrogenic Receptor
et al. et alia (and others)
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FE Ferric Equivalent
Fe Iron
FP Flaxseed Protein
FRAP Ferric reducing antioxidant power
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FV Final viscosity
Fw Fresh weight
g Gram
GA Gallic acid
GAB Guggenheim, Anderson, and Boer
GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid
GAE Gallic acid equivalents
GC Gel consistency
GFI Good Food Institute
GHz Gigahertz
GI Glycemic index
GMOs Genetically modified organisms
GPx Glutathione peroxidase
GRAS Generally recognized as safe
hr Hour
HA Hemagglutination activity
HAA Hydrophobic amino acid
HCN Hydrogen cyanide
HDL High-density lipoprotein
HGP Human Genome Project
List of Abbreviations xi

HHP High hydrolic pressure

HMT Heat moisture treatment
HPLC High performance liquid chromatography
HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography
HPP High-pressure processing
HPV Hot paste viscosity
HTST High-temperature short time
i.e. That is
ICAR The Indian Council of Agricultural Research
ICAT Isotope-coded affinity tag
IDF Insoluble dietary fiber
IEC ion-exchange chromatography
IFCT The Indian Food Composition Tables
IgE Immunoglobulin E
I Interleukin
Ils Ionic liquids
IP6 Myoinositol hexakisphosphate
ISO International Organization for Standardization
iTRAQ isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantitation
IU Inhibitory unit
IYP International Year of the Potato
J/g Joule/gram
kDa Kilo Dalton
Kg Kilogram
kGy Kilo Gray
K Potassium
L Length
L* Lightness
LC Liquid chromatography
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
Lidar light detection and ranging
MDA Monodehydroascorbate
mg Milligram
Mg Magnesium
MHz Megahertz
ml/g Milliliter/gram
mm Micrometers
MMT Million per metric tons
Mn Manganese
MPa Mega pascal
MRM Multiple reaction monitoring
MT Microwave treatment
MTHFR methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase
MS mass spectrometry
MUFA Monounsaturated fatty acids
NADES Natural deep eutectic solvents
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
NPBTs New plant breeding technologies
NGF Nerve growth factor
NHANES National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NIN National Institute of Nutrition
NMR Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
NPY Neuropeptide-Y
xii List of Abbreviations

NS Native starch
NSPs Nonstarch polysaccharides
NTCDs Non-transmissible Inveterate Maladies
ODM Oligonucleotide directed mutagenesis
ORAC Oxygen radical absorbance capacity
P Para
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PA Phytic acid
PCR polymerase chain reaction
PEF Pulsed electric field
PHA Phytohemagglutinin
Phy Phytate
Pis Protease inhibitors
PKD Polycystic Kidney Disease
PSs Porous starches
PT Pasting temperature
PUFA Polyunsaturated fatty acids
PV Peak viscosity
QPM Quality protein maize
RAPD random amplified polymorphic detection
RDA Recommended dietary allowances
Rd DM RNA dependent DNA methylation
RDS Rapidly digesting starch
RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism detection
RFOs Raffinose family oligosaccharides
RNA Ribonucleic acid
ROS Reactive oxygen species
Rpm Rotation per meter/minute
RQPM Roasted quality protein maize
RS Resistance starch
RVA Rapid visco-analyzer
s Second
SAUs State Agricultural Universities
SCFA Short chain fatty acid
SDF Soluble dietary fiber
SDG Secoisolariciresinol-di-glucoside
SDN Site-Directed Nucleases
SDS-PAGE Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
SEC size-exclusion chromatography
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SFA Saturated fatty acids
SFC Supercritical fluid chromatography
SILAC stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture
SME Small and medium enterprise
SNPs Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
SOD Sulphuroxide dismutase
STRs short tandem repeats
SSR Simple sequence repeats
T Thickness
Tend Endset Temperature
Tonset Onset temperature
TAI Trypsin alpha amylase inhibitor
Tc Conclusion temperature
List of Abbreviations xiii

TE Trolox equivalent
TI Trypsin inhibitor
TIA Trypsin inhibitor activity
TIU Trypsin inhibitor unit
To Onset temperature
TPC Total phenolic content
Tp Peak temperature
TPTZ 2,4,6-Tri(2-pyridyl)-s-triazine
TV Trough viscosity
U Unit
UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
UHPLC ESI–MS/MS-ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization
tandem mass spectrometry
UHP Ultra high pressure
UNGAR United Nation General Assembly Resolution
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
UV Ultraviolet
VLDL Very low-density lipoprotein
W/V Weight/volume
W Width
XRD X-ray diffraction
Zn Zinc
Preface

Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots, and Tubers: Functionality, Health Benefits, and Applications
has been systematically divided into four major subsections: cereals and pseudocereals, pulses, oilseed
crops, and roots and tubers.

Section I: Cereals and Pseudocereals

This section will highlight the nutritional aspects of the cereals, pulses, roots and tubers. Chapter 1
discusses the nutritional profile, processing, and contribution of wheat to healthy diet and health. The
phenolic antioxidants and proteins are considered one of the main components that decides the overall
health-promoting effects of any crop. These components are mostly affected by agronomic factors, cli-
matic factors, and genomic organization. The effect of these external and internal factors on the anti-
oxidant bioactives and amino acids will be discussed by Ali Yigit and Osman Erekul in Chapter 2.
Biotechnology has recently contributed immensely in the improvement of the nutritional profile of the
various crops and a general overview is presented in Chapter 3, contributed by Shourabh Joshi, Rakesh
Kumar Prajapat, Pawan S. Mainkar, Vinod Kumar, Neeshu Joshi, Rahul Bharadwaj, Sunita Gupta, and
N. K. Gupta.
The section will be followed by discussing the more specific and most important crops under the cat-
egory of cereals and pseudocereals. Rice is most widely cultivated and consumed across the globe. The
food properties of rice and its industrial processing will be discussed in Chapter 4, which is authored by
Priya Dangi, Nisha Chaudhary, Ayushi Gupta, and Isha Garg. Oats are one of the emerging functional
foods and are worth considering for their metabolism and health benefits in the human body (Chapter 5,
authored by Sneh Punia, Anil Kumar Siroha, and Manoj Kumar). Moreover, millets are also gaining
interest due to their health benefits and the advantage that millets can be cultivated with less water
requirement with lesser disease incidence. Various minor millets include foxtail millet (Chapter 6), proso mil-
lets (Chapter 7), barnyard millet (Chapter 9), and finger millet (Chapter 10). The sources, characteriza-
tion, and health benefits of β-Glucan is discussed in Chapter 8. Another component that we considered
to be important are antinutritional factors (ANFs) present in the cereals. A comprehensive profile of the
ANFs and their beneficial and harmful effects in the human body are reviewed in Chapter 11, authored
by Vivek Saurabh, Sumit B. Urhe, Anurag Upadhyay, and Sampada Shankar. The potential health ben-
efits and bioactive profile of maize and its products are presented in Chapter 12, by Florence A. Bello,
Margaret O. Edet and Lawrence J. Iwok.
A smaller group of crops i.e., pseudocereals are currently gaining the interest of the scientific communi-
ties due to their exceptional nutritional profile. Herein, chia seeds (Chapter 14) and quinoa (Chapter 16)
are discussed with respect to their potential application as functional foods by Nisha Chaudhary, Priya
Dangi, Sunil Bishnoi, Rajesh Kumar, and Kusum Ruhlania. The health benefits of the amaranth and
buckwheat grain is also highlighted in Chapter 13 and Chapter 15, respectively.

Section II: Pulses

Pulses are one of the important sources of protein for the vegetarian population. Hence, this section will
comprehensively deliver the compositional, nutritional, and health benefits of the various pulses. The
overall application of pulses is limited by the presence of ANFs. Hence, it is important to know vari-
ous ANFs in the legumes and possible ways to overcome the problem of ANFs, which is mentioned in

xv
xvi Preface

Chapter 18 authored by Priya Dangi, Nisha Chaudhary, Deepali Gajwani, and Neha. The food properties
and application of faba beans will be discussed in Chapter 20 by Nikita Wadhawan, Sagar M.Chavan,
Seema Tanwar and N.K. Jain. Aderonke Olagunju, O.S. Omoba will discuss the processing, health bene-
fits, and application of the lentils and pigeon peas in Chapter 19 and Chapter 21, respectively. Pinto beans
(Chapter 17), kidney beans (Chapter 22), black gram (Chapter 23), rice beans (Chapter 24), adzuki beans
(chapter 25), lupines (Chapter 26), and mung bean (Chapter 27) are also discussed in this reference book.
An overall view of the pulses as nutraceutical and health-promoting effects are discussed in Chapter 28
authored by Nikita Wadhawan, Chavan Sagar Madhukar and Gaurav Wadhawan.

Section III: Oilseed Crops

This reference book will also contain a small section on very important oilseed crops. These crops
(sesame, flaxseed, and soy beans) are not only an important source of oil, but also a very important can-
didate for the development of functional foods. An overview of sesame is discussed by Sneh Punia, Anil
Kumar Siroha, and Manoj Kumar in Chapter 29. Various properties of flaxseed and its application as an
important functional food ingredient are discussed in Chapter 30 by Alok Mishra and Amrita Poonia.
The food processing aspects and utilization of the soy bean in foods is discussed in the last chapter of this
section, Chapter 31, by Nikita Wadhawan, Sagar M. Chavan, N. K. Jain, and Seema Tanwar.

Section IV: Roots and Tubers

Roots and tubers are considered as one of the nature’s buried treasures and have been important food
crops for thousands of years. These crops are rich in nutrients and dietary fiber along with many health
benefits for the human body. These crops have a crucial role in the food security, agriculture, and income
generation for as many as 2.2 billion people in developing nations. Considering their importance, in this
reference book will discuss the health benefits, processing, food properties, composition, food applica-
tion, and ANFs in last five chapters. Chapter 32 will discuss the overall characteristics of roots and
tubers, authored by Adeleke Omodunbi Ashogbon. The most important tuber crop—the potato—will
be discussed in Chapter 33 by Kadiri Oseni, Olawoye Babatunde, and Oluwajuyitan Timilehin David
with respect to its functional food properties, processing, and application. Other tuber and root crops
discussed in this section are sweet potato and lotus seed flour and starch in Chapter 34 and Chapter 35,
respectively. The last chapter (Chapter 36) of the discuss the various ANFs present in the roots and tuber
crops and their possible minimization by different means.
Editors

Sneh Punia, Ph.D., is a researcher in the Department of Food, Nutrition and

Packaging Sciences, at Clemson University, Clemson, USA. She previously
worked as Assistant Professor (C) in the Department of Food Science and
Technology, Chaudhary Devi Lal University, Sirsa. She was involved in the
mandated research activities of the institution and has expertise on extraction
and functional characterization of antioxidants and starch as well as their modi-
fications and functional products.
She has presented her research in various national and international confer-
ences and published more than 50 research papers/book chapters in national
and international journals/books. She has published two edited and two authored books with CRC Press
and Taylor & Francis Group. She also serves as the reviewer for various international journals. She is
an active member of the Association of Food Scientists and Technologists (AFSTI), in Mysore, India.

Anil Kumar Siroha, Ph.D., is presently working as Assistant Professor (C)

in the Department of Food Science and Technology, at Chaudhary Devi Lal
University, in Sirsa. He has both master’s and doctorate degrees in Food
Science and Technology. His areas of interest include starch, starch modification,
and the development of new products. He has published more than 20 research
papers in national and international journals and several book chapters.
Dr. Siroha edited Pearl Millet: Properties, Functionality and Applications
(CRC Press, 2020). He also serves as a reviewer for various national and
international journals. He is an active member of the Association of Food
Scientists and Technologists (AFSTI), in Mysore, India.

Manoj Kumar, Ph.D., is working as a scientist in the Chemical and

Biochemical Processing Division at ICAR—Central Institute for Research on
Cotton Technology, in Mumbai-400019, India. Dr. Kumar is involved in the
mandated research activities of the institute and also acts as quality manager
of the institute related to the National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Calibration Laboratories (NABL). Dr. Kumar has expertise on extraction and
functional characterization of proteins and other bioactive compounds from
plant-based matrices. Currently, Dr. Kumar is working on a project funded by
Science for Equity, Empowerment, and Development (SEED) Division of
DST (Government of India). Dr. Kumar has been honored with several awards throughout his academic
career including ICAR’s national talent scholarship and junior research fellowship during undergraduate
and postgraduate studies. He is an active member of the International Cotton Researchers Association,
Indian Society of Cotton Improvement, Indian Fibre Society, and many other professional societies.

xvii
Contributors

Adeleke Omodunbi Ashogbon Osman Erekul

Department of Chemical Sciences Department of Field Crops
Adekunle Ajasin University Faculty of Agriculture
Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Aydın, Turkey
Florence A. Bello
Department of Food Science and Technology Deepali Gajwani
University of Uyo Department of Food Technology
Uyo, Nigeria Institute of Home Economics
University of Delhi
Rahul Bharadwaj New Delhi, India
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding,
Agriculture Research Station Isha Garg
Mandore-Agriculture University-Jodhpur Department of Food Technology
Rajasthan, India Institute of Home Economics
University of Delhi
Sunil Bishnoi New Delhi, India
Department of Food Technology
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Prixit Guleria
Technology Department of Food Technology
Hisar, Harayana, India Maharshi Dayanand University
Rohtak, Haryana, India
Nisha Chaudhary
Department of Food Science and Technology Antima Gupta
College of Agriculture, Nagaur Department of Food Science and Technology
Agriculture University Punjab Agricultural University
Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Sagar M. Chavan Ayushi Gupta

Department of Processing and Food Department of Food Technology
Engineering Institute of Home Economics
College of Technology and Engineering University of Delhi
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India New Delhi, India

Priya Dangi N. K. Gupta

Department of Food Technology SKN Agriculture University
Institute of Home Economics Jobner, Rajasthan, India
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India Sunita Gupta
SKN Agriculture University
Margaret O. Edet Jobner, Rajasthan, India
Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Uyo Lawrence J. Iwok
Uyo, Nigeria Department of Food Science and Technology
University of Uyo
Uyo, Nigeria

xix
xx Contributors

N.K. Jain Dipanshi Kaushik

Department of Processing and Food Engineering Guru Jambheshwar University of Science &
College of Technology and Engineering Technology
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Hisar, Haryana, India

Prachi Jain Twinkle Kesharwani

Department of Food Technology Department of Food Technology
Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences
Delhi University Delhi University
Delhi, India New Delhi, India

Alka Joshi Vikono Ksh

Division of Food Science and Postharvest Division of Food Science and Postharvest
Technology Technology
ICAR—Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR—Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi, India New Delhi, India

Neeshu Joshi Manoj Kumar

Department of Agronomy Chemical and Biochemical Processing
Agriculture Research Sub-Station, Division
Sumerpur-Agriculture University ICAR—Central institute for Research on Cotton
Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India Technology
Mumbai, India
Riya Joshi
Department of Food Technology Rajesh Kumar
Institute of Home Economics Department of Food Technology
University of Delhi Guru Jambheshwar University of Science &
New Delhi, India Technology
Hisar, Harayana, India
Shourabh Joshi
Department of Basic Sciences Vinod Kumar
College of Agriculture Department of Biochemistry
Nagaur-Agriculture University College of Basic Sciences and Humanities
Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar, Haryana, India
Oseni Kadiri
Department of Biochemistry Parveen Kumari
Edo State University Uzairue Guru Jambheshwar University of Science &
Auchi, Nigeria Technology
Hisar, Haryana, India
Priyanka Kajla
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Roshanlal Yadav
Technology Department of Food Technology
Hisar, Haryana, India Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences
University of Delhi
Gurkirat Kaur New Delhi, India
Electron Microscopy and Nanoscience Lab
Punjab Agricultural University C. Lalmuanpuia
Ludhiana, Punjab, India Department of Food Technology
Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences
Gurwinder Kaur Delhi University
Department of Food Science and Technology New Delhi, India
I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University
Kapurthala, Punjab, India
Contributors xxi

Chavan Sagar Madhukar Amrita Poonia

College of Technology and Engineering Department of Dairy Science and Food
Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Technology
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Pawan S. Mainkar Banaras Hindu University
ICAR-Directorate of Onion and Garlic Research Varanasi, India
Pune, Maharashtra, India
Jayashree Potkule
Alok Mishra Chemical and Biochemical Processing
Department of Dairy Science and Food Division
Technology ICAR-Central institute for Research on Cotton
Institute of Agricultural Sciences Technology
Banaras Hindu University Mumbai, India
Varanasi, India
Saranya Prabha
Manju Lata Mishra Department of Food Technology
Department of Food Science Institute of Home Economics
Nutrition & Technology College of Home University of Delhi
Science New Delhi, India
CSK HPKV
Palampur, India Rakesh Kumar Prajapat
School of Agriculture
Shrestha Naudiyal Suresh Gyan Vihar University
Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Technology
Hisar, Haryana, India Uma Prajapati
Division of Food Science and Postharvest
Neha Technology
Department of Food Technology ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Institute of Home Economics New Delhi, India
University of Delhi
New Delhi, India Sneh Punia
Department of Food Science and
Aderonke Ibidunni Olagunju Technology
Department of Food Science and Technology Chaudhary Devi Lal University
Federal University of Technology and
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria Sirsa, India
Department of Food, Nutrition and Packaging
Babatunde Olawoye Sciences
Department of Food Science and Technology Clemson University
First Technical University Clemson, South Carolina, USA
Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria
Reetu
Timilehin David Oluwajuyitan Department of Food Science and
Department of Food Science and Technology Technology
Federal University of Technology I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University
Akure, Nigeria Kapurthala, Punjab, India
Olufunmilayo Sade Omoba Kusum Ruhlania
Department of Food Science and Technology Guru Jambheshwar University of Science &
Federal University of Technology Technology
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria Hisar, Haryana, India
xxii Contributors

J.K. Sahu and

Centre for Rural Development and Department Food Science and Technology
Technology Guru Nanak Dev University
Indian Institute of Technology Amritsar, India
New Delhi, India
Prabhjot Singla
Vivek Saurabh Department of Biochemistry
Division of Food Science & Postharvest Punjab Agricultural University
Technology Ludhiana, Punjab, India
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
New Delhi, India Anil Kumar Siroha
Department of Food Science and Technology
Sampada Shankar Chaudhary Devi Lal University
Division of Food Science & Postharvest Sirsa, Haryana, India
Technology
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute Seema Tanwar
New Delhi, India Department of Processing and Food Engineering
College of Technology and Engineering
Neha Sharma Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Department of Food Science and Technology
Punjab Agricultural University Anurag Upadhyay
Ludhiana, Punjab, India Department of Agronomy
Institute of Agricultural Sciences
Nitya Sharma Banaras Hindu University
Centre for Rural Development and Technology Varanasi, India
Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi, India Sumit B. Urhe
Division of Food Science & Postharvest
Savita Sharma Technology
Department of Food Science and Technology ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Punjab Agricultural University New Delhi, India
Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Gaurav Wadhawan
Sucheta Sharma Pacific Medical College & Hospital
Department of Biochemistry Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana, Punjab, India Nikita Wadhawan
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering
Arashdeep Singh College of Technology and Engineering
Department of Food Science and Technology Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana, Punjab, India Baljeet Singh Yadav
Department of Food Technology
Barinderjit Singh Maharshi Dayanand University
Department of Food Science and Technology Rohtak, Haryana, India
I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University
Kapurthala, Punjab, India Ali Yigit
Department of Field Crops
Sukriti Singh Faculty of Agriculture
Maharishi Markenedeshvar College of Nursing Aydın Adnan Menderes University
Maharishi Markenedeshvar (deemed to be) Aydın, Turkey
University
Mullana, India
Section I

Cereals and Pseudocereals

1
Wheat: Contribution to Healthy Diet and Health

Nisha Chaudhary
Agriculture University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India

Priya Dangi
Institute of Home Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India

Manju Lata Mishra

Himachal Pradesh Agriculture University, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India

Vinod Kumar
Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana, India

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Dietary Wheat Species...................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Nutrient Contribution of Wheat in Diet............................................................................................ 5
1.4 Relationship of Wheat Composition to Diet and Health................................................................... 6
1.4.1 Protein.................................................................................................................................. 6
1.4.1.1 Nutritional Quality of Protein............................................................................... 6
1.4.1.2 Bioactive Proteins in Wheat................................................................................. 8
1.4.2 Carbohydrates......................................................................................................................11
1.4.2.1 Wheat as Carbohydrates: A Source of Energy....................................................11
1.4.2.2 Starch.................................................................................................................. 12
1.4.2.3 Dietary Fiber....................................................................................................... 13
1.4.3 Phytochemicals................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.4 Vitamins..............................................................................................................................14
1.4.5 Methyl Donors in Wheat (Betaine, Choline)......................................................................14
1.5 Progress in Improving Nutritional Quality..................................................................................... 15
1.6 The Impact of Processing on Wheat Grain Components With Regard to Health Benefits.............16
1.6.1 Alkylresorcinols..................................................................................................................16
1.6.2 Tocols...................................................................................................................................17
1.6.3 Short-Chain Carbohydrates.................................................................................................17
1.6.4 Sterols..................................................................................................................................18
1.6.5 Phytic Acid and Minerals (Iron, Magnesium, and Zinc)....................................................18
1.6.6 Vitamin B Complex............................................................................................................ 19
1.6.7 Dietary Fiber...................................................................................................................... 20
1.7 Application of Omics Technology in Nutritional Quality Improvement of Wheat........................ 21
1.8 Negative Impact of Wheat Consumption on Health....................................................................... 21
1.8.1 Wheat Allergy.................................................................................................................... 22
1.8.2 Wheat-Dependent Exercise-Induced Anaphylaxis (WDEIA)........................................... 22
1.8.3 Celiac Disease.................................................................................................................... 22
1.8.4 Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS)................................................................................ 23
4 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

1.8.5 Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorder.................................................................. 23

1.8.6 FODMAPs and Gastrointestinal Disorders........................................................................ 24
1.9 Potential Harm of a Gluten-Free Diet............................................................................................. 24
1.10 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 25
References................................................................................................................................................. 25

1.1 Introduction
The importance of wheat—on both economics and health—and its immense contribution to the diets of
humans cannot be challenged. Wheat is vital source of protein and other micronutrients and contributes
as a prime source of vegetable protein in the human diet when compared with other cereals (Shewry,
2009; Punia et al., 2017). In the current year (2019–20), global wheat production reached about 742.3
million tons (Statistica, 2020a), which makes it the second most dominant crop in terms of global pro-
duction after corn. Wheat is incomparable in its range of cultivation—from 67°N in Scandinavia and
Russia to 45°S in Argentina—considering the elevated regions in the tropics and subtropics (Feldman,
1995). This attribute has made wheat cultivation possible in distinct continents worldwide and its avail-
ability at global level. The satisfying taste, good price, availability, processing efficiency, and nutritive
quality help make wheat a staple cereal all-round. Now, cereal consumption patterns are changing; the
use of wheat is taking a downturn for consumers with increasing socioeconomic status. Wheat con-
sumption in developing countries is more than in developed countries (Gayathri & Rashmi, 2016). Per
capita consumption of wheat in Middle East countries exceeds 150 kg per year, whilst in South Asian
countries, such as India, it is 66 kg to 70 kg per year. Areas such as Central America and Sub-Saharan
Africa, which primarily rely up on other cereals and millets, withstand far less per capita wheat con-
sumption. The average annual consumption per capita in Europe of cereal grains is 131 kg per year, with
wheat making up the majority (108 kg per capita per year). In Asia, approximately half of the yearly
cereal consumption is rice (European Food Information Council, 2015). Further, the demand of wheat is
increasing in new markets ahead from its region of climatic adaptation and cultivation. The basis for this
increase in demand for wheat is its peculiar visco-elastic properties that help form unique and variable
food products. Subsequent increasing consumption of these products—along with industrialization and
urbanization—created the convenience for production and consumption by replacing traditional eating
patterns. Specifically, the exceptional characteristics and composition of gluten protein favor transfor-
mation of wheat in to products such as breads, cakes, cookies, pastries, pies, noodles, pasta, and a huge
range of breakfast cereals and functional ingredients after processing.
Wheat is a refined reservoir of macronutrients (carbohydrates, protein, fat), micronutrients (sterols,
minerals, vitamins, and phenolic compounds), cell wall polysaccharides, dietary fiber, and many bio-
logically active minor elements. The starchy endosperm of wheat accounts for most of the scientific and
technological concern for food processing up to and throughout the last century. The realization of the
impact of bran and germ layers for maintaining human health spurred scientific interest to define the
types, quantity, and promising physiological functions of various vitamins, minerals, and phytochemi-
cals of whole grain and its food products. It is understood that processing food modifies its structure at
different levels—this is important in controlling the metabolism of different nutrient compounds and the
bioavailability of phytochemicals (Kong & Singh, 2008).

1.2 Dietary Wheat Species

The first wheat cultivation occurred nearly 10,000 years ago as part of the Neolithic Revolution, which
was a transition phase from hunting and gathering of food to conventional agriculture. These earliest
cultivated forms of wheat were diploid (genome AA, einkorn) and tetraploid (genome AABB, emmer),
and their genetic fingerprints indicate their origin as the southeastern part of Turkey (Dubcovsky &
Dvorak, 2007). About 9,000 years ago, cultivation expanded to the Near East during the first appear-
ance of hexaploid bread wheat (Feldman, 2001). Farmers chose the earliest cultivated forms of wheat
Wheat 5

from wild populations. These were essentially landraces considering their superior yield and other
typical features, and were an early and clearly nonscientific type of plant breeding. This domestic
cultivation also contributed to the genetic traits selection, which separated these early crops from their
wild relatives. Importantly, two related traits need to be mentioned here. First, is maturity: Shattering
of the spike leads to seed loss at the time of harvesting, which is significant to insure seed dispersal
in natural populations; the mutations at the Br (brittle rachis) locus is responsible for nonshattering
traits (Nalam, Vales, Watson, Kianian, & Riera-Lizarazu, 2006). Secondly, a substantial trait is the
change in hulled forms where the glumes stick tightly to the grain. A dominant mutant at the Q locus
made it so that the effects of recessive mutations at the tenacious glume (Tg) locus were modified
(Dubcovsky & Dvorak, 2007). Diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid wheat contain a tough rachis (except
for spelt forms of bread wheat). Various antiquated forms of einkorn, emmer, and spelt are hulled,
yet modern types of tetraploid and hexaploid wheat are threshed freely. However, the domestication
of the natural population developed einkorn and emmer wheat. Cultivation of bread wheat existed at
these early times, emerging from the hybridization of cultivated emmer with the unrelated wild grass
Triticum tauschii.
Feldman (2001) elegantly described and summarized the spread of wheat from its origin across the
world. Wheat cultivation found its way into Europe through Anatolia to Greece by 8000 BCE, moving
both northward via the Balkans to the Danube River and westward to Italy, France, and Spain during
7000 BCE. Eventually, wheat cultivation was spread to the UK and Scandinavia in 5000 BCE. Likewise,
wheat reached central Asia via Iran and successively reached China and Africa by about 3000 BCE, ini-
tially via Egypt. Wheat cultivation made its way to Mexico by the Spaniards in 1529 CE and to Australia
in 1788.
Triticum aestivum is the major wheat species cultivated throughout the world that is a hexaploid spe-
cies and is usually known as “common” or “bread” wheat. Whereas, the noticeable part of total wheat
production of world includes Triticum turgidum var. durum, which is a tetraploid species adapted to the
arid conditions surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Such wheat is utilized to make pasta, thus usually
referred as “pasta” or “durum” wheat. Remaining wheat species are cultivated on limited areas by virtue
of cultural consideration or for extending market in health foods. These wheat include einkorn (diploid
Triticum monococcum var. monococcum), emmer (tetraploid Triticum turgidum var. dicoccum), and
spelt that is being a cultivated form of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum var. spelta). Spelt, emmer,
and various forms of einkorn are distinct from bread and durum wheats due to their being hulled—as
the glumes remain tightly closed over the grain and are not removed by threshing in such wild forms
(Shewry, 2009).

1.3 Nutrient Contribution of Wheat in Diet

Wheat is very common, but its importance cannot be overlooked. Wheat is consumed by most of the
population in the world. For this reason, its effects on health should be updated periodically. As we know,
cereal grains (wheat, rice etc.) are the major source of carbohydrates that form the nutritional base that
supports human life for most of the world’s population; according to (FAO, 2001) wheat provides 25%
of total plant-derived energy, more than 36% of protein, and about 22% of iron. The wheat carbohy-
drates, vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals and their relation to human nutrition are well documented in
The Wheat And Nutrition Series by Jones, Peña, Korczak, & Braun (2017).
While it is growing, wheat is primarily affected by climatic condition, genotype, and nitrogen fertil-
ization, which all directly affect the quality and quantity of protein content. Protein content and starch
composition are the main influencers on the dietary importance of bread when using different types of
whole wheat and flour (Al-Saleh & Brennan, 2012). Hard or soft endosperm wheat (Triticum aestivum)
make up 95% of total production, while durum wheat (Triticum durum) accounts for only 5%. Durum
wheat contains more protein i.e. 12–16%, while soft wheat contain 8–10% (USDA/NASS, 2001; Punia
et al., 2019). In Table 1.1, the factors used for the conversion of nitrogen values to protein (per g N) given
by Greenfield & Southgate (2003).
6 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

TABLE 1.1
Factors for the Conversion of Nitrogen Values to
Protein (per g N) (Greenfield & Southgate (2003))
Foodstuff Factor
Wheat whole 5.83
Wheat bran 6.31
Wheat embryo 5.80
Wheat endosperm 5.70

Soft wheat flours provide weak dough, which is good for making cakes, cookies, and crackers. Hard or
durum wheat is milled to make semolina and pasta (Sayaslan, Seib, & Chung, 2006). Wheat is a highly
adaptive crop in almost all regions of temperate environments and, combined with its genetic diversity,
makes it an important and increasingly popular grain to feed people on large scale (Shewry, 2009).
Although it’s a chief source of energy-giving food, it provides some other essential nutrients like protein,
vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and other components that are important for the growth and develop-
ment of human health (Shewry & Hey, 2015). Most of the nutritional quality of the grains are affected
by various processing methods; the utilization of highly refined products should not be used (Oghbaei
& Prakash, 2016). Wheat grain is made up of three different sections: bran (outer layered fiber), germ
(inner micronutrient rich), and the endosperm (loaded with carbohydrate). The bran is full of fibers,
antioxidants, iron, zinc, copper, magnesium, B group vitamins, and phytonutrients. The germ holds B
group vitamins, vitamin E, phytonutrients, antioxidants, and unsaturated fats. The endosperm is mostly
covered with starchy carbohydrates, proteins, and few amount of vitamins and minerals (Gayathri &
Rashmi, 2016). All the nutritional composition of the different types of wheat and the portion used for
different purposes in the United States (USDA, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference) and
India (NIN, ICMR) are given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.

1.4 Relationship of Wheat Composition to Diet and Health

1.4.1 Protein
Protein content present in the wheat flour determines the ability to process it into diverse foods since fully
grown wheat grains constitute 8–20% of the total dry matter. Wheat proteins show high complexity and dif-
ferent interactions with each other, consequently making them hard to differentiate and classify according
to their solubility and extractability in various solvents. Albumins and globulins of wheat endosperm cor-
respond to 20–25% of total grain proteins (Žilić, Barać, Pešić, Dodig, & Ignjatović-Micić, 2011). Albumin
wheat proteins are smallest in size followed by globulins. Gliadins and glutenins in wheat have complex
high-molecular weight and act as storage proteins, which does not cause enzyme activity, but does produce
spongy baked products due to the gas formed during the dough formation process. Physiologically, the
enzymes or active proteins in wheat proteins belong to albumin and globulin groups. These proteins are con-
centrated in the seed coats, aleurone cells, and germ, with a lower concentration in the endosperm. The albu-
min and globulin portions cover about 25% of the total grain proteins (Belderok, Mesdag, & Donner, 2000).

1.4.1.1 Nutritional Quality of Protein

Protein quality depends on the degree of essential amino acid present in any foodstuff. If a food pos-
sesses all essential amino acids, then the food protein is considered of good and high quality. Essential
amino acids cannot be synthesized on their own; a helper must be provided through diet. The essential
amino acids are lysine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, his-
tidine, and methionine. The most limiting amino acid in wheat is lysine. The requirements for essential
amino acids are higher in children for growth purposes, and needed in adult at lesser levels to maintain
Wheat 7

TABLE 1.2
Nutritional Composition as per USDA Nutrient Database of Wheat for Different Purposes (USDA National
Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, 2015)
Wheat Wheat,
Flour, Wheat, Hard Wheat,
Wheat Whole- Durum White Soft White
Flour, Grain, Wheat Wheat Triticum Triticum Triticum
Whole- Soft Bran, Germ, durum aestivum aestivum
Nutritional Composition Grain Wheat Crude Crude Desf. L. L.
PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES AND DIETARY FIBER (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Moisture/water (g) 10.74 12.42 9.89 11.12 10.94 9.57 10.42
Protein (N x 5.83/6.31*)(g) 13.21 9.61 15.55* 23.15 13.68 11.31 10.69
Ash (g) 1.58 1.53 5.79 4.21 1.78 1.52 1.54
Total Fat (g) 2.50 1.95 4.25 9.72 2.47 1.71 1.99
Total Dietary fiber (g) 10.7 13.1 42.8 13.2 - 12.2 12.7
Carbohydrate, by difference(g) 71.97 74.48 64.51 51.80 71.13 75.90 75.36
Energy (kcal) 340 332 216 360 339 342 340
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Thiamine (B1) (mg) 0.502 0.297 0.523 1.882 0.419 0.387 0.410
Riboflavin (B2) (mg) 0.165 0.188 0.577 0.499 0.121 0.108 0.107
Niacin (B3) (mg) 4.957 5.347 13.578 6.813 6.738 4.381 4.766
Pantothenic Acid (B5) mg 0.603 1.011 2.181 2.257 0.935 0.954 0.850
Total (B6) (micro gram) 0.407 0.191 1.303 1.300 0.419 0.368 0.378
Total Folates (B9) microgram 44 28 79 281 43 38 41
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin E (alpha Tocopherols) (mg) 0.71 0.53 1.49 - - 1.01 1.01
Beta Tocopherols (mg) 0.23 - - - - - -
Gamma Tocopherols (mg) 1.91 - - - - - -
Alpha Tocotrienols (mg) 0.30 - - - - - -
Gamma Tocotrienols (mg) 0.03 - - - - - -
Phylloquinones (K1) micro gram 1.9 - 1.9 - - 1.9 1.9
CAROTENOIDS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Lutein+ Zeaxanthin 220 220 240 - - 220 220
β-Carotene (microgram) 5 5 6 - - 5 5
MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Calcium (Ca) (mg) 34 33 73 39 34 32 34
Iron (Fe) (mg) 3.60 3.71 10.57 6.26 3.52 4.56 5.37
Magnesium (Mg) (mg) 137 117 611 239 144 93 90
Phosphorus (P) (mg) 357 323 1013 842 508 355 402
Potassium (K) (mg) 363 394 1182 892 431 432 435
Sodium (Na) (mg) 2 3 2 12 2 2 2
Zinc (Zn) (mg) 2.60 2.96 7.27 12.29 4.16 3.33 3.46
Copper (Cu) (mg) 0.410 0.475 0.998 0.796 0.553 0.363 0.426
Manganese (Mn) (mg) 4.067 3.399 11.5 13.301 3.012 3.821 3.406
Selenium (Se) (microgram) 61.8 12.7 77.6 79.2 89.4 - -
STARCH AND SUGARS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Total Starch (g) 57.77 - - - - - -
Fructose (g) 0.05 - - - - - -
Glucose (g) 0.00 - - - - - -
Sucrose (g) 0.36 - - - - - -
Total Sugars (g) 0.41 1.02 0.41 - - 0.41 -

(Continued)
8 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

TABLE 1.2 (Continued)

Wheat Wheat,
Flour, Wheat, Hard Wheat,
Wheat Whole- Durum White Soft White
Flour, Grain, Wheat Wheat Triticum Triticum Triticum
Whole- Soft Bran, Germ, durum aestivum aestivum
Nutritional Composition Grain Wheat Crude Crude Desf. L. L.

FATTY ACID PROFILE (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Total Saturated Fatty Acids (TSFA) (g) 0.430 0.430 0.630 1.665 0.454 0.277 0.368
Total Mono Unsaturated 0.283 0.283 0.637 1.365 0.344 0.203 0.227
Fatty Acids (TMUFA) (g)
Total Poly Unsaturated 1.167 1.167 2.212 6.010 0.978 0.750 0.837
Fatty Acids (TPUFA) (g)

AMINO ACID PROFILE(All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Tryptophan (g) 0.174 - 0.282 0.317 0.176 - -
Threonine (g) 0.367 - 0.500 0.968 0.366 - -
Isoleucine (g) 0.443 - 0.486 0.847 0.533 - -
Leucine (g) 0.898 - 0.928 1.571 0.934 - -
Lysine (g) 0.359 - 0.600 1.468 0.303 - -
Methionine (g) 0.228 - 0.234 0.468 0.221 - -
Cystine(g) 0.275 - 0.371 0.456 0.286 - -
Phenylalanine (g) 0.682 - 0.595 0.928 0.681 - -
Tyrosine (g) 0.275 - 0.436 0.704 0.357 - -
Valine (g) 0.564 - 0.726 1.198 0.594 - -
Arginine (g) 0.648 - 1.087 - 0.483 - -
Histidine(g) 0.357 - 0.430 0.643 0.322 - -
Alanine (g) 0.489 - 0.765 - 0.427 - -
Aspartic acid (g) 0.722 - 1.130 2.070 0.617 - -
Glutamic acid (g) 4.328 - 2.874 3.995 4.743 - -
Glycine (g) 0.569 - 0.898 1.424 0.495 - -
Proline (g) 2.075 - 0.882 1.231 1.459 - -
Serine (g) 0.620 - 0.684 1.102 0.667 - -
POLYPHENOLS
Caffeine (mg) 0.0 - 0.0 - - 0.0 0.0
(- indicates lack of reliable data/NA.)

health (Shewry & Hey, 2016). Plant proteins are much more cost effective and efficient than meat protein
to produce, but they are nutritionally inadequate due to their deficiency in essential amino acids (Bicar,
Woodman-Clikeman, Sangtong, Peterson, Yang, Lee, et al., 2008).

1.4.1.2 Bioactive Proteins in Wheat

Plant proteins are not easily digested and absorbed and can cause allergic reactions by animals. The
albumin and globulin proteins are involved in this abnormal immunological reaction, which causes
type 1 hypersensitivity reactions mediated by allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE). For instance,
Baker’s asthma occurs due to inhalation of flour particles in which water-soluble flour proteins bond
to serum IgE (Šramkováa, Gregováb, & Šturdíka, 2009). Celiac disease (gluten-sensitive enteropathy)
results in malabsorption and causes poor growth, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. The wheat proteins
gliadins and glutenins are contributing factors, whereas thioredoxin (Trh) is involved in germination
and seed development. Thioredoxin activates nitrogen and carbon during the reduction of the gliadin
and glutenin storage proteins, and the disulphide proteins are inactivated that inhibit starch-degrading
enzymes (Lindsay, 2002).
Wheat 9

TABLE 1.3
Nutritional Composition of Wheat as Given by NIN, ICMR Wheat Varieties for Different Purposes
(Longvah, Ananthan, Bhaskarachary, & Venkaiah, 2017)
Wheat Wheat,
Flour, Wheat Wheat, Wheat, Wheat, Wheat, Vermicelli,
Refined Flour, Atta Whole Bulgur Semolina Vermicelli Roasted
Nutritional (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum
Composition aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum)
PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES AND DIETARY FIBER (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Moisture 11.34±0.93 11.10±0.35 10.58±1.11 8.61±0.32 8.94±0.68 9.59±0.37 7.61±0.47
Protein 10.36±0.29 10.57±0.37 10.59±0.60 10.84±0.75 11.38±0.37 9.70±0.52 10.37±0.70
Ash 0.51±0.07 1.28±0.19 1.42±0.19 1.23±0.06 0.80±0.17 0.60±0.04 0.56±0.04
Total Fat 0.76±0.07 1.53±0.12 1.47±0.05 1.45±0.02 0.74±0.10 0.45±0.03 0.49±0.05
Total Dietary fiber 2.76±0.29 11.36±0.29 11.23±0.77 8.81±0.45 9.72±0.74 9.28±0.69 9.55±0.40
Insoluble dietary fiber 2.14±0.30 9.73±0.47 9.63±0.19 6.56±0.20 8.16±0.58 7.53±0.51 7.79±0.29
Soluble dietary fiber 0.62±0.14 1.63±0.64 1.60±0.75 2.25±0.38 1.55±0.18 1.75±0.24 1.76±0.18
Carbohydrate 74.27±0.92 64.17±0.32 64.72±1.74 69.06±0.74 68.43±0.99 70.39±0.61 71.42±0.71
Energy 1472±16 1340±7 1347±23 1430±6 1396±18 1392±8 1423±13
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Thiamine (B1) 0.15±0.017 0.42±0.044 0.46±0.067 0.24±0.027 0.29±0.025 0.13±0.011 0.12±0.012
Riboflavin (B2) 0.06±0.008 0.15±0.010 0.15±0.041 0.12±0.004 0.04±0.004 0.01±0.003 0.01±0.002
Niacin (B3) 0.77±0.07 2.37±0.10 2.68±0.19 2.05±0.05 1.13±0.10 0.86±0.02 0.67±0.05
Pantothenic Acid (B5) 0.72±0.08 0.87±0.04 1.08±0.21 0.84±0.03 0.75±0.08 0.52±0.05 0.49±0.05
Total (B6) 0.08±0.008 0.25±0.032 0.26±0.036 0.24±0.011 0.11±0.010 0.03±0.004 0.03±0.001
Biotin (B7) 0.58±0.09 0.76±0.12 1.03±0.58 2.50±0.35 0.44±0.04 2.00±0.19 1.34±0.18
Total Folates (B9) 16.25±2.62 29.22±1.92 30.09±3.79 26.30±3.61 25.68±3.64 14.35±2.38 13.21±2.15
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Ergocalciferol (D2) 6.73±0.96 13.43±1.77 17.49±3.51 6.27±0.31 8.19±0.81 4.06±0.35 3.21±0.21
Alpha Tocopherols 0.05±0.01 0.21±0.09 0.60±0.33 0.20±0.01 0.16±0.02 0.03±0.01 0.01±0.01
Beta Tocopherols - 0.06±0.01 0.37±0.12 - 0.07±0.02 - -
Alpha Tocotrienols 0.02±0.01 0.06±0.03 0.07±0.03 0.05±0.02 0.05±0.03 0.03±0.02 0.02±0.01
α-Tocopherol 0.05±0.01 0.26±0.09 0.77±0.35 0.21±0.01 0.20±0.01 0.03±0.01 0.01±0.01
Equivalent
Phylloquinones (K1) 1.00±0.46 1.50±0.47 1.75±0.26 1.50±0.41 1.20±0.48 1.00±0.51 1.00±0.52
CAROTENOIDS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Lutein 24.41±9.21 42.12±11.27 52.56±5.67 47.67±13.64 29.94±7.39 19.31±5.80 12.89±4.12
Zeaxanthin 1.30±0.72 1.31±0.69 1.47±0.68 1.06±0.80 1.13±0.66 0.89±0.57 1.08±0.42
β-Carotene 1.97±0.80 2.67±1.29 3.03±2.13 2.55±0.85 1.60±0.59 1.68±0.31 0.92±0.58
Total Carotenoids 270±69.0 284±31.9 287±40.5 191±15.1 276±29.9 39.54±5.33 21.33±5.71
MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Aluminium (Al) 0.94±0.33 1.54±0.53 0.55±0.23 0.43±0.16 0.64±0.19 1.15±0.38 1.20±0.16
Arsenic (As) - - - 0.40±0.18 - - -
Cadmium (Cd) 0.001±0.000 0.001±0.001 0.002±0.001 0.001±0.001 0.002±0.001 0.001±0.001 0.001±0.000
Calcium (Ca) 20.40±2.46 30.94±3.65 39.36±5.65 27.09±1.62 29.38±2.11 19.42±1.74 22.63±3.46
Chromium (Cr) 0.005±0.002 0.006±0.005 0.006±0.003 0.007±0.002 0.006±0.003 0.006±0.005 0.007±0.002
Cobalt (Co) 0.001±0.001 0.006±0.003 0.003±0.002 0.001±0.000 0.003±0.002 0.002±0.001 0.003±0.002
Copper (Cu) 0.17±0.02 0.48±0.11 0.49±0.12 0.40±0.07 0.46±0.11 0.19±0.03 0.22±0.05
Iron (Fe) 1.77±0.38 4.10±0.67 3.97±0.78 3.86±0.34 2.98±0.34 2.02±0.41 2.09±0.42
Lead (Pb) 0.004±0.002 0.006±0.003 - 0.008±0.011 0.004±0.000 0.008±0.002 0.009±0.008

(Continued)
10 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

TABLE 1.3 (Continued)

Wheat Wheat,
Flour, Wheat Wheat, Wheat, Wheat, Wheat, Vermicelli,
Refined Flour, Atta Whole Bulgur Semolina Vermicelli Roasted
Nutritional (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum (Triticum
Composition aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum) aestivum)
Lithium (Li) 0.003±0.003 0.002±0.001 0.005±0.004 - 0.002±0.002 0.001±0.001 0.001±0.000
Magnesium (Mg) 30.69±2.77 125±11.5 125±14.8 116±14.0 37.89±3.71 34.18±5.28 39.03±7.18
Manganese (Mn) 0.63±0.09 2.98±0.36 3.19±0.59 1.95±0.13 1.98±0.18 0.67±0.11 0.75±0.15
Mercury (Hg) - - - 2.01±0.12 2.67±3.69 - -
Molebdeum (Mo) 0.013±0.003 0.022±0.009 0.073±0.030 0.029±0.013 0.018±0.011 0.031±0.016 0.019±0.004
Nickel (Ni) 0.005±0.003 0.021±0.015 0.014±0.005 0.018±0.016 0.008±0.006 0.008±0.002 0.010±0.005
Phosphorus (P) 110±9.8 315±41.4 315±41.8 245±27.9 119±8.5 99±12.94 107±21.6
Potassium (K) 148±7.0 311±38.3 366±59.6 330±33.4 284±26.5 163±26.7 177±30.3
Selenium (Se) - 53.12±5.47 47.76±5.96 10.54±2.23 10.93±5.06 15.33±3.25 14.29±3.11
Sodium (Na) 1.54±0.48 2.04±0.31 2.50±0.20 2.09±0.34 2.31±0.61 2.71±0.79 3.43±0.14
Zinc (Zn) 0.88±0.07 2.85±0.32 2.85±0.65 1.97±0.25 2.13±0.32 0.83±0.12 0.88±0.22
STARCH AND SUGARS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Total Available CHO 71.82±1.07 58.62±2.68 59.30±1.86 61.74±3.52 59.85±2.99 56.99±1.91 56.69±2.10
Total Starch 70.03±1.01 56.82±2.69 57.53±1.86 60.54±3.62 58.20±2.95 55.31±1.93 54.55±2.05
Fructose 0.64±0.03 0.72±0.03 0.74±0.11 0.32±0.34 0.60±0.04 0.60±0.02 0.63±0.16
Glucose 0.75±0.02 0.78±0.05 0.73±0.08 0.55±0.13 0.55±0.03 0.58±0.02 1.01±0.02
Sucrose 0.40±0.05 0.30±0.02 0.30±0.09 0.33±0.08 0.50±0.04 0.50±0.02 0.50±0.05
Total Free Sugars 1.79±0.08 1.80±0.06 1.77±0.15 1.20±0.24 1.65±0.08 1.68±0.03 2.14±0.17
FATTY ACID PROFILE (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Palmitic (C16:0) 91.24±1.50 191±5.6 176±7.4 179±4.2 81.63±4.28 59.43±4.42 46.97±4.72
Stearic (C18:0) 7.31±0.73 14.55±3.10 14.83±2.25 17.41±2.78 7.24±1.49 5.15±0.65 2.98±0.21
Oleic (C18:1n9) 50.64±2.98 149±7.5 141±9.4 152±5.8 67.34±3.25 36.06±2.43 28.84±1.22
Linoleic (C18:2n6) 325±6.8 697±19.4 616±22.1 657±9.0 306±3.0 209±17.4 162±12.8
α-Linolenic (C18:3n3) 17.45±1.21 44.93±1.64 38.51±3.88 42.69±3.34 19.21±0.84 11.26±0.74 8.55±0.50
Total Saturated Fatty 98.55±1.87 206±8.2 191±8.0 196±2.6 88.87±5.16 64.59±4.94 49.95±4.74
Acids (TSFA)
Total Mono 50.64±2.98 149±7.5 141±9.4 152±5.8 67.34±3.25 36.06±2.43 28.84±1.22
Unsaturated
Fatty Acids (TMUFA)
Total Poly 343±7.8 742±19.2 654±23.7 700±11.3 325±2.4 220±17.8 170±13.1
Unsaturated
Fatty Acids (TPUFA)
AMINO ACID PROFILE (All values are expressed in g per 100g protein)
Histidine 1.95±0.23 2.56±0.25 2.65±0.31 2.23±0.25 2.38±0.27 1.76±0.11 1.63±0.23
Isoleucine 3.19±0.27 3.78±0.21 3.83±0.20 3.48±0.28 3.43±0.26 1.56±0.56 1.46±0.13
Luecine 6.22±0.46 6.13±0.48 6.81±0.33 6.61±0.66 6.71±0.59 5.23±1.23 5.63±0.24
Lysine 2.05±0.18 2.42±0.22 3.13±0.26 2.42±0.10 2.54±0.13 1.83±0.04 1.54±0.30
Methionine 1.64±0.20 1.77±0.08 1.75±0.21 1.62±0.36 1.57±0.23 1.17±0.14 1.15±0.08
Cystine 2.03±0.27 2.24±0.18 2.35±0.23 1.96±0.05 1.79±0.03 1.83±0.02 1.85±0.08
Phenylalanine 4.29±0.28 5.03±0.14 4.75±0.38 4.46±2.10 4.77±0.32 4.90±1.74 4.96±2.06
Threonine 2.34±0.08 2.58±0.14 3.01±0.17 2.46±0.34 2.71±0.15 2.26±0.16 2.25±0.28
Tryptophan 1.04±0.16 0.99±0.16 1.40±0.10 1.11±0.15 1.04±0.12 1.07±0.09 0.99±0.14
Valine 4.01±0.44 5.12±0.48 5.11±0.05 4.28±0.25 4.47±0.39 3.54±1.35 3.71±0.24
ORGANIC ACIDS (All values are expressed per 100g edible portion)
Total Oxalate 20.22±0.77 52.38±10.71 52.46±3.32 40.23±1.94 28.43±3.76 23.84±2.34 21.91±1.31
Soluble Oxalate 11.02±0.64 26.20±1.99 25.55±7.62 25.27±2.11 22.74±2.63 18.86±1.94 17.55±1.95
Wheat 11

1.4.2 Carbohydrates
1.4.2.1 Wheat as Carbohydrates: A Source of Energy
Wheat grain is approximately 80–85% carbohydrate (CHO) and provides a dense source of energy to
humans. Polysaccharides are main source of dietary fiber, offer health benefits, and help prevent cer-
tain diseases (Stone & Morell, 2009). During the last decade, dietary carbohydrates have negatively
impacted the population in terms of cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk at levels “worse than saturated
fats,” referencing high-protein diets for weight loss (Augustin, Kendall, Jenkins, Willett, Astrup, Barclay,
et al., 2015). Carbohydrate’s main function is to provide energy in the form of glucose to all cells and
12 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

TABLE 1.4
Glycemic Index of Wheat and Its Derived Products (Atkinson,
Foster-Powell, & C., 2008)
Wheat-Based Products GI and Load Values
White wheat bread 75 ± 2
Whole wheat/whole-meal bread 74 ± 2
Specialty grain bread 53 ± 2
Unleavened wheat bread 70 ± 5
Wheat roti 62 ± 3
Chapatti 52 ± 4
Wheat flake biscuits 69 ± 2
Spaghetti, whole meal 48 ± 5
Spaghetti, white 49 ± 2

tissues. Excess carbohydrate is stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and has restrictive capacity to
store it. Carbs are further used to make fat in the body. For utilization of fat, the body needs CHOs to
metabolize. The main fuel of the brain and all body tissues is glucose—the brain alone uses 20% of the
body’s required energy and oxygen for the survival (Raichle & Gusnard, 2002). In cereal grain, all starch
is contained in the endosperm, while the outer layer contains no starch. It is present in granule form,
which is varied by its size, shape, and other properties. Starch (glycemic CHOs) is a polymer of glucose
with α1→4 and 1→6 linkages, which is hydrolysed by the enzyme amylases in humans. These glycemic
CHOs can be broken down, absorbed as glucose in the small intestine, and provided in the bloodstream.
CHOs in most grains are present in very small amounts (less than 1%) in the form of simple sugars and
have less impact on the glycemic response (Jones, Peña, Korczak, & Braun, 2017). Glycemic index (GI)
refers to the relative carbohydrate content of food compared with standards, such as glucose or white
bread, based on their impact on blood glucose levels (50 g equivalent of carbohydrate) (Atkinson, Foster-
Powell, & Brand-Miller, 2008). Low, medium, and high GI foods are ranged from <55, 55–69, and >70
respectively. Wheat flour blend with multiflour composition improves the GI of Indian bread (Nagaraju,
Sobhana, Thappatla, Epparapalli, Kandlakunta, & Korrapati, 2020). Table 1.4 gives few examples of the
glycemic index of wheat and its derivatives products.
In wheat grains, the undigested portion of starch is not absorbed in the small intestine—this is known
as resistant starch, which may help in weight loss by delaying the digestion in the bowel. All cereals
are rich source of nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP); Arabinoxylans are the major water-soluble NSP
present in wheat (McKevith, 2004). Nonstarch polysaccharides and resistant oligosaccharides, lignin
and its complex in plants, resistant starch and dextrins, and dietary fiber are mostly present in cereals,
pulses, fruits, and vegetables. Consumption of such foods helps in the prevention of nutritional disorders
like gut-related problems, cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, certain types of cancer, and obesity
(Verma & Banerjee, 2010). A different method of lignan extraction gives different results. Syringaresinol
lignan is abundantly present in triticale grain and triticale products, but its content varies with variety.
Bran contains a maximum level of phytoestrogens followed by refined flour, which is less than 10 times
in bran. Various methods like malting, fermentation, sprouting, and extrusion techniques can enhance
the levels of these compounds (Makowskaa, Waskiewiczb, & Chudya, 2020).

1.4.2.2 Starch
Wheat starch contained varies from 60–75% of the total dry weight of the grain. It occurs in the form of
granules in seed. Two types of starch granules are present in large (25–40 µm) lenticular and small (5–10 µm)
spherical ones (Belderok, Mesdag, & Donner, 2000). Starch is primarily a polymer of glucose and chemi-
cally on breakdown gives amylose and amylopectin. The amylose molecular weight is around 1,500 glu-
cose molecules. It is a linear α-(1,4)- linked glucose polymer with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 1,000
to 5,000 glucose units leading to a linear structure. The counterpart is branched (i.e. Amylopectin) and its
Wheat 13

unit chain gives 20–25 glucose molecules long. Its molecular weight is about 108. The ratio of amylose to
amylopectin is relatively constant at 23. It is a much larger glucose polymer (DP 105–106) in which α-(1,4)-
linked glucose polymers are connected by 5–6% α-(1,6)-linkages. Usually, wheat starch typically holds
20–30% amylose and 70–80% amylopectin (Konik-Rose, Thistleton, Chanvrier, Tan, Halley, Gidley, et al.,
2007). The modification in the ratio amylose-amylopectin can be used for the production of starches with
novel functional properties and enhanced wellbeing (Poole, Donovan, & Erenstein, 2020).

1.4.2.3 Dietary Fiber

Dietary fibers are nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin, which offers health benefits. The various
sources of dietary fiber consist of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes like beans and peas.
There are two types of soluble or insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber can be obtained from fruits, legumes,
and oats. It lowers bad cholesterol (LDL) and can facilitate in the control of blood sugar whereas insol-
uble fibers are found in wheat, bran, vegetables, and fruits, which tends to control appetite, reduce risk
of developing type 2 diabetes, and prevent constipation (Lane-Elliot, 2016). On U.S. food labels, inu-
lin, fructo-oligosaccharides, and other oligosaccharides are classified as fiber. Oligosaccharides act as
prebiotics, which is “a selectively fermented ingredient that allows specific changes, both in the com-
position and/or activity in the gastrointestinal microflora that confers benefits upon on host and their
health” (Slavin, 2013). Utilization of fiber in the diet can help in the prevention of heart disease, blood
lipids, cancer, glucose absorption, insulin secretion, and diverticular disease. A soluble dietary fiber is
dissolved in water and comprises pectic substances and hydrocolloids, whereas insoluble dietary fiber do
not dissolve in water and consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin like whole grains. Major compo-
nents of wheat endosperm cell walls are arabinoxylans (AX) and (1→3),(1→4)-β-glucans. Arabinoxylan
is the most favorable substrate for fermentative production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) especially
butyrate in the colon that improves bowel health and can lower the risk of cancer by different mecha-
nisms (Šramkováa, Gregováb, & Šturdíka, 2009). Wheat flour, white and whole meal, contains 3.1 and
9 nonstarch polysaccharides g/100 g, respectively (Buttriss & Stokes, 2008). With nutritional benefits,
whole-wheat flours contain significant amount of antinutritional factors, such as phytates, which reduces
their bioavailability in the human gut; the inorganic phosphorus (Pi) is present in the mature seeds
of cereal (40–80%) which helps form complexes with other minerals like Ca2+, Fe3+, Zn2+ and Mg2+
(Bilgiçli, İbanoğlu, & Herken, 2007).

1.4.3 Phytochemicals
The most important major group of phytochemicals in wheat grain are phenolics and terpenoids. They
provide a wide range of health benefits but more studies by health agencies (like the FDA or EFSA) are
needed to establish clear data. The plant sterols and stanol esters help in lowering cholesterol in blood
and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (Shewry & Hey, 2016). Phenolic compounds present in
wheat raw flour are given in Table 1.5.

TABLE 1.5
Phenolic Constituents of Raw Wheat Flour (Triticum spp.) (Adefegha, Olasehinde, & Oboh, 2018)
Parameter Raw Flour mg/g Parameter Raw Flour
Catechin 0.63 ± 0.02 Total phenol (GAE mg/g) 42.37 ± 1.75
Chlorogenic acid 1.95 ± 0.01 Total flavonoid (QE mg/g) 35.71 ± 0.87
Rutin 6.34 ± 0.05 Starch (g/100 g) 24.99 ± 0.67
Epicatechin 0.08 ± 0.04 Sugar (g/100 g) 3.68 ± 0.05
Quercetin 1.73 ± 0.01 Starch/sugar ratio 0.15
Kaempferol 0.59 ± 0.01 Amylose content (A) (g/100 g) 3.63 ± 0.60
Amylopectin content (Am) (g/100 g) 21.36 ± 1.25
14 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

Babu, Ketanapalli, Beebi, and Kolluru (2018) reported on the total phenolic acid content in wheat
bran, which is present about 4.5μg/g bran on wet basis (e.g., ferulic acid of hydroxycinnamic acids).
These phenolic compounds greatly manipulated the flavor, texture, color and, most importantly, the
nutritional properties of food.

1.4.4 Vitamins
Vitamins are vital organic substances that are not synthesized by the human body. Nutritionally, vita-
mins are an essential micronutrient for well-being and perform functions as precursors or coenzymes of
niacin, thiamin, biotin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folate. Vitamin A aids in vision
and vitamin C in hydroxylation reactions, antioxidative defence systems, human genetic regulation, and
genomic stability through the use of folic acid, vitamin B12, vitamin B6, niacin, and vitamins E and D
(Paredes-López & Osuna–Castro, 2006). Vitamin A deficiency is becoming common in many countries.
Wheat flour can act as vehicle for vitamin A through fortification and the consumption of vitamin-A
fortified wheat flour may improve the deficiency at mass level. One fourth of the requirement of recom-
mended dietary allowance for vulnerable groups can come from diversified flour products like baked
goods, mixes, etc. The level of fortification affects the costs of product for the consumption (Klemm,
West, Jr., Palmer, Johnson, Randall, Ranum, et al., 2010).

1.4.5 Methyl Donors in Wheat (Betaine, Choline)

In the homocysteine cycle, glycine betaine acts as a methyl donor, which is present as rich source in
wheat. Choline (precursor of betaine) and trigonelline (the structural analogue of betaine and choline)
are collectively known as methyl donors. Physiologically, betaine acts as an osmolyte, which protects
cells, proteins, and enzymes from environmental stress (low water, high salinity, or extreme tempera-
ture). It helps to keep liver, heart, and kidney healthy (Craig, 2004). The different concentrations of
choline and betaine in wheat are given in Table 1.6.
Betaine is solely obtained through diet in humans, although it can also be produced by revers-
ible conversion of choline. The interrelationship of choline, betaine, and energy metabolism signify
novel functions. Mthyl-deficient diets interrupt energy metabolism and protein synthesis in the liver,
fatty liver, or muscle disorders. Folic acid supplementation additionally works as betaine; in folate
deficiency, methionine load, or alcohol consumption, betaine is major determinant in plasma total
homocysteine (tHcy). These two methyl donors help to elevate hypomethylation and tHcy. Choline
is increased during pregnancy whereas betaine is decreased (Obeid, 2013). Aleurone-rich foods
and whole-grain foods are related with improvement in the number of health biomarkers counting
as decreased total plasma homocysteine and LDL cholesterol (Keaveney, Price, Hamill, Wallace,
McNulty, Ward, et al., 2015).

TABLE 1.6
Choline and Betaine Concentrations in Wheat (Zeisel, Mei, Howe, &
Holden, 2003)
Total Choline Betaine
Foodstuff (mg choline moiety/100 g food) (mg/100 g food)
Wheat germ, toasted 152.08 1240.48
Wheat bran 74.39 1339.35
Wheat bread 26.53 201.41
White bread 12.17 93.20
Wheat cracker 31.80 198.71
Biscuit-plain 8.89 38.24
Wheat 15

1.5 Progress in Improving Nutritional Quality

Wheat encompasses a wide range of nutritional components like iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), vitamins, and phe-
nolic acids, which play a vital role in plant metabolism and human health. Low quantity in the endosperm
and interventions with other components reduce the bioavailability of these nutritional components,
which generates the requirement of nutritional quality enhancement by incorporating diverse biological
tools. The nutritional quality improvement leads to a series of processes to ensure that the nutrients are
bioavailable after consumption. The major process necessitates a genotypic and phenotypic characteriza-
tion of pivotal biological processes or pathways, which are implicated in the assimilation, accumulation,
biosynthesis, translocations and remobilization of chosen nutritional quality components like Fe, Zn,
vitamins and phenolic acids in wheat grain (Borrill, Connorton, Balk, Miller, Sanders, & Uauy, 2014;
Ma, Li, Zhang, Wang, Qin, Ding, et al., 2016; Meena, Abhishake, Punesh, Imran, Vinod, & Harcharan
Singh, 2020). The process of biofortification is involved eventually, being the most sustainable approach
to reach the nutritional requirements of the global community on an economical background. However,
infusion of biofortification involves the genetic and phenotypic profile of respective crop, across dis-
tinct environments. The substantial progression for improving nutritional quality in wheat includes
the deployment of assorted plans that consider conventional, technological, and transgenic approaches
(Tiwari, Rawat, Neelam, Kumar, Randhawa, & Dhaliwal, 2010). Fundamental genetic and agronomic
practices are utilized as conventional-based approaches in terms of agronomic biofortification, soil and
foliar application, and genetic biofortification. These approaches associate germplasm screening to dis-
play the genetic variation for Fe and Zn levels of grain across various wheat genotypes grown in diverse
environments (Cakmak, Pfeiffer, & McClafferty, 2010). In addition, a breakthrough has been gained
to establish genetic variation of Fe and Zn across different wheat species, and, simultaneously, locus
(QTL) Gpc-B1, which is an important quantitative trait from wild emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum
ssp. dicoccoides), was detected and mapped on chromosome arm 6BS (Joppa, Du, Hart, & Hareland,
1997). Cloning of the gene of this locus was rendered that significantly improved Zn, Fe and protein
accumulation by 12%, 18%, and 38%, respectively (Uauy, Distelfeld, Fahima, Blechl, & Dubcovsky,
2006). The Xuhw89 marker was found related Gpc-B1 locus including 0.1 cM genetic distance, which
can be exploited to identify and select lines containing enriched levels of particular micronutrients in
the wheat grain (Distelfeld, Cakmak, Peleg, Ozturk, Yazici, Budak, et al., 2007). Furthermore, numer-
ous efforts have also been made in some wheat species to determine genetic variation in the levels of
phenolic compounds. Advanced analytical technologies with high-throughput are employed in the char-
acter of technological-based approaches, such as ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNAseq), ribonucleic acid
interference (RNAi), genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, to determine and characterize can-
didate genes for improving nutritional quality (Chaudhary, Kumar, Sangwan, Pant, Saxena, Joshi, et al.,
2020; Nathani, Kumar, Dhaliwal, Sircar, & Roy, 2020). This may incorporate genome editing-based
approaches as well, like the CRISPR Cas9 approach, which was recently used in wheat (Zhang, Liang,
Zong, Wang, Liu, Chen, et al., 2016). Transgenic-based approaches principally implicate the application
of genetic modification for improving nutrient concentration in wheat grain. A limited headway has
been achieved by integrating transgenic approaches in the pursuance of improving nutritional quality
(Masuda, Aung, & Nishizawa, 2013). Technological applications have also played the key role in wheat
improvement, which is exhibited by the success in enhancing the bioavailability of Fe and Zn and reduc-
ing the antinutrients like phytic acid and polyphenols. Noteworthy, such antinutrients inhibit Fe absorp-
tion by decreasing Fe bioavailability in the human body. Nevertheless, agronomic biofortification and
application of nutritional enhancers were adopted as strategies to upgrade the bioavailability of micro-
nutrients and phenolic acids (Laddomada, Caretto, & Mita, 2015; Velu, Ortiz-Monasterio, Cakmak,
Hao, & Singh, 2014). Wheat endosperm lacks essential transporters for the translocation of Fe into the
endosperm and there is a dearth of relevant research related to manipulating the transporter proteins to
translocate additional Fe into wheat endosperm (Balk, Connorton, Wan, Lovegrove, Moore, Uauy, et al.,
2019). Similarly, literature is deficient in demonstrating the translocation and transporters of phenolic
acids and vitamins into the endosperm. Continuous attempts were initiated to address such related chal-
lenges by applying discrete conventional, technological and transgenic approaches. However, a sufficient
16 Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots

breakthrough has been obtained to fathom primitive mechanism of assimilation, translocation and bio-
synthesis of micronutrients into wheat grain (Borrill, Connorton, Balk, Miller, Sanders, & Uauy, 2014).

1.6 The Impact of Processing on Wheat Grain

Components With Regard to Health Benefits
Processing is an indispensable step to transform cereal grains into food that is a safe and appealing final
product for human consumption. Processing can aid to minimize lurking hazardous compounds such
as pesticides, mycotoxins and heavy metals, while also favoring the production of food products with
tempting and unique properties. The basic character of wheat grain is to be processed into various end
products as flour, semolina, and varying bakery products; it gains most of the importance in the human
diet. Such processing combines various systematic steps, each influencing both or any one of the com-
position and physical-chemical characteristics of its varied components, which consecutively deduce the
techno-functional quality and the nutritional or health promoting properties of the end product. Starch
and gluten proteins are the key components to describe peculiar textural properties of wheat foods pres-
ent in the starchy endosperm, hence, this is most correlated with refined flour or semolina. Nevertheless,
the health properties of wheat-based products are mainly linked with their dietary fibers and bioactive
compounds in the grain peripheral layers—largely in the aleurone layer that is considered in the bran
fraction during milling (Tosi, Hidalgo, & Lullien-Pellerin, 2020). Various milling combinations impact
profoundly the relative abundance of the various grain components in the initial processing outcomes
(wheat flours/semolina) and, consequently, in the secondary processing outcomes (bread, pasta, biscuits,
breakfast cereals or snacks etc.) (Hemery, Rouau, Lullien-Pellerin, Barron, & Abecassis, 2007). Further,
the bioavailability of various grain components also are affected by procedures followed under process-
ing steps in terms of dough making, microbial fermentation, extrusion, and baking. Recently, consump-
tion of whole-grain products have been linked with better health benefits (Cooper, Kable, Marco, De
Leon, Rust, Baker, et al., 2017; Kristensen, Toubro, Jensen, Ross, Riboldi, Petronio, et al., 2012; Nelson,
Mathai, Ashton, Donkor, Vasiljevic, Mamilla, et al., 2016). Numerous other studies poorly described the
whole-grain products with regard to their composition (Brouns, van Rooy, Shewry, Rustgi, & Jonkers,
2019; Thielecke & Nugent, 2018), therefore, this contradiction still remains under discussion.

1.6.1 Alkylresorcinols
Alkylresorcinols are phenolic lipids, chemically defined as 1,3-dihydroxy-5-n-alkylbenzenes contain-
ing an odd number of carbon atoms constituted between 17 and 25, gives a mixture of alkylresorcinol
homologues in specific proportions in accordance with the cereal, which is being enriched in 19 and
21 carbon homologues for wheat (Ross, Shepherd, Schüpphaus, Sinclair, Alfaro, Kamal-Eldin, et al.,
2003). Certain in vitro studies related to antioxidant properties (Kozubek & Tyman, 1999), chronic dis-
eases inhibition properties (Zhu, Soroka, & Sang, 2012), or glycerol-3 phosphate deshydrogenase activity
inhibition properties of alkylresorcinols were identified. Whereas, in vivo efficiency estimation remains
difficult to understand due to association of alkylresorcinol consumption in cereal products with other
potentially active molecules. The accumulation of total alkylresorcinol content in wheat grains varies
between 54 and 1,489 μg/g (d.m.) while a mean content around 500–700 μg/g (d.m.) in accordance with
the species, cultivars and growing environment with contents (Andersson, Kamal-Eldin, & Aman, 2010;
Ross, et al., 2003). Alkylresorcinols are generally present at the frontier among the outer cuticle of the
testa and the inner cuticle of the pericarp in wheat grain (Landberg, Marklund, Kamal-eldin, & Åman,
2014). Consequently, their determination during fractionation sourced out of the aleurone layer and the
outer pericarp that is just less than 4% of the total grain mass (Barron, Samson, Lullien-Pellerin, &
Rouau, 2011). During the progression of milling, external tissues inclusive of the aleurone layer are sepa-
rated from the starchy endosperm, which contains the maximum alkylresorcinol concentrated (three to
five times higher than in grains) in the bran and shorts fractions. Hence, only limited amounts obtained
in refined flours or semolina and subsequent final products (Ross, et al., 2003). Therefore, the way to
increase the alkylresorcinol content in flour can be accomplished by adding ground shorts or bran, or
Wheat 17

fortification of recovered fractions after pearling of grain that can be added between 5% and 10% of the
total grain mass (Bordiga, Locatelli, Travaglia, & Arlorio, 2016).

1.6.2 Tocols
Tocols comprise two types of amphipathic and lipo-soluble molecules, namely tocopherols and toco-
trienols, which exhibit a polar chromanol ring and a hydrophobic 16-carbon side chain interrelated
to a phytyl or an isoprenoid chain, respectively (Tiwari & Cummins, 2009). This side chain is fully
composed of tocopherols whilst it constitutes three double bonds in tocotrienols. As per the discrimina-
tion in the number and position of methyl groups in the chromanol ring, four different forms of these
molecules have been identified as α-, β-, γ-, and δ-. Tocols show antioxidant properties by means of
scavenging lipid peroxyl radicals and quenching the singlet or reactive oxygen and nitrogen species
(Kamal-Eldin & Appelqvist, 1996). Whilst, β-tocotrienol corresponds the vitamin E activity and out
of this 5% belongs to α-Tocopherol. Total quantity of tocol in wheat grains varies between 30–88 µg/g
(d.m), constituting β -tocotrienol followed by α-tocopherol being the major components, depending
on genotypes and environment (Lampi, Nurmi, Ollilainen, & Piironen, 2008). Germ enriched wheat
milling fractions generally contain α-tocopherol whereas bran and flours fractions are enriched in
β-tocotrienol (Piironen, Syvaoja, Varo, Salminen, & Koivistoinen, 1986). The order of total tocol
content presence in decreasing manner is germ> bran> flour. Tocols are light and temperature sensi-
tive, which induces losses along processing (Andersson, Dinberg, Aman, & Landberg, 2014; Tiwari &
Cummins, 2009). The amount of vitamin E in milled wheat products relies mainly on the extraction
rate of the flour (reduced to 50% from whole grain to white flour), milling method, and storage (Nielsen
& Hansen, 2008). Milling via stone-mill brought about the total loss of 24% during storage of vitamin
E, which included significant amount of germ, whereas this loss became 50% in case of roller-milled
wheat flour, which was devoid of germ and bran as it worked as an antioxidant. Oxidation of vitamin
E was designated as the main reason behind the losses during the subsequent processing steps similar
to the preparation of gruels and porridges involving processes like extrusion cooking and drum-drying
that sabotage a large fraction of vitamin E in white flour (Håkansson & Jägerstad, 1990). It was reported
that the ratio of tocotrienols to tocopherols increased after extrusion cooking, suggesting the tocotri-
enols as the primary residual isomers of vitamin E (Zielinski, Kozlowska, & Lewczuk, 2001). In addi-
tion, a higher ratio of tocotrienols to tocopherols in the diet is evident in metabolic regulation (Tosi,
Hidalgo, & Lullien-Pellerin, 2020).

1.6.3 Short-Chain Carbohydrates

Fractans (fructooligosaccharides or FOS) are the predominant low molecular mass carbohydrate fraction
of wheat flour, consisting of three to five fructose units with different structures, sometimes including
a single glucose unit (Roberfroid, 2005). Limited quantity of galactooligosaccharides (GOS), such as
raffinose and stachyose, are also present (Huynh, Lachlan, Mather, Wallwork, Graham, Welch, et al.,
2008). Fructan content in wheat grains was observed to range between 7–29 mg/g as per their genotypes,
therefore adequate selection can control this character (Huynh et al. 2008). Higher concentration of frac-
tan (34–40 mg/g) is actually present in bran and shorts fractions obtained from milling than white flour
and germ portion (14–25 mg/g) confined to wheat cultivars and climatic conditions, (Haska et al. 2008;
Knudsen 1997). In the case of exceeding extraction rates, the endosperm may comprise approximately
half of the total fructan present. The processing step also alters the amount of fractans, as in bread mak-
ing that depicted noticeable variation on fructans content (Gélinas, McKinnon, & Gagnon, 2016a). The
process of dough mixing reduced fructans by about 20%, whether including or not including the baker’s
yeast. Dough fermentation accompanied the higher reduction, by degrading up to 80% of wheat grain
fructans during a 180-minute period, while the process of baking did not impact the result. Moreover,
bread making did not lead to a change in the chain length of fructans. During the course of investigation
on pasta making with regard to variation in fractans content, Gélinas, McKinnon, and Gagnon (2016a)
disclosed that the drying temperature of 40°C or 80°C could not change the composition of fractans sig-
nificantly; on the contrary, boiling (cooking) of pasta leached about 40–50% of fructans into the water
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Title: History of the Scottish Regiments in the British Army

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE

SCOTTISH REGIMENTS IN THE BRITISH ARMY ***
Transcriber’s Note
The positions of the illustrative plates have been
adjusted slightly to fall on paragraph breaks. The very
occasional footnotes have been also moved to fall after
the paragraphs in which they are referenced.
Please see the transcriber’s note at the end of this text
for details regarding the handling of any textual issues
encountered during its preparation.
HISTORY
OF THE
SCOTTISH REGIMENTS
IN THE
BRITISH ARMY.
BY
ARCH. K. MURRAY, ESQ.,
MAJOR OF THE NINETY-SEVENTH LANARKSHIRE VOLUNTEER GUARDS.

Published by Request of his Brother Officers.

GLASGOW:
THOMAS MURRAY AND SON.
1862.
CONTENTS.

PAGE

Preface, 3

Introduction, 5

Second Royal North British Dragoons, or “Scots Greys,” 13

“The Guards.” Grenadiers—Coldstreams—Scots Fusiliers, 41

The First “Royal Scots,” 78

The Twenty-First Foot, or “Royal North British Fusiliers,” 121

The Twenty-Fifth Foot. “King’s Own Borderers,” or 145

Edinburgh Regiment,

The Twenty-Sixth Foot, or “Cameronians,” 169

Life Guards. Seventh Hussars—Seventeenth Light Dragoons 187

—Seventieth Foot,

The Seventy-Third Foot—“Perthshire,” 191

The Seventy-Fifth Foot—“Stirlingshire,” 199

The Ninetieth Foot, or “Perthshire Volunteers,” 205

The Ninety-First Foot—“Argyleshire,” 212

The Scots Brigade, or the Old Ninety-Fourth Foot, 224

The Ninety-Ninth Foot, or “Lanarkshire,” 236

The Old Highland Brigade, 241

The Forty-Second, or “Royal Highlanders”—“Black Watch,” 250

The Seventy-First, or “Glasgow Highland Light Infantry,” 288

The Seventy-Second, or “Duke of Albany’s Highlanders,” 313

The Seventy-Fourth Highlanders, 330

The Seventy-Eighth Highlanders, or “Ross-shire Buffs,” 352

The Seventy-Ninth, or “Cameron Highlanders,” 380

The Ninety-Second, or “Gordon Highlanders,” 394

The Ninety-Third, or “Sutherland Highlanders,” 409

INDEX TO PLATES.

Royal Arms, Frontispiece

Scots Dragoon, Fronting page 13

Colours of the “Scots Greys,” 33

Balaklava, 39

“Scots Greys,” 1862, 40

Prince Albert, 41

Lord Clyde, 45

Napoleon, 66

Duke of Cambridge, 74

The “Guards’” Monument, 77

Gustavus Adolphus, 82

Prince de Conde, 88
Marshal Turrenne, 90

Duke de Schomberg, 95

St Sebastian, 113

The Twenty-first Royal North-British Fusiliers, 121

Blenheim, 127

Killiecrankie, 147

Ancient Badge of the Twenty-fifth, 156

Colours of the Twenty-fifth, 2 plates, 168

Marquis of Dalhousie, 184

Seringapatam, 197

Delhi, 203

Lord Lynedoch, 205

Lucknow, 211

Ancient Soldiers, Fronting page 224

Officer of Pikemen, 232

Old Highland Brigade, &c., 241

The Forty-second Royal Highlanders, 250

Sir Ralph Abercromby, 273

Sir John Moore, 280

Sebastopol, 287

The Seventy-first Glasgow Highland Light 300

Infantry,

Waterloo, 310

The Seventy-second and Seventy-fourth 329

Highlanders,

Duke of Wellington, 336

Wreck of the “Birkenhead,” 346

India, 373

Sir Henry Havelock, 377

Monument to the Seventy-eighth, 379

Presentation Plate to the Seventy-eighth, 379

Lochiel, 381

Duke of Richmond, 394

French Revolutionary War, 407

The Ninety-third Sutherland Highlanders, 409

Crimea, 415

Presentation of Crimean Medals, 416

PREFACE.

In the present Work, the Author, without pretending to submit

anything very startling or original, has endeavoured to gather from
the records of the past such facts as may enable him, avoiding the
tedium of detail, to present to the reader a brief and, it is hoped, at
the same time, a comprehensive narrative of the origin and principal
events in which our Scottish Regiments have so largely and
honourably been distinguished.
It is wholly foreign to the purpose of the Author in any way to
overlook the valorous achievements of the English and Irish
Regiments in Her Majesty’s Service, which have alike contributed to
build up the military renown of the British Army; he only trusts he
shall receive that same charitable indulgence, in his present
undertaking, which in like circumstances he, with every right-hearted
Scot, should cordially extend to brethren of either a sister land or
sister isle. It is in these pages, as a Scotsman, he ventures to give
expression to the nation’s gratitude and honest pride—awards, in the
name of friend and foe, the meed of praise justly due to the brave
soldier who has fought his country’s battles in almost every land—
ofttimes victoriously—at all times honourably.
The Author gratefully acknowledges the assistance freely rendered
him in this compilation by many Officers of the Regiments described.
He feels also considerably indebted to many very valuable works, on
the same and kindred subjects, for much of his information.
Unfortunately, many of these volumes are now very ancient, others
nearly extinct, and nearly all so expensive as to fail in answering the
purpose of the present Work, by bringing before the public, in a
cheaper and more popular form, the records of those heroic deeds,
the narrative of which ought to be as “household words,” infusing a
thrill of living patriotism and loyalty into the soul.
It is hoped, as the grand result of the Work, that Scotsmen,
considering the rich legacy of military glory bequeathed them by
their heroic forefathers, specially registered in these Scottish
Regiments, will be more impressed with the duty devolving on them
to maintain and emulate the same. Whilst these records may afford
knowledge, it is also hoped that they may awaken a larger sympathy
and deeper interest on the part of the people in those, their brave
countrymen, who so well represent the nation; and if circumstances
preclude us from accepting the “Royal Shilling,” and so recruiting the
army, let us be ready to accept, for the expression of our thoughts
and feelings, that grand channel which, in our time, has been
revived as the exponent of the people’s patriotism and loyalty—the
Volunteer Movement—whether as active or honorary members,
giving effect to our sentiments, and demonstrating, “by deeds as
well as words” that we are in earnest.
INTRODUCTION.

Nature has been aptly represented as a fickle goddess, scattering

her bounties here and there with a partial hand. Some spots, like
very Edens, are blessed with the lavish profusion of her favours—rich
fertility, luxuriant vegetation, warm and delightful climates. Some, on
the other hand, which have not so shared the distribution of her
gifts, represent the barren wilderness, the sterile desert, the
desolate places of our earth—entombed in a perpetual winter—a
ceaseless winding-sheet of snow and ice seems for ever to rest upon
these cold, chilly, Polar regions: or parched, fainting, dying, dead,
where no friendly cloud intervenes, like the kindly hand of love and
sympathy, to screen the thirsty earth from the consuming rays of a
tropical sun. But, as if by “the wayside,” we gather from the analogy,
that as in the world of man there is a Scripture proclaiming comfort
and blessing to the poor and needy—whilst it tells the rich how
hardly they shall enter into “life”—so in the world of nature there is
an over-ruling, all-wise, all-just Providence, “Who moves in a
mysterious way,” making ample amends in the result upon the
peoples of these climes, so as yet shall cause “the wilderness to
rejoice.” Thus we find that lands enriched by nature ofttimes
produce a people who, rich in this world’s good things, acquired
without much effort, allow their minds to become so intoxicated with
present delights and indolence, as to fail in cultivating the virtues of
the man. Too frequently the fruits are these—ignorance, lust,
passion, infidelity, and general debility. Whilst the barren, dreary
wilderness, the bleak and desolate mountain-land—like the poor and
needy upon whom Nature has frowned—enjoy the smile of
Providence “in a better portion;” for there, amid a comparatively
poor people, are nurtured all the sterner, the nobler, the truer, the
God-like qualities of the man, the soldier, and the hero. There, too,
hath been the birth-place and the abiding shrine of freedom—the
bulwark and the bastion of patriotism and loyalty. Ascending higher,
these—the peoples of the rejected and despised places of the earth
—have ofttimes begotten and been honoured to wear the crowning
attribute of piety. Turning to the history of Scotland or of
Switzerland, for illustration, and taking merely a military retrospect,
there it will be found. All centuries, all ages, all circumstances, are
witness to the bravery and the fidelity of their mountain-soldiers.
Scotland, the unendowed by Nature, has been thus largely blessed
by Nature’s God, in yielding a long line of valiant and illustrious men.
Perhaps no nation engrosses so large and prominent a place in the
temple of military fame—none can boast so bright a page in the
history of the brave. Her stern and rugged mountains, like a vast
citadel, where scarce a foeman ever dared to penetrate, have been
defended through centuries of war against the advancing and all but
overwhelming tide of aggression; besieged, too, by the countless
hosts of Tyranny, they have still remained impregnable. Her wild and
desolate glens, like great arteries down which hath flowed the life-
blood of the nation, in the living stream—the native and resistless
valour of her clans. Her bleak and dreary heaths have written on
them one dark history of blood—“the martyred children of the
Covenant.” Faithful unto death; “of whom the world was not worthy.”
Her crown oft crushed beneath a tyrant’s heel—her freedom
trampled on—her people betrayed—all lost but honour. Unscathed,
unsullied, she has triumphed, and still lives to write upon her banner,
the mighty, envied, and thrice-glorious word, “Unconquered.”
Armies have a very ancient history. Their origin might be traced to
the very gates of Paradise. When the unbridled lust and wrathful
passions of man were let loose like Furies, to wander forth upon the
earth, then it was that lawless adventurers, gathering themselves
together into armed bands for hostile purposes, to live and prey
upon their weaker brethren, constituted themselves armies. Passing
down the stream of time, through the Feudal Age, we find one
among the many greater, mightier, wealthier—a giant towering
above his fellows—exercised lordship, levied tribute, military and
civil, over others as over slaves. These were the days of chivalry,—
the Crusades—when cavalry constituted the grand strength of an
army. Here we might begin the history of cavalry as an important
constituent in armies, were such our purpose. The comparative
poverty of our ancient Scottish nobility prevented them contributing
largely to the chivalry of the age. Almost the sole representative we
have of our Scottish Cavalry, is the Second Regiment of Royal North
British Dragoons, or Scots Greys—a most worthy representative. The
wars of the Interregnum in Scotland—the times of Wallace and
Bruce—when the feudal lords had nearly all either deserted or
betrayed her, introduce us to a new force, more suited to the
independent character and patriotism of the Scottish people—the
formation of corps of infantry, or armed bands of free burghers.
These were the fruit, to a large extent, of the Magna Charter in
England, and of the struggle for liberty in Scotland. Hence the wars
of Edward the Black Prince with France, distinguished by the
victories of Poitiers, Agincourt, and Cressy, may be viewed not
merely as the epitome of the triumphs of England over France, but
more especially as illustrating the success of this new force—
represented in the English yeomen, burghers, citizens, and freemen
—over the old force, sustained in the chivalry, the cavalry of France.
The result of these successive defeats, we find, was most disastrous
to France. The jealousy and fear of the nobles and feudal lords had
denied the people the use and the knowledge of arms; so that when
themselves were defeated, France was ruined—since they could
expect no support, as in Scotland, from an unarmed and unskilled
people. They had done what they could to quench rather than foster
the spirit of free patriotism, which in the nation’s extremity should
have been the nation’s refuge—the soul burning to deliver their land
from the yoke of the stranger. In not a few cases, the French rather
sympathised with, as they sighed for the same blessings of our free-
born English yeomen. Here we would mark, respectively in the
English and Scottish armies, the first formation of that branch of the
service for which the British army has ever been specially
distinguished—the Infantry.
Our reader is no doubt aware of the calamitous results which flowed
from the short-sighted policy of these privileged orders—the old
feudal lords; whose love of a petty despotism laboured to postpone
the day of reckoning “till a more convenient season”—and so refused
the timely surrender of those privileges and that liberty which the
growing wealth and intelligence of the people claimed. Long, bloody,
and unavailing civil wars have desolated and vexed many countries
as the consequence; and in France the contest attained a fearful
crisis, and the people wreaked a cruel retribution in the awful
horrors of the Revolution.
The increasing importance of commerce, and the growing desire for
wealth in preference to the uncertain and doubtful lustre of the
battle-field, induced men to gather themselves together, not as
formerly for war, but rather for the prosecution of trade; thus
constituting themselves into trade-unions, communities,
burgherates, free townships. Disowning the bondage of feudalism,
as a system peculiarly adapted for war, and hostile in its spirit to a
more peaceful vocation, they sought and obtained, in their earlier
history at least, royal protection. Independently of their
engagements and allegiance to the throne, these trading
communities, aware of the restlessness, rapacity, and necessities of
the old feudal lords around them, formed themselves into trained
bands of free yeomen, or sort of militia, for the purpose—first, of
defending their own industry, property, and lives; and, secondly, for
the service of their sovereign and country in times of need. These
are amongst the earliest ideas we have of a regiment. At an earlier
age, we find many of the monarchs of Europe retaining in their
service a body of foreign guards, specially entrusted with the
defence of the royal person, so often threatened through the
ambition of the nobles and the turbulence of the people. In nearly
every instance these were composed of Scottish emigrants, driven
from their country by the cruel and desolating wars which then
disturbed her peace, and had proscribed many of the honourable
and brave. We know no exception in which these corps of guards
have not maintained the Scottish character, nay, been specially
distinguished for the valour and fidelity with which they fulfilled their
duty. Thus originated the First Royals, or Royal Scots Regiment of
the present British army. The free citizens, continuing to prosper and
proportionably growing in power and influence, gradually insinuated
themselves into State affairs. As they grew in wealth, so
unfortunately they increased in pride and arrogance, forgetting
altogether their early humility. They essayed to be a political as well
as a trading community. Having overthrown the power of feudalism,
they threatened to shake the foundations of the throne. These
murmurings speedily awakened the royal jealousy, and broke in
upon the peaceful harmony of their hitherto successful alliance. The
prosperity and support of these freemen had elevated the might and
majesty of the throne, with which they had been early leagued, and
these together had compelled the old feudal nobility to exercise their
rule in something more of a constitutional way. Gladly, therefore, did
these last avail themselves of these dissensions to restore their long-
lost power. Uniting with the crown, whose interests were more
peculiarly their own, they called upon their still adherent tenantry to
muster around them; and thus commenced the sanguinary civil
wars, already in a previous paragraph referred to, between king and
people, which have devastated so many lands. These tenantry, thus
raised, ultimately taken into the royal pay, as regiments, have gone
far to constitute the armies of their several states.
In conclusion, we would remark, that the wars of the past have been
as it were material contests—wars of matter rather than of mind—by
which we mean that might has been understood as right; not as
now, when right is acknowledged as might. Formerly it was he who
excelled in physical strength and prowess that was crowned victor;
now-a-days the appliances of mind, the inventive genius of man,
have so improved the art of war, that upon these the result of the
contest must largely depend. Skill and science, developed in a
thousand ways, are the weapons with which our battles are to be
fought and won; and this, too, at a time when man has been
dwarfed in his bodily might by the bloody and protracted wars of the
past, and enervated by the ease and indolence found in cities, so as
to be no longer able for a contest as of old; and so the providence of
God steps in to supply the vacuum occasioned by decay, and from
the rapid march of civilisation, and the wonderful development of
the mind, represents to us a better state of things—the triumph of
the mind of the present over the matter of the past. The victories of
the battle-field are being superseded by the triumphs of the Cabinet.
The first Napoleon conquered by the sword—the present Napoleon
conquers by superior craft and intrigue, whilst we, as a nation, are
sitting by to register with an occasional growl his successes. It has
been the knowledge of these facts—this new system of warfare—
that has aroused the nation to see its danger in time; to feel that
“our glory” is but an ideal security; to know that steam and
electricity have comparatively bridged the sea, and so done away
with our best defence; to learn that the inventions of men
comparatively equalise combatants. It has been the knowledge of
these things, along with indications of a coming struggle casting its
shadow before, that has called the nation, with one enthusiastic
voice, to arms—in our present Volunteer force.
SCOTCH DRAGOON 1680.

HISTORY OF THE SCOTTISH REGIMENTS.

SECOND ROYAL NORTH BRITISH DRAGOONS,
OR
SCOTS GREYS.

CHAPTER I.
“Come fill up my cup, come fill up my can,
Come saddle my horses, and call out my men;
Unhook the west port and let us gae free;
For it’s up wi’ the bonnets o’ bonnie Dundee.”

EARLY HISTORY—COVENANTERS—BATTLES OF DRUMCLOG AND BOTHWELL

BRIDGE—ARGYLE’S REBELLION—THE RAID OF THE MACDONALDS—FLIGHT OF
JAMES II.—DUNDEE’S REBELLION—BATTLES OF KILLIECRANKIE AND
CROMDALE—MASSACRE OF GLENCOE—1660–1693.
The page of history presents to us many dark scenes of oppression,
where one man, trampling upon the rights of another, and
disregarding the heaven-born principle of charity, has sold his
brother into bondage. Nay, more, (as especially illustrated in the
case of Spain groaning beneath the thraldom of the Papacy), some
men have even succeeded in enslaving the mind; stopping up with
vile trash the avenues of knowledge, and so defacing and ruining
that mirror of the intellect which reflects so much of its Creator,
which originally bore the impress of divinity, and was moulded in the
likeness of God. But the pride of the human heart, and the
unhallowed passion of man, stay not here, but have attempted more
—to subdue the soul—but in vain. It is possible to fetter or destroy
the body, nay, it is even possible to enslave, or annihilate in
madness, the mind, but it is impossible for man to bind the undying
soul. Nevertheless, it has been the infatuation of tyrants, deluded by
false creeds, in many countries and in many ages, to seek, but in
vain, to usurp the dominion of the soul. The soul, like “the bush
burned but not consumed,” lives still, lives for ever, defying the fires
of persecution, the wasting famine, and the devouring sword. It
comes forth scatheless, purified, living; having shaken off the
corruption of earth, it appears clothed in the garments of
immortality. There can be no better testimony to the suitableness of
the true religion to meet the wants of man than this—that whilst all
others have proved themselves to be so many systems of tyranny,
bereaving man of his beloved liberty, the religion of Jesus is free,
and is always to be welcomed as the herald of civil and religious
liberty; wherever its blessing rests, its benign influence is felt, and its
glorious light shines.
It was in such a time as this in Scotland, when the iron will of
Charles II., already oppressing the persons and the minds of his
people, aspired to the dominion of their soul and conscience, by
calling upon them to introduce into their simple forms of worship a
host of objectionable mummeries, savouring of Popery, and
threatening thereby to corrupt the purity of the Presbyterian faith. In
vain they petitioned for liberty of conscience and protested against
these intrusions. Persisting in the introduction of these idle rites, and
denying redress, the monarch preferred plunging the nation into all
the horrors of civil war, rather than depart from his purpose. To
enforce these requirements the king raised in Scotland two troops of
Life Guards, afterwards disbanded; a regiment of horse, known as
Claverhouse’s Troopers—
“The bonnets o’ bonnie Dundee;”

a regiment of Foot Guards; a regiment of foot, now the Twenty-first,

North British Fusiliers; and, in 1678, two troops of dragoons, which,
increased by the addition of other troops in 1681, constituted the
Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons, now known familiarly as the
Scots Greys. The corps was originally commanded by Sir Thomas
Dalziel, who in 1681 was appointed the first colonel of the regiment.
He was always a staunch adherent of the House of Stuart, had been
taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, but escaping from the
Tower, served with distinction in the Russian army during the Tartar
wars. Returning to Scotland at the Restoration, he was employed by
the king in enforcing his will upon the Presbyterians, and he
discharged his duty with all the scrupulous exactness of a soldier. To
the Covenanters he has left a most unenviable memory—as a
monster of cruelty, devoid of mercy. His eccentricities, especially in
regard to dress, often excited the merriment of the Court, and
created quite a sensation amongst the juveniles of the metropolis.
He died in 1685.
The early history of the Royal Scots Dragoons is painfully and
intimately associated with the sufferings and trials of the
Covenanters—a page in our history which, would the truth admit, we
would gladly omit. The ignominious duty imposed upon this gallant
regiment, of hunting down the Presbyterians, and the cruelties
which they were called to witness, sometimes to inflict upon their
unhappy brethren, must have been extremely harrowing and
repulsive to the feelings of brave men. Along with a troop of horse, a
troop of the corps was present in 1679, under Graham of
Claverhouse, at the battle of Drumclog, where they were defeated,
with the loss of twenty men, by the superior numbers and desperate
valour of the Covenanters, as also from the unsuitableness of the
ground for cavalry to act upon. The result of this overthrow was a
general rising of the disaffected and oppressed—a motley and
undisciplined army was speedily assembled, better in the use of the
tongue than the sword; and as always happens where that “unruly
member” is in the ascendant, proved the precursor of party division,
and in the end brought ruin to the good cause in which they had
embarked. Foiled in an attack upon Glasgow by the retiring royal
troops, especially the Royal Scots Dragoons and Scots Foot Guards,
the Covenanters took up a strong position behind the Clyde at
Bothwell Bridge, and there awaited the attack of the royal army, now
advancing from Edinburgh under the Duke of Monmouth. Failing in
effecting an accommodation, the battle was commenced by the
Royal Scots Dragoons, supported by the Scots Foot Guards attacking
the bridge, which, defended with great bravery, was only
relinquished when the ammunition of the defenders was exhausted.
The loss of this most important post, as well as the divisions already
prevailing amongst the Covenanters, soon produced a panic which
lost the battle, ruined for the present the cause of liberty of
conscience, and served to add nearly ten years more to their
sufferings. In the pursuit, the troopers of Claverhouse took a cruel
revenge for the defeat of Drumclog, upon the broken and flying
remnant.
The Royal Scots Dragoons continuing to be employed in the
humiliating work of persecution, were often roughly handled by the
Presbyterians, especially at Ayr Moss on the 20th July, 1680, where a
desperate rencontre took place.
The Earl of Argyle, a nobleman of great merit, and for some time
enjoying the esteem of his sovereign, being suspected of a leaning
to the Nonconformists, or Covenanters, at the instigation of the
Duke of York was arraigned for treason, and, accordingly,
condemned to death. Escaping to France, Argyle returned in 1685,
and landing with a force of 300 men in Argyleshire, summoned his
clansmen, and endeavoured, with little success, to raise the
Presbyterians, and so, setting up the standard of rebellion,
threatened to dethrone James II., who but lately had succeeded his
brother in the throne. After much fruitless manœuvring, he
advanced into the Lowlands, but was met by the royal troops,
including the Royal Scots Dragoons, near Dumbarton, under the Earl
of Dumbarton. Attempting to retreat in the darkness of the night, his
guides betrayed him, his army fell into disorder and disbanded,
whilst he himself was taken prisoner and afterwards executed at
Edinburgh. On the morrow, the Royal Scots Dragoons, assisted by
other troops, attacked a considerable body of the rebels under Sir
John Cochrane, which still remained together in the neighbourhood
in a strongly fortified position. After hard fighting, in course of which
the dragoons dismounted and fought hand to hand on foot, and
after the loss of many officers, among whom were Sir Adam Blair, Sir
William Wallace, and Capt. Clelland, also Lord Ross wounded, the
rebels were driven back and ultimately dispersed.
On the death of Lieut.-General Sir Thomas Dalziel, in 1685, Lord
Charles Murray, afterwards the Earl of Dunmore, and son of the
Marquis of Athole, one of the original officers of the corps, was
promoted to the colonelcy.
In 1688 a part of the regiment was called upon to interfere on behalf
of the Government—unfortunately on the wrong side—in one of
those unhappy broils which, as the dregs of feudalism, still so sorely
distressed the Highlands. The Macintoshes having despoiled the
Macdonald of Keppoch of his estate, during his temporary absence in
the Highlands, the Macdonald, on his return, taking the law—as was
usual in those days, specially amongst the clans—into his own hand,
and taking an ample vengeance, redeemed his own. The Royal Scots
Dragoons were sent to the assistance and for the release of the
Mackintosh, who had been taken prisoner. In retaliation they were
inhumanly ordered to destroy all that pertained to the Macdonald—
man, woman, and child. Although such instructions were quite in
keeping with the character of the Court, happily it was about the last
exercise of a power ever rioting in such acts of merciless cruelty.
The close of the same year brought the Prince of Orange to our
shores, to deliver the land from the bondage of the Stuarts who had
so grievously oppressed it. To meet this emergency, King James had
drawn together to London and its neighbourhood the whole reliable
forces of his kingdom. Amongst these were the troops of Scottish
Life Guards; Claverhouse’s regiment of horse; Dunmore’s regiment of
Royal Scots Dragoons; the regiment of Scottish Foot Guards; and
two regiments of Scottish Foot—in all, 3,765 men from Scotland.
After a seeming show of resistance, and much manœuvring in the
vicinity of Salisbury, the monarch, dreading the wrath of an outraged
people, fled to France.
“Conscience makes cowards of us all.”

When the Prince of Orange, as William III., ascended the vacant

throne, he found many of the troops inclined to dispute his authority,
especially the regiments of Royal Scots Horse and Royal Scots
Dragoons; which still remained together under the command of
Viscount Dundee, and with the characteristic loyalty of Scotsmen,
would still have maintained the cause of an unworthy and exiled
prince, the degenerate representative of the Bruce of Bannockburn.
The tact of the new monarch succeeded in winning the submission
of the Royal Scots Dragoons; but the Royal Scots Horse, deserting,
followed Dundee into Scotland, took part with him in his subsequent
rebellion, and so, sharing his fate, have been lost to the British army.
The Earl of Dunmore, declining to serve under the new king, was
superseded in the colonelcy of the Royal Scots Dragoons by Sir
Thomas Livingstone, afterwards Viscount Teviot—a Scottish soldier
of distinction, who came over from the continent with the prince.
To stem the torrent of rebellion which the return of Dundee to
Scotland had excited—especially among the Highland clans, nearly
all of whom were devotedly attached to the Stuarts—the Royal Scots
Dragoons were ordered to return to Scotland. Throughout the
succeeding campaigns the regiment behaved with signal fidelity and
gallantry, with the exception of some few of its officers who were
found guilty of treasonable intercourse with the rebels—having a
sympathy with their old comrade in arms, Viscount Dundee.
Amongst the arrested were Lieut.-Colonel Livingstone, Captains
Murray, Crichton, and Livingstone. The royal forces under the
command of Major-General Mackay, included, besides the Royal
Scots Dragoons, many regiments since known to fame—Lord
Colchester’s Horse, or the Third (Prince of Wales’) Dragoon Guards;
Berkeley’s, or the Fourth (Queen’s Own Hussars) Dragoons; Sir
James Leslie’s, or the Fifteenth (York, East Riding) Foot; besides a
considerable body of Dutch troops under Colonel Ramsay. Dundee
was joined at Inverness by Macdonald of Keppoch and his clan,
thirsting for revenge because of the atrocities committed upon them
and theirs by the soldiers in the previous year. After much time spent
in marching and counter-marching in search of, and pursuit of, each
other, the two armies met at the Pass of Killiecrankie, when the
death of Dundee, in the moment of victory, virtually ruined the
Jacobite cause. The Royal Scots Dragoons, although not present at
that disastrous battle, had previously distinguished themselves in a
skirmish with a body of about 500 Highlanders, chiefly Macleans,
who, defeating with great loss, they dispersed, and, dismounting,
pursued among the rocks and crags of the mountains. In the
following year, the rebels still continuing in arms, under General
Canon—who on the death of Dundee assumed the command—and
being recruited by a body of men from Ireland under General
Buchan, took up a strong post and awaited the attack of the royal
forces at Cromdale. Here, on the morning of the 31st April, they
were suddenly attacked by Sir Thomas Livingstone, at the head of
the Royal Scots Dragoons and other troops, and, amid the darkness
and confusion, totally defeated and dispersed with great slaughter.
The scene was one of consternation and horror, and had it not been
for the merciful intervention of a mountain mist, as if to befriend her
own children in their day of calamity, would have proved even more
fatal to the flying enemy. In this action the Royal Scots Dragoons
took a gallant part. This victory was quickly followed by the relief of
the castle of Abergeldie, then besieged by the Highlanders, where
two troops of the Royal Scots Dragoons utterly routed the rebels
with great carnage. Unable longer to sustain such a hopeless
struggle, the clans tendered their submission to King William, which
was accepted.
But the triumph of the Government was stained by a deed of
barbarous cruelty and sin, which remains a blot on the page of
British history, known as “the Massacre of Glencoe.” The Macdonalds
of Glencoe having failed to tender their allegiance within the
prescribed time, although they had done so a few days afterwards,
the whole were treacherously murdered in cold blood, whilst
peaceably sleeping, by a party of soldiers from Argyle’s regiment,
who had been received and hospitably quartered among them as
friends. This inhuman action has been vainly attempted to be
excused, and all authorities have alike endeavoured to escape the
responsibility. We gladly record that the Royal Scots Dragoons were
not called to take any part in the matter; and their colonel, Sir
Thomas Livingstone, although then Commander-in-Chief in Scotland,
has been fully exonerated from blame by Parliament.

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Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots, and Tubers: Functionality, Health Benefits, and Applications 1st Edition Sneh Punia (Editor)

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Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots, and Tubers: Functionality, Health Benefits, and Applications 1st Edition Sneh Punia (Editor)

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Handbook of Cereals, Pulses, Roots, and Tubers:

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Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth

Medicinal Roots and Tubers for Pharmaceutical and

Biopolymer Based Films and Coatings Trends and Challenges

The Ghidra Book The Definitive Guide Eagle Chris Nance

A Good Investment Philanthropy and the Marketing of Race

The Sundown Riders The Reluctant Lawman Ralph Compton

European Identities and Foreign Policy Discourses on

Race, Ethnicity and Social Theory: Theorizing the Other

Anil Kumar Siroha

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-69250-6 (hbk)

Section I Cereals and Pseudocereals

2. Agronomic, Environmental and Genotype Effects on Phenols, Antioxidants and

3. Biotechnological Advancements to Explore Crop Based Studies on Nutritional Aspects....... 53

4. Rice Processing and Properties..................................................................................................... 71

5. Oat (Avena Sativa): Functional Components................................................................................ 89

6. Postharvest Processing of Foxtail Millet and its Potential as an Alternative

7. Proso Millet Flour and Starch: Properties and Their Applications.........................................115

9. Barnyard Millet—Composition, Properties, Health Benefits, and Food Applications..........149

11. Antinutritional Factors in Cereals...............................................................................................173

13. Grain Amaranth: Processing, Health Benefits, and Applications........................................... 221

14. Chia Seeds—A Renewable Source as a Functional Food.......................................................... 235

15. Buckwheat: Nutritional Composition, Health Benefits, and Applications.............................. 253

16. Functional Potential of Quinoa.................................................................................................... 267

18. Antinutritional Factors in Legumes............................................................................................ 305

19. Processing, Nutritional Composition, and Health Benefits of Lentils......................................319

20. Faba Bean Properties, Functionality, and its Applications.......................................................333

25. Adzuki Beans (Vigna Angularis): Nutritional and Functional Properties..............................413

26. Lupine: A Versatile Legume with Enhanced Nutritional Value............................................... 427

28. Nutraceutical and Health Benefits of Pulses.............................................................................. 461

Section III Oilseed Crops

30. Flaxseed: An Underrated Superfood with Functional Properties............................................491

31. Soy Bean Processing and Utilization............................................................................................515

Section IV Roots and Tubers

33. Potatoes: Processing, Properties, and Application.....................................................................551

CPV Cool paste viscosity

HHP High hydrolic pressure

Section I: Cereals and Pseudocereals

Section II: Pulses

Section III: Oilseed Crops

Section IV: Roots and Tubers

Sneh Punia, Ph.D., is a researcher in the Department of Food, Nutrition and

Anil Kumar Siroha, Ph.D., is presently working as Assistant Professor (C)

Manoj Kumar, Ph.D., is working as a scientist in the Chemical and

Adeleke Omodunbi Ashogbon Osman Erekul

Sagar M. Chavan Ayushi Gupta

Priya Dangi N. K. Gupta

N.K. Jain Dipanshi Kaushik

Prachi Jain Twinkle Kesharwani

Alka Joshi Vikono Ksh

Neeshu Joshi Manoj Kumar

Chavan Sagar Madhukar Amrita Poonia

J.K. Sahu and

Cereals and Pseudocereals

Manju Lata Mishra

1.8.5 Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorder.................................................................. 23

1.2 Dietary Wheat Species

1.3 Nutrient Contribution of Wheat in Diet

1.4 Relationship of Wheat Composition to Diet and Health

1.4.1.1 Nutritional Quality of Protein

TABLE 1.2 (Continued)

1.4.1.2 Bioactive Proteins in Wheat

TABLE 1.3 (Continued)

1.4.2.3 Dietary Fiber

1.4.5 Methyl Donors in Wheat (Betaine, Choline)

1.5 Progress in Improving Nutritional Quality

1.6 The Impact of Processing on Wheat Grain

1.6.3 Short-Chain Carbohydrates

Title: History of the Scottish Regiments in the British Army

Author: Archibald K. Murray

Release date: January 30, 2016 [eBook #51087]

Credits: Produced by KD Weeks, Brian Coe and the Online

1.6 The Impact of Processing on Wheat Grain