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Protective Relay Principles 1st Edition Anthony F. Sleva
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Anthony F. Sleva
ISBN(s): 9780824753726, 0824753720
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 6.41 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 Protective
Relay
Principles

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

 Protective
Relay
Principles
A n t h o n y F. S l e v a

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Sleva, Anthony F.
Protective relay principles / Anthony F. Sleva.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8247-5372-6 (alk. paper)
1. Protective relays. I. Title.

TK2861.S49 2009
621.31’7--dc22 2008040966

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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................... xiii
Author.................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments......................................................................................... xvii

1. Power System Components...................................................................... 1

1.1 Transmission Lines........................................................................... 1
1.2 Distribution Lines............................................................................. 5
1.3 Transformers.................................................................................... 10
1.4 Circuit Breakers............................................................................... 15
1.5 Buses................................................................................................. 16
1.6 Switchyards...................................................................................... 18
1.7 Fuses................................................................................................. 19
1.8 Substations....................................................................................... 22
1.9 Reclosers........................................................................................... 23
1.10 Generators........................................................................................ 24

2. Power System Subcomponents.............................................................. 27

2.1 Current Transformers..................................................................... 27
2.2 Voltage Transformers...................................................................... 31
2.3 Capacitive Coupled Voltage Transformers.................................. 32
2.4 Protective Relays............................................................................. 34
2.5 Control Relays................................................................................. 34
2.6 Master Trip Relays.......................................................................... 35
2.7 Programmable Logic Controllers................................................. 35
2.8 Insulators.......................................................................................... 35
2.9 Bushings........................................................................................... 36
2.10 Cable Terminators........................................................................... 36
2.11 Disconnect Switches....................................................................... 36
2.12 Air Break Switches.......................................................................... 38
2.13 Motor-Operated Air Break Switches............................................ 38
2.14 Ground Switches............................................................................. 39
2.15 Surge Arrestors................................................................................ 39
2.16 Sectionalizers................................................................................... 40
2.17 Batteries............................................................................................ 40

3. Abnormal Power System Conditions................................................... 41

3.1 Short Circuits................................................................................... 41
3.1.1 Three-Phase Faults............................................................ 42
3.1.2 Phase-to-Phase Faults........................................................ 44
3.1.3 Double Phase-to-Ground Faults...................................... 44
3.1.4 Single Phase-to-Ground Faults........................................ 45
v
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
vi Contents

3.1.5 Turn-to-Turn Faults............................................................ 47

3.1.6 Winding-to-Winding Faults............................................. 47
3.1.7 Winding-to-Ground Faults............................................... 47
3.1.8 Plate-to-Plate Faults........................................................... 47
3.2 Overloads......................................................................................... 48
3.3 Overvoltage...................................................................................... 48
3.4 Undervoltage................................................................................... 49
3.5 Overfrequency................................................................................. 49
3.6 Underfrequency.............................................................................. 50
3.7 Open Phase...................................................................................... 51
3.8 Single Phasing................................................................................. 51
3.9 Phase Unbalance............................................................................. 52
3.10 Volts per Hertz................................................................................. 54

4. Short-Circuit Calculations...................................................................... 57
4.1 Symmetrical Components............................................................. 57
4.2 Positive Sequence Networks.......................................................... 59
4.3 Negative Sequence Networks....................................................... 60
4.4 Zero Sequence Networks............................................................... 60
4.5 Operators.......................................................................................... 61
4.6 Sequence Diagram Connections—Three-Phase Faults............. 63
4.7 Sequence Diagram Connections—Phase-to-Phase Faults........ 64
4.8 Sequence Diagram Connections—Single Phase-to-
Ground Faults.................................................................................. 65
4.9 Per-Unit Quantities......................................................................... 65
4.10 Sample Calculations....................................................................... 67
4.11 Sample Calculations—Three-Phase Faults.................................. 68
4.12 Sample Calculations—Phase-to-Phase Faults............................. 69
4.13 Sample Calculations—Single Phase-to-Ground Faults............. 71
4.14 Sample Calculations—Mutual Coupling..................................... 74

5. Protective Relay Functions..................................................................... 79

5.1 Time Overcurrent Relay (51).......................................................... 80
5.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay (50)......................................... 82
5.3 Overvoltage Relay (59).................................................................... 83
5.4 Undervoltage Relay (27)................................................................. 85
5.5 Distance Relay (21).......................................................................... 86
5.6 Differential Relay (87)..................................................................... 88
5.7 Directional Relay (67)..................................................................... 89
5.8 Underfrequency Relay (81)............................................................. 90
5.9 Overfrequency Relay (81)............................................................... 91

6. Protective Relay Functional Combinations........................................ 93

6.1 Voltage-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay.............................. 93
6.2 Torque-Controlled Time Overcurrent Relay............................... 94

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents vii

6.3 Logic-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay................. 94

6.4 Torque-Controlled Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay............... 95
6.5 Logic-Controlled Overvoltage Relay............................................ 95
6.6 Logic-Controlled Undervoltage Relay......................................... 95
6.7 Logic-Controlled Distance Relay.................................................. 96
6.8 Current-Supervised Distance Relay............................................. 96
6.9 Logic-Supervised Differential Relay............................................ 96
6.10 Current-Supervised Differential Relay........................................ 97
6.11 Current-Supervised Underfrequency Relay............................... 97
6.12 Dual Underfrequency Relays........................................................ 97

7. Zones and Regions of Protection.......................................................... 99

7.1 Zones of Protection......................................................................... 99
7.1.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint................ 101
7.1.1.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 101
7.1.1.2 Distance Relays................................................. 102
7.1.1.3 Differential Relays............................................ 103
7.1.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio............................................................ 103
7.1.2.1 Overcurrent Relays.......................................... 103
7.1.2.2 Distance Relays................................................. 104
7.1.2.3 Differential Relays............................................ 104
7.1.3 Control Scheme Logic..................................................... 105
7.1.4 Power System Configuration.......................................... 105
7.2 Regions of Protection.....................................................................111
7.2.1 Relay Characteristics and Applied Setpoint.................113
7.2.1.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................113
7.2.1.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................115
7.2.1.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................115
7.2.1.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................116
7.2.1.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................117
7.2.2 Instrument Transformer Location, Connection,
Polarity, and Ratio.............................................................117
7.2.2.1 Overvoltage Relays...........................................117
7.2.2.2 Undervoltage Relays.........................................117
7.2.2.3 Underfrequency Relays....................................117
7.2.2.4 Overfrequency Relays......................................117
7.2.2.5 Unbalanced Voltage Relays..............................118
7.2.3 Control Scheme Logic......................................................118
7.2.4 Power System Configuration...........................................118

8. Physical Characteristics of Protective Relays................................... 123

8.1 Electromechanical Relays............................................................ 123
8.2 Solid-State Relays.......................................................................... 125
8.3 Microprocessor-Based Relays...................................................... 126

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

viii Contents

8.4 Relay Operation............................................................................. 126

8.5 Relay Packaging............................................................................ 127

9. Setting Considerations.......................................................................... 131

9.1 Power System Configuration and Operation............................ 131
9.1.1 Mutual Coupling.............................................................. 133
9.1.2 Ground Bank Action....................................................... 135
9.2 Power System Requirements....................................................... 140
9.3 Maximum Short-Circuit Current—Fault in Protected
Zone.................................................................................................141
9.4 Maximum Relay Short-Circuit Current—Fault in
Adjacent Zone................................................................................ 142
9.5 Minimum Relay Short-Circuit Current—Fault in
Protected Zone.............................................................................. 142
9.6 Fault Current Ratio....................................................................... 143
9.7 Relay Sensitivity............................................................................ 145
9.8 Circuit Loading............................................................................. 146
9.9 Relay Coordination....................................................................... 151
9.10 Directionality................................................................................. 152
9.11 Accuracy of Calculations............................................................. 153
9.12 Device Accuracy............................................................................ 154
9.13 Circuit-Breaker Operating Times............................................... 155
9.14 Transient Overreach..................................................................... 155
9.15 Cold Load Inrush.......................................................................... 157
9.16 Redundancy................................................................................... 159
9.17 Relay Drift...................................................................................... 159
9.18 Security........................................................................................... 160
9.19 Arc Flash Hazard.......................................................................... 160
9.20 Circuit Breaker-Failure Detection and Isolation.......................161
9.21 Free-Standing CT Flashover Detection.......................................162
9.22 Switchable Settings........................................................................162
9.23 Recovery Voltage Inrush...............................................................162

10. Protection and Control Schemes......................................................... 163

10.1 Alternative Protective Relay Trip Logic..................................... 171
10.2 Supervised Protective Relay Logic............................................. 173

11. Protective Relay Coordination............................................................. 175

11.1 Instantaneous Current Relays..................................................... 175
11.2 Time Overcurrent Relays..............................................................176
11.2.1 Maximum Current Flow with Normal Fault
Clearing..............................................................................176
11.2.2 Maximum Current Flow When a Remote Circuit
Breaker Fails to Open...................................................... 177

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents ix

11.2.3 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for

Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line........................ 177
11.2.4 Maximum Ratio of Through Current for
Restricted Faults on Each Remote Line and
Remote Circuit Breaker Fails to Open.......................... 178
11.3 Instantaneous Voltage Relays...................................................... 178
11.4 Time-Delayed Voltage Relays...................................................... 179
11.5 Instantaneous (Zone 1) Impedance Relays................................ 179
11.6 Time-Delayed (Zone 2 or Zone 3) Impedance Relays.............. 180
11.7 Instantaneous Frequency Relays................................................ 180
11.8 Time-Delayed Frequency Relays................................................ 181

12. Distribution-Line Protection: Radial Lines...................................... 183

12.1 Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy.................................. 184
12.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.................................... 185
12.1.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 185
12.1.3 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 185
12.1.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 186
12.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations................................................. 186
12.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 188
12.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 191
12.6 Low Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 192
12.7 Low-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 192
12.8 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup
Setting............................................................................................. 193
12.9 High-Set Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay
Pickup Setting............................................................................... 196
12.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 197
12.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 197
12.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 204
12.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 205
12.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 206
12.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 207

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

x Contents

13. Distribution-Line Protection: Network Lines.................................. 213

13.1 Networked Distribution-Line Protection Philosophy..............214
13.1.1 Time Overcurrent Phase Relays.....................................214
13.1.2 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relays..................... 215
13.1.3 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relays.................... 215
13.1.4 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays................................. 215
13.1.5 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.................. 215
13.1.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays................. 215
13.2 Setpoint Margin Considerations..................................................216
13.3 Distribution-Line Protection....................................................... 218
13.4 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 218
13.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Load
Capability....................................................................................... 221
13.6 Instantaneous Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting........ 221
13.7 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 224
13.8 Definite Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting......... 225
13.9 Definite Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting..... 225
13.10 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 226
13.11 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 226
13.12 Time Overcurrent Phase Relay Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 227
13.13 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—
Sensitivity Check........................................................................... 229
13.14 Time Overcurrent Ground Relay Pickup Setting—Time
Delay............................................................................................... 231
13.15 Time Overcurrent Relay Ground Pickup Setting—
Upstream Coordination............................................................... 231

14. Transmission-Line Protection.............................................................. 235

14.1 Phase Distance Relays.................................................................. 236
14.2 Ground Distance Relays............................................................... 246
14.3 Overcurrent Ground Relays........................................................ 247
14.4 Instantaneous Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................. 250
14.5 Time Overcurrent Ground Relays.............................................. 251
14.6 Directional Unit Sensitivity for Ground Faults........................ 254
14.7 Current-Polarized Ground Relays.............................................. 254
14.8 Voltage-Polarized Ground Relays............................................... 255
14.9 High-Speed Relaying Schemes................................................... 255
14.9.1 Permissive Overreaching Scheme................................. 256
14.9.2 Directional Comparison Blocking Scheme.................. 257
14.9.3 Direct Underreaching Transfer Trip Schemes............. 258
14.9.4 Direct Transfer Trip Schemes......................................... 259

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents xi

14.10 Line Differential Scheme............................................................. 260

14.11 CT Saturation................................................................................. 261

15. Transformer Protection......................................................................... 263

15.1 Transformer External Fault Protection...................................... 271

16. Bus Protection......................................................................................... 275

16.1 Overcurrent Bus Differential...................................................... 275
16.2 Bus Differential—Quick Trip Settings....................................... 276
16.3 Bus Differential—Time Overcurrent Settings.......................... 277
16.4 High-Impedance Bus Differential.............................................. 279
16.5 Sensitivity for Bus Faults.............................................................. 284

17. Breaker Failure Relaying...................................................................... 285

17.1 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Phase Distance
Relays.............................................................................................. 285
17.2 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Overcurrent Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 286
17.3 Remote Breaker Failure Protection—Watt-Type Ground
Relays.............................................................................................. 287
17.4 Local Breaker Failure Protection—Traditional......................... 287
17.5 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 291
17.6 Control Elementary Diagram...................................................... 293
17.7 Local Breaker Failure Protection for Transformer
Protection....................................................................................... 296

18. Capacitor Protection............................................................................... 299

18.1 Neutral Current Monitoring........................................................ 301
18.2 Midpoint Voltage Monitoring..................................................... 303

19. Shunt and Series Reactor Protection.................................................. 307

20. Grid Protection........................................................................................ 315

20.1 Voltage Issues................................................................................. 315
20.2 Undervoltage Protection—Grid Protection................................316
20.3 Undervoltage Protection—Load Protection.............................. 317
20.4 Overvoltage Protection—Grid Protection................................. 319
20.5 Overvoltage Protection—Load Protection................................ 320
20.6 Frequency Control........................................................................ 322
20.7 Underfrequency Relaying............................................................ 324
20.8 Overfrequency Relaying.............................................................. 329

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This introductory book for protective relay applications is based on notes

prepared for courses presented for the Lehigh Valley Section of IEEE,
for the Center for Power System Study at Lehigh University, and for the
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee School of Continuing Education.
With the introduction of microprocessor-based relays, many traditional
application considerations are somewhat hidden in the hundreds of pages
of documentation that accompany new relays. The purpose of this book
is to provide a reference that can be used to understand basic protective
relay setting considerations.
Short descriptions of key power system components have been included
to enable understanding of selected components. Sample calculations
have been provided to illustrate items that need to be considered when
developing settings for a wide variety of protective relay applications. My
goal was to develop a book that can be used by engineers and technicians
when selecting protective relaying schemes, specifying protective relay
setpoints, and reviewing protective relay actuations. This includes simple
overcurrent schemes, undervoltage and overvoltage schemes, underfre-
quency and overfrequency schemes, bus differential relaying, transformer
differential relaying, phase distance relay applications, and communica-
tion aided relaying.
During my professional career, I had the opportunity to work with
major investor-owned utilities in rural areas and in major metropolitan
areas, with rural electric agencies, with cooperative electric utilities, and
with railway systems, dredging operations, coal mines, and a wide vari-
ety of heavy power industrial systems. This book is an attempt to capture
salient protective relay considerations learned during a long and diverse
protective relaying career.

Anthony F. Sleva

xiii
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Author

Anthony F. Sleva holds a BSEE from Penn State University. He worked

for Pennsylvania Power & Light Company in the relay section of System
Operations, where he developed settings for protective relays used for
distribution line, transmission line, transformer, bus, motor, generator,
and capacitor protection. He subsequently worked in substation engi-
neering, nuclear plant engineering, and drafting services at PP&L before
expanding his horizons and accepting employment with Altran Solutions
in Cranbury, New Jersey, where he worked as manager of electrical engi-
neering and directed the development of studies, drawings, and specifica-
tions for clients throughout the northeastern and middle Atlantic United
States. Sleva is currently employed by Pike Electric, where he directs the
development of studies, drawings, and specifications for clients through-
out the western United States.
Sleva has developed protective relay schemes and protective relay set-
points for high voltage, medium voltage, and low voltage systems and
equipment used in open air, enclosed, and underground applications.
He has developed specifications, procured, witnessed factory acceptance
tests, supervised installation, and approved field acceptance tests for a
wide variety of electrical components including circuit breakers, trans-
formers, switchgear, air break switches, and substations in addition to
his extensive experience with protective relaying systems. In addition
to his work with investor-owned electric utilities, rural electric utilities,
and cooperative electric utilities, Sleva has provided engineering ser-
vices for independent power generators, distributed generation providers,
dredging operations, mining operations, railway systems, and standby
generator vendors (emergency, standby, and peak shaving applications).
His experience also includes short-term assignments as a system opera-
tor in a power control center and as a substation repairman in distribu-
tion substations. He has extensive knowledge of power system operations,
power system security, and equipment performance characteristics.
Sleva is an ad hoc instructor at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee,
where he has been presenting courses in protective relaying applications,
understanding power systems, motor theory and applications, and sub-
station design since 1996. He is a senior member of IEEE, a member of
IEEE’s Power System Relay Committee, a former member of IEEE’s Nuclear
Power Engineering Committee, and a licensed professional engineer.

xv
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Acknowledgments

During everyone’s professional career, some individuals are so helpful,

that they leave an indelible mark. I’d like to recognize the following peo-
ple for what they gave to me:

Phoebe Tomko, high school math teacher (deceased), for convincing

my parents that enrolling in electrical engineering at Penn State
University was a good thing.
Professor C. B. Holt (deceased), for lighting the spark by introducing
me to symmetrical components.
Raymond J. Fernandez, PE, for taking the time to develop my protective
relaying skills and for providing the inspiration for my life’s work.
Thomas J. Domin, PE, for taking the time to develop my under-
standing of power system design and operations, for working
with me to develop effective communication skills, and for con-
tinuous mentoring.
Donald A. Reimert, for taking the time to discuss every difficult
problem I’ve encountered and for providing practical insights to
obscure technical considerations.
Eileen Sleva, for sharing my life and my enthusiasm for electrical
power systems.

xvii
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
1
Power System Components

In order to develop effective protective relay settings and protective relay-

ing schemes, protection engineers need to develop an understanding of
design and operational characteristics of power systems and power system
components. They need to be able to identify normal operating conditions,
probable failure modes, and expected system response when postulated
failures occur. They also need to be aware of physical constraints that may
impact protective relay setpoints.
This chapter is intended to establish an understanding of power system
components—transmission lines, distribution lines, transformers, circuit
breakers, buses, reclosers, fuses, reactors, and generators from the per-
spective of a protection engineer. Complete descriptions are not provided.
Discussions are limited to details that are relevant to protection engineers.

1.1 Transmission Lines
AC transmission lines, also called transmission feeders, are three-phase,
conductive connections, at preselected voltage levels, between substa-
tions, switchyards, and generating stations. Transmission lines are used to
transmit large amounts of power across power systems. Important char-
acteristics are impedance, operating voltage, and ampacity. Transmission-
line steady-state loading is a function of many variables, including sending
end voltage, receiving end voltage, available generation, system load, and
current distribution among parallel current paths. Transient loading is a
function of the fault or abnormality that initiated the transient in addi-
tion to the preceding factors. Both normal and emergency power-transfer
capability must be considered when setting transmission-line protective
devices.
Transmission lines are terminated at circuit breakers and connected to
form networks as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The number of transmission
lines in a network is a function of the transmission system design phi-
losophy. When higher voltage and lower voltage transmission lines are
built along the same right of way, lower voltage transmission lines may
be operated as radial lines to prevent lower voltage lines from becoming
overloaded when higher voltage lines are removed from service.

1
© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 Protective Relay Principles

Bus 1 Bus 3
Line 230–1

Bus 2

Line 230–2 Line 230–3

Figure 1.1
One-line diagram showing three buses, six circuit breakers, and three 230-KV transmis-
sion lines.

Two Pole Structures with Cross Arms

One Conductor per Phase

Suspension Insulators

A Phase

B Phase

C Phase

Figure 1.2
Simplified illustration of several spans of three-phase transmission line.

Overhead transmission lines (several spans are illustrated in simpli-

fied fashion in Figure 1.2) have impedances of less than 1.0 Ω per mile,
usually at a line angle between 75° and 90°. Actual impedances should be
calculated for each transmission line as impedance varies with conductor
type, spacing, length, height, number of conductors per phase, and num-
ber of ground conductors. Transmission-line impedance is influenced
by the relative position of each phase with respect to the other phases
(left-center-right, top-middle-bottom, etc.) and ground conductors, earth
resistivity, and proximity of adjacent transmission lines. Therefore, the
impedance of each transmission line should be calculated when the line is
designed, and the line design should be verified after the line is built.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Power System Components 3

Underground transmission lines have lower impedance (per mile),

lower inductance, and lower line angles. High-pressure, oil-filled, three-
phase in one pipe, transmission lines have very low impedance (per mile),
very low inductance, and line angles of approximately 75°.
Under normal conditions, transmission system voltage should not vary
more than ±5% from nominal. During emergency operation, transmission
system voltage may vary as much as ±10% from nominal.
Phase conductors of overhead transmission lines may be stranded cop-
per wire, aluminum conductor with steel reinforcing (ACSR), aluminum
conductor with hard drawn aluminum reinforcing (ACAR), etc. Conductor
type (size and composition) is needed to calculate line impedance and
line ampacity. The objective is to install protective relaying schemes that,
under any and all conditions, do not limit line loading.
Ground conductors, or shield wires, may be high-strength steel wire,
ACSR wire, ACAR wire, ACAR wire with optical fibers included within
the conductor bundle, etc. In areas with little lightning activity, shield
wires may be omitted. Ground wire type (size and composition) is needed
to calculate transmission-line zero sequence impedance.
Support structures may be wood poles, steel poles, lattice steel towers,
lattice aluminum towers, etc. Insulators may be porcelain, glass, or poly-
mer assemblies. Some structures may support several transmission lines.
Conductor spacing and height, the number of conductors, and the number
of circuits are important considerations when calculating line impedance.
Transmission lines are current-limited components; that is, the power
transfer capability of transmission lines is limited by the ampacity of the
phase conductors. The power transfer capability of an overhead 69-KV
line may be 50 MVA to 250 MVA whereas the power transfer capability of
an overhead 765-KV line may be 2000 MVA to 5000 MVA. The increased
power transfer capability at higher voltages is a function of both higher
system voltage and larger conductor size.
Transmission-line voltage ratings are matched to the transmission sys-
tem nominal voltage. Transmission-line ampacities are a function of the
desired power transfer capability at the time the line is designed.
Phase conductors of underground transmission lines may be copper or
aluminum cable; that is, stranded wire surrounded by solid (XLP [cross-
linked polyethylene] or EPR [ethylene propylene rubber]) or oil-immersed
(HPFF [high pressure fluid filled]) insulating material. Usually transmis-
sion cables are placed in duct banks that provide physical protection and
facilitate cable replacement. The type of cable and the type of duct bank
are needed to calculate line impedance. When working with oil-immersed
insulating material, cable terminators, similar to transformer or circuit-
breaker bushings, are used to terminate cables. When working with solid
insulating material, cable termination assemblies are provided to relieve
voltage stress on cable insulation at the air/cable insulation interface.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

4 Protective Relay Principles

Typically underground transmission lines are rated 69 KV through

500 KV with continuous current ratings from 300 amperes through 2000
amperes. Typical power transfer capabilities are 50 MVA to 250 MVA at
69 KV and 1000 MVA to 2000 MVA at 500 KV.
Overhead and underground transmission lines may have more than
one conductor per phase. Each phase of each line, however, must be
constructed of the same conductive material (with the same number of
conductors per phase) in order to minimize the introduction of phase
unbalances that adversely affect generators and motors.
During emergency operation, permissible transmission-line load cur-
rent may be significantly higher than normal. Overload capability is
directly related to ambient temperature and wind velocity—higher over-
loads can be tolerated when ambient temperatures are low and air is mov-
ing. Actual overload capability is utility specific as each utility determines
the amount of overload that is acceptable.
Transmission lines have multiple power transfer capability ratings. This
includes summer normal, summer 24 hour, summer emergency (15 min-
ute), winter normal, winter 24 hour, winter emergency (15 minute), and
other ratings that facilitate bulk power sales. The reason for multiple
ratings is that power flows on the transmission system can easily be
changed as power system conditions change. This allows coordination
of transmission-line thermal ratings with generation load schedules and
optimization of generation costs on a continuous basis.
Short circuits of overhead transmission lines may be caused by light-
ning, wind (galloping conductors, downed towers and poles, broken
cross­arms), icing, snow, light rain or fog, fatigue (broken bolts or hard-
ware), chemical action (corrosion), accidental contact (cranes, overhead
equipment, fallen trees, animals), contamination (dust, animal droppings,
corrosion), broken or cracked insulators, and severe overloads that result
in conductors sagging into trees, distribution lines, etc.
Short circuits of underground transmission lines may be caused by
lightning, chemical action (corrosion), fatigue (broken bolts or hardware),
accidental contact (dig-ins), contamination at terminations (dust, animal
droppings, corrosion), broken or cracked insulation, cable defects, cable
installation deficiencies, and overloads that result in cable insulation failure.
Available short circuit current varies with fault type, fault location,
source impedance, line impedance, circuit construction, number of lines,
proximity to generation, transformer winding connections, etc. Near
substations, available short-circuit current may be tens of thousands of
amperes. At line end, available short-circuit current may be hundreds
of amperes. Conductor withstand needs be evaluated for maximum short-
circuit current and maximum clearing-time conditions.
The primary goals when setting protective relays used for transmission-
line protection are to (1) isolate faults quickly and (2) ensure continued
operation of the power system after faults are cleared. Transmission-line

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Power System Components 5

Table 1.1
Typical Overhead Transmission-Line Data
Conductor Summer Winter Winter Positive
Nominal Size and Normal Normal Emergency Sequence
Voltage Type Ampacity Ampacity Ampacity Impedance
69 KV 2/0 Cu 286 A 325 A 503 A 0.31 + j.72 Ω/mi
69 KV 336 ACSR 612 A 659 A 881 A 0.30 + j.78 Ω/mi
138 KV 556 ACSR 861 A 926 A 1208 A 0.19 + j.74 Ω/mi
230 KV 795 ACSR 948 A 1051 A 1402 A 0.13 + j.82 Ω/mi
230 KV 1033 ACSR 1432 A 1523 A 1884 A 0.10 + j.78 Ω/mi
230 KV 1590 ACSR 1731 A 1903 A 2305 A 0.03 + j.63 Ω/mi
500 KV 2-2493 ACSR 3366 A 3705 A 4314 A 0.02 + j.61 Ω/mi

Table 1.2
Typical Underground Transmission-Line Data
Conductor Summer Winter Winter Positive
Nominal Size and Normal Normal Emergency Sequence
Voltage Type Ampacity Ampacity Ampacity Impedance
69 KV 1-500 Al 590 A 661 A 760 A 0.208 + j.40 Ω/mi
69 KV 1-1000 Al 920 A 1030 A 1185 A 0.104 + j.35 Ω/mi
69 KV 1-1500 Al 1180 A 1322 A 1520 A 0.074 + j.33 Ω/mi
69 KV 1-1500 Cu 1465 A 1641 A 1887 A 0.040 + j.31 Ω/mi
138 KV 1-1000 Al 910 A 1019 A 1172 A 0.104 + j.35 Ω/mi
138 KV 1-1500 Al 1160 A 1299 A 1494 A 0.072 + j.71 Ω/mi
138 KV 1-1500 Cu 1440 A 1613 A 1855 A 0.040 + j.31 Ω/mi
345 KV 1-2500 Cu 1550 A 1685 A 4000 A 0.053 + j.24 Ω/mi
HPOF

protective relays should not operate during any anticipated loading con-
dition—both steady state and transient. Overload protection is not usu-
ally provided for transmission lines. If the possibility of transmission-line
overloads exists, the network configuration or generation schedule needs
to be altered, or fast-start generators or load-shedding schemes need to be
installed to maintain loading within transmission-line thermal ratings.
Table 1.1 lists typical data for several overhead transmission lines. Table
1.2 lists typical data for several underground transmission lines. Actual
values need to be calculated for specific transmission-line applications.

1.2 Distribution Lines
Distribution lines may be three-phase, two- (of three) phase, or single-
(one of three) phase conductive connections, at a preselected voltage level,

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

6 Protective Relay Principles

Substation Line 14–1

Bus 1 ABS
ABS N.O.

ABS Line 14–2

ABS N.O.
ABS
Line 14–3

Figure 1.3
One-line diagram showing one bus, three circuit breakers, three closed and two open air-
break switches, and three radial 12.47-KV distribution lines.

between substations and transformers that supply power to customer

utilization facilities. Distribution lines are used to deliver power within
small areas of power systems. Important characteristics are impedance,
operating voltage, and ampacity.
Usually distribution lines are operated as radial lines. When distribu-
tion lines are connected to form networks, transmission class relaying
(and relaying philosophy) should be considered. Distribution lines are
terminated at circuit breakers as illustrated in Figure 1.3. The number of
distribution lines served from each substation as well as the number and
location of switching points is a function of distribution system design
philosophy.
Many distribution lines (several spans are illustrated in simplified
fashion in Figure 1.4) have impedance of less than 1.0 Ω per mile. Pole-
top transformers, air break switches, fused disconnect switches, etc., are
routinely attached to poles that support distribution lines. Under normal
conditions, operating voltage is usually within +5%, –10% of design volt-
age. (The nominal design voltage is the phase-to-phase voltage for three-
phase lines. The nominal design voltage may be the phase-to-phase or
the phase-to-ground, depending on line construction, for single-phase
lines.) During emergency operation, operating voltage may vary as much
as +10%, –15% from nominal.
Normal load current capability is usually between 300 amperes and
2000 amperes. During emergency operation, permissible load current
may be slightly more than the normal rating. Distribution lines do not
have high short-time ratings, like transmission lines, because alternate
power sources that can relieve line loading are not usually available at
the distribution system level.
Phase conductors of overhead distribution lines may be copper wire, alu-
minum wire, ACSR wire, ACAR wire, or copper-clad steel wire. The type
of wire is needed to calculate line impedance and ampacity. The objective
is to install protective relaying schemes that detect all faults without limit-
ing the capability ampacity of the wire.

© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Other documents randomly have
different content
and remember that literature rich in symbolism and formulated
among people refined to a degree of æstheticism is not the literature
to give to adventure-craving children, no matter to what simple
language it may be reduced.
Splendidly dramatic is the tale of Roland and Oliver, which every
boy loves, of Ogier the Dane, and of some of the other heroes of the
time of Charlemagne. Children listen spellbound to the account of
the first meeting and disagreement of the two lads whose friendship
makes such a sweet and colorful story, and of Charles the Great in
council with his peers and knights, and delight in the swinging lines
of the old ballad:

The emperor sits in an orchard wide,

Roland and Oliver by his side:
With them many a gallant lance,
Full fifteen thousand of gentle France.
Upon a throne of beaten gold
The lord of ample France behold:
White his hair and beard were seen,
Fair of body and proud of mien.

The story of Bayard is an admirable one for this period, as well as

that of the Spanish hero, the Cid; and “St. George and the Dragon”
is always a favorite.
I plead, too, that more of the narrator’s time be devoted to the
telling of our own American epic of Hiawatha. The answer comes,
“That is read in school.” To be sure it is, and one reason why it is
read so badly and appreciated so little is that it was not given in
story form first. The German child uses the Nibelungenlied as a
classroom text, but before he studies the epic he knows its tales.
Gunther, Hagen, Siegfried, and Dankwart are familiar characters to
him, and consequently he enjoys the poem.
The same principle applies to Hiawatha. If boys and girls are
acquainted with Hiawatha himself, if they know Nokomis and
Chibiabos and Kwasind and Iagoo before they are given the poem to
study, it means something to them that it cannot mean otherwise.
Perhaps one reason why Longfellow’s masterpiece has been so little
used by story-tellers is that the work of putting it into story form is a
task with which the non-professional is unable to cope. Now,
however, an excellent retold work is on the market—Winston’s Story
of Hiawatha—which makes it possible for every narrator to have her
children know the American epic as well as German young people
know the Nibelungenlied.
In considering stories for the heroic period of childhood, let us not
forget the biographical and historical narratives that fulfill every
requirement of hero tales. Boys and girls love the epical stories
because they are true in spirit, but they love also those that are true
in fact. It is a mistake to think that biography is dull and
uninteresting to them, because stories of the boyhood of great men,
great rulers, great discoverers and path-finders, great lawgivers,
painters, musicians, and writers, are hero tales of the highest type.
Many of them have been told admirably for young people, and the
narrator does no more valuable work than when he uses them freely.
Sir Walter Raleigh, De Soto, Coronado, Frederick the Great,
Napoleon, Garibaldi, Solyman the Magnificent, Robert the Bruce,
Kosciusko, William Wallace, William Tell, and dozens of others are as
fascinating as Beowulf or Hercules and have an influence even more
powerful, because children know that these heroes have actually
lived. Never mind what some authorities say about the man of
Switzerland being a mythical personage. Let American young people
know him as those of the Alpine land know him, as the defender of
his ancient rights and native mountains, the embodiment of the
spirit of Helvetia. They will be finer men and women because of it,
and that, more than anything else, concerns the story-teller.
Then, too, there are history tales, hundreds of them, from every
age and every land. There are brave deeds done by children that
every child should know. The little girl on the St. Lawrence, holding
the blockhouse of Vercheres against the Iroquois, the boy whose
courage and presence of mind saved Lucerne, the event through
which William of Orange came to be known as William the Silent,
and many other similar narratives are intensely interesting to boys
and girls. Some of the Old Testament tales belong in this period; for
a detailed account of them see Chapter Twelve, on “Bible Stories.”
At this age, when the adventure spirit runs high, when pathfinding
and Indian fighting are desired above all other things, how are we to
keep boys and girls from running away to lead such lives
themselves? One way is by letting them live the lives of the heroes
who thrill them—in other words, by dramatizing. It is the hunger for
experience that causes boys to turn vagabond, and juvenile-court
records show that many of the ten- and twelve-year-olds who are
lured by the call of adventure come from homes that offer nothing to
feed the adventure craving, whereas those who have some of the
desired experiences at home are less likely to start out seeking
them. It is a wise mother who encourages her boys to make pirate
caves in their own back yards, to be youthful Crusoes, Kit Carsons,
Daniel Boones, and Robin Hoods for a Saturday morning, and the
school or public playground that provides for much out-of-door
acting is doing something that will prevent many evils. In some
children this desire is so strong that it is almost a fever, and if not
satisfied in a wholesome manner is likely to lead to lamentable ends.
I remember how much it meant to me in my own childhood, when I
burned to lead the lives of some of the heroes of whom I had read
or heard, to be permitted to participate in the Indian warfare of the
neighborhood boys and be the maiden who was carried away into
captivity. It was such a blissful experience that I joyfully contributed
my small allowance to buy red ink for war paint and to help costume
the braves, and when a Sioux band came to town, I ecstatically
trudged after the wagon and lived for a day in a realm far removed
from my accustomed one. The boys had feeling to even a greater
degree, and who knows but that without this Indian play some of
them might have gone forth in search of adventure and become
criminals, whereas every one is now a law-abiding, useful citizen.

Sources of Story Material for the Heroic Period

Anderson, Rasmus Björn: The Younger Edda.
Baldwin, James: The Story of Roland; American Book of
Golden Deeds.
Bolton, Sarah K.: Poor Boys Who Became Famous.
Bradish, Sarah P.: Old Norse Stories.
Brooks, Elbridge S.: Historic Girls.
Church, Alfred J.: Stories from the Iliad; Stories from
the Odyssey.
Coe, Fannie E.: Heroes of Everyday Life.
Farmer, Florence V.: Boy and Girl Heroes.
Foa, Madame Eugénie: Boy Life of Napoleon.
Grierson, E. W.: Tales from Scottish Ballads.
Kingsley, Charles: Greek Heroes.
Lang, Jeanie: The Story of Robert the Bruce; The Story
of General Gordon.
Lanier, Sidney: The Boy’s Mabinogion.
Lansing, M. F.: Page, Esquire, and Knight.
Mabie, H. W.: Norse Stories from the Eddas.
Marshall, H. E.: The Story of William Tell; The Story of
Roland.
Matthews, Agnes R.: Seven Champions of Christendom
(St. George and the Dragon).
Morris, William: Sigurd the Volsung.
Nepos, C.: Tales of Great Generals.
Niebuhr, B. G.: Greek Heroes.
Pyle, Howard: Some Merry Adventures of Robin Hood;
Stories of King Arthur and His Knights.
 Ragozin, Z. A.: Siegfried and Beowulf.
Tappan, Eva M.: In the Days of Alfred the Great; In the
Days of William the Conqueror.
Warren, Maude Radford: Robin Hood and His Merry
Men.

CHAPTER FIVE
The Story Interests of Childhood (Continued)

D. ROMANTIC PERIOD

At about the age of twelve or thirteen the child’s rougher instincts

begin to soften. Romance and sentiment develop. He becomes
particular about his appearance. It is less of a task than formerly to
get the boy to wash his face and hands, and he has not the
antipathy toward civilized attire that he had in the days when
Robinson Crusoe was the hero. Instead, he manifests a liking for
being dressed according to prevailing modes, sometimes changing
so suddenly from a dirty cave dweller into a dandy that it is like the
metamorphosis from grub to butterfly. He craves socks and ties of
bright colors and clothes that attract attention. If fashion prescribes
peg-topped or straight, spare trousers, he wants them extremely
wide or extremely narrow, and is willing to have his chin sawed
unmercifully if high collars are the vogue, not because of a fit of
hysteria, but because he has entered the period when sex awakens.
He is becoming interested in the girls and wishes to be dressed in a
manner that will cause them to be interested in him; and very often
his taste for literature changes as completely as his personal habits.
He desires stories of a higher type of heroism than those he craved
in an earlier period, stories of romance and chivalry, and now is the
time to give him the epic in its entirety, because of the deep racial
emotions therein expressed.
He has had many of the adventure tales from the epics during the
earlier period. Now he is ready for those tinged with romance, those
pervaded by a spirit of fiery idealism in which knights risk limb and
life in loyalty to principle, for fealty to king, or in defense of some
fair lady. Percival seeking the Grail is a finer hero to him than
Percival battling with the Red Knight, and the vow of the men of the
Round Table means something because he can understand it. In a
vague, indefinite way romance is touching his own life, and his
noblest emotions are awakened by the noble words:

To reverence the king, as if he were

Their conscience, and their conscience as their king,
To break the heathen and uphold the Christ,
To ride abroad redressing human wrongs,
To speak no slander, no, nor listen to it,
To honor his own word as if his God’s,
To lead sweet lives in purest chastity,
To love one maiden only, cleave to her,
And worship her by years of noble deeds.

Boys and girls in the heroic period enjoyed only the Arthurian
stories that glorify physical bravery, those of jousting and conflict
into which women do not enter. But now they delight in such tales
as those of Geraint and Enid, of Launcelot and Elaine, and some of
the adventures of Tristram.
Here a word of caution is necessary. Like the Old Testament
stories, these romantic tales will arouse the noblest emotions and
highest ideals if given with wisdom, but if told thoughtlessly may
create an almost morbid desire for the vulgar. Therefore the non-
professional narrator should use for his work some retold version of
the King Arthur tales instead of adapting from Le Morte d’Arthur,
because there is much in the original that should be eliminated in
presenting it to those in the adolescent period. The Pyle or Radford
editions are excellent, likewise The Boy’s King Arthur, by Sidney
Lanier, each of which keeps the spirit of the poem, but omits
everything objectionable.
The story of King Arthur, embracing as it does the Grail legend,
should be followed by the German tale of “Parsifal,”—not the Wagner
opera version, but the original medieval legend, “The Knightly Song
of Songs” of Wolfram von Eschenbach. This has been retold
beautifully by Anna Alice Chapin in The Story of Parsifal, a book with
which every child in the romantic period should be familiar. Miss
Guerber, in her Legends of the Middle Ages, relates the tale of
Titurel and the Holy Grail, which will be helpful to the narrator
because of the light it throws on the origin of the legend. But for a
telling version there is none equal to that of Miss Chapin, none in
which the lofty chivalric spirit of the medieval poem is portrayed so
faithfully.
The romantic portion of all the national epics, as well as that of Le
Morte d’Arthur, is excellent material for the story-teller in the early
adolescent period. The Nibelungenlied, the Iliad, the Odyssey, and
parts of Jerusalem Delivered feed boys and girls in the early teens as
pure adventure stories fed them a year or two before. And if the
narrator would have his young listeners enjoy the epical tales to the
uttermost, let him quote freely from the epic itself as he tells them.
During this age, when romance and sentiment run high and life is
beheld through a rainbow-hued glamour, poetry is a serious and
beautiful thing. The frequent interpolation of it into a story heightens
the pleasure in that story, and young people listen with the gleaming
eyes of intense feeling to words like these of Siegfried:

“Ever,” said he, “your brethren I’ll serve as best I may,

Nor once while I have being, will head on pillow lay,
Till I have done to please them whate’er they bid me do;
And this, my Lady Kriemhild, is all for love of you.”

Moreover, young people should understand that the epics were

first given to the race in poetic form, and in leading them to that
knowledge we can lead them also to an appreciation of the majestic,
sweeping measures of the Iliad or Odyssey or Nibelungenlied, which
is in itself worth thought and labor on the part of the story-teller.
The Langobardian myths, Dietrich von Bern, the story of Gudrun,
of Charlemagne and Frastrada and Huon of Bordeaux, are intensely
interesting in this period. Joan of Arc never fails to charm, while
tales of the minnesingers, the troubadours, and the Crusaders open
gates into lands of enchantment.
Oh, the romance in the lives of these medieval wanderers! Walther
von der Vogelweide, too poor to buy him a coat, yet swaying the
thought of the German lands; Bernard of Ventadour, among the
flaming roses of Provence, making music at the court of Eleanor of
Aquitaine; Richard Cœur de Lion, riding with a singing heart toward
Palestine; De Coucy, Frederick Barbarossa, and scores of others who
lived and achieved in that distant, colorful time! Their lives are
gleaming pages in the history of their age, and their stories are
glorious ones to give to boys and girls who crave the romantic.
Wonderful, too, is the account of the Children’s Crusade, of
Stephen, a happy shepherd on the hills of Cloyes, and that other lad
of Cologne, who, fired with desire to restore to the Christian world
places the Moslem had defiled, sailed away with their followers to
shipwreck and slavery. In connection with this tale the children
should hear, if possible, some of the music from Gabriel Pierne’s
great cantata, The Children’s Crusade. It will give them a clearer,
more vivid idea of the preaching of the boy apostle, of the gathering
of the company, of the pilgrimage along the Rhine and Seine, of
their rejoicing upon reaching the port of Marseilles, and of the light
of noble purpose that glorified their eyes as they went singing to the
ships. Perhaps historians have proved the account of this crusade to
be just a myth. Tell it anyway, for whether it be fact or fiction the
tale is too lovely for young folk to miss.
There is another type of biographical story, that of the man and
woman of moral courage whose life was not so chromatically
picturesque as that of him who fought the Saracens or sang in old
Provence, but nevertheless thrills, fascinates, and influences.
Florence Nightingale is a good example. Beautiful, the daughter of
rich and distinguished parents, she might have reigned a social
queen in England; yet she spent her young womanhood studying
how to alleviate human suffering, toiling under the burning sun of
the East, battling with disease at the risk of health and life, and well
deserving the title given her by those she comforted, “The Angel of
the Crimea.” I have seen girls of sixteen listen with tears in their
eyes to the story of this noble Englishwoman, and have watched the
throats of boys throb and pulsate upon hearing the account of the
British Army and Navy banquet at which the question was asked,
“Who, of all the workers in the Crimea, will be remembered
longest?” and every voice replied in refrain, “Florence Nightingale!”
Several years ago a questionnaire, distributed at a convention of
nurses, revealed the fact that ten per cent of those there had been
influenced toward their life career by the story of this great English
nurse. Yet there are dubious souls who wonder if story-telling pays!
If the narrator can have only a few books from which to draw
material for the romantic period, Laura E. Richards’ Life of Florence
Nightingale ought to be one of the number. It is sympathetically and
beautifully told, an artist’s tribute to an immortal woman.
Workers with youths in the adolescent period are brought face to
face with one of the gravest problems educators have to solve. What
is to be done about lovesick boys and girls, those in whom the
elemental passions have awakened yet who have not the judgment
and self-control that age and experience bring? How are we to keep
them, in their first emotional upheaval, from losing all sense of
proportion and from pursuing a course that may lead to disaster?
The freedom given in these days of coeducation, and the
unrestricted circulation of novels and stories dealing with the
relations of the sexes, which may be worthy creations from the
standpoint of art, but which distort the ideas of unformed youth,
make possible a condition that often appalls parents and high-school
teachers and sets them to wondering how to meet it.
 Ellen Key suggests a remedy. In this period when the world-old
emotions are first aroused, she advocates the use of love stories that
are pure in tone and high in ideal. We cannot change human nature
and keep the boy of sixteen from being drawn as if by a magnet to
the maid who is lovely in his eyes, but we can give him an ideal that
will make his feeling an elevating thing instead of a debasing one.
We can put into the heart of the girl a poetry and idealism that will
keep her worthy of the prince, and we can do it through literature.
Instead of leaving her free to roam unguided and read whatever falls
into her hand, or of sitting like a board of censors beside her and
goading her toward the forbidden, which always allures, we can lead
her to delightful, wholesome stories, of which there are a goodly
number. This does not mean confining her to writers of several
generations ago. Present-day youths know that almost every one
reads current books, and they intend to have them, too. Therefore
let the story-teller use the best of the new, even as he uses the best
of the old. Let him refer frequently to it and tell enough of it to
awaken such an interest that it will be read. A good plan is for the
teacher of English to devote a few minutes each week to the
discussion of some recent book or books, and to give lists of those
that boys and girls will enjoy. In public libraries slips should be
posted, upon which are named the most desirable of recent
publications, and problem novels should be excluded from shelves to
which the public has access. Thus our adolescent children may be
led to glean from the best of the new. But meanwhile let us not
neglect the old.
One of the lovely works with which to familiarize high-school
pupils is Ekkehard, by Joseph Victor von Scheffel, which, aside from
its value as a historical novel, is one of the noblest love stories ever
written. It is a charming picture of life in the tenth century, when the
Hunnic hordes swept like a devastating flame into the peaceful
Bodensee region. Hadwig, proud duchess of Suabia, Ekkehard, the
dreaming, handsome monk who goes from the monastery of St. Gall
to become Latin instructor at Castle Hohentwiel and learns far more
than he teaches, Praxedis, the winsome Greek maid, Hadumoth the
goose girl, and the goat boy Audifax, all are fascinating, appealing
characters. From beginning to end the book is intensely interesting,
and as Nathan Haskell Dole says, “full of undying beauty.”
Another charming work of a German writer is Moni the Goat Boy,
by Johanna Spyri. The novels of Eugénie Marlitt are wholesome and
well written, and give vivid pictures of life in the smaller courts of
Europe. Those of Louisa Mühlbach portray in a remarkable manner
the lives of some of the notable figures of history, and the intimate
glimpses they give of such characters as Frederick the Great,
Schiller, Goethe, Marie Antoinette, and Maria Theresa, with their
reflection of the color and ceremony of a bygone day, cause them to
mean in this period what adventure tales mean to boys and girls of
ten.
In drawing from Germany, let us not forget Georg Ebers, who lifts
the cloud of mystery that veils old Egypt and permits us to share the
romance, the loves, the joys and sorrows of men and women of the
Pharaohs’ time. His works are not dull inscriptions gathered from
sepulchers and mummies, but moving pictures of living, breathing
men and women, filmed by the genius of a master; and the
triumphs of the Princess Bent-Anat, the sufferings of the captive
Uarda, and the spectacular victory of the royal charioteer are so real
that they seem to be in the here and now instead of in the early
morning of the world.
From France we may glean without limit. Georges Ohnet, Jacques
Vincent, Ludovic Halévy, and dozens of other writers have produced
works that are not only a part of the education of every one who
aspires to become a cultured man or woman, but are as fascinating
as fairy tales to a child. Then there is the great treasure house of
English and American literature, as rich in priceless things of pen and
brain as the gallery of the Vatican is rich in paintings and sculpture.
Boys and girls will not draw from this wealth unguided, because they
do not know where it is stored. But if we give them frequent
glimpses of its brightness, if we half open the door of the repository
and let them peep inside, they will follow, seeking it, as the miner
follows the half-revealed ore vein, or as Ortnit of old pursued the
Fata Morgana. They need not drift into pools that breed disease,
when by enough story-telling to awaken their interest in the
beautiful and fine they may sail into open streams where the water
is clear, and where there are no submerged reefs to wreck their
fragile crafts.

Sources of Story Material for the Romantic Period

Antin, Mary: The Promised Land.

Bolton, Sarah K.: Famous Leaders among Men.
Boutet de Monvel, L. M.: The Story of Joan of Arc.
Brooks, Elbridge Streeter: Historic Girls.
Buell, Augustus C.: John Paul Jones, Founder of the
American Navy.
Buxton, Ethel M. Wilmot: A Book of Noble Women;
Stories of Persian Heroes.
Chapin, Anna Alice: The Story of Parsival.
Church, Alfred James: Stories from the Iliad; Stories
from the Odyssey.
Creighton, Louise von Glehn: Some Famous Women.
Gilbert, Ariadne: More than Conquerors.
Gilchrist, Beth Bradford: Life of Mary Lyon.
Guerber, Helène A.: Legends of the Middle Ages.
Lanier, Sidney: The Boy’s King Arthur.
Lockhart, John Gibson: Ancient Spanish Ballads.
Lowell, Francis Cabot: Joan of Arc.
Nicholson, J. S.: Tales from Ariosto.
 Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur Thomas: The Roll Call of
Honor.
Richards, Laura E.: Florence Nightingale, the Angel of
the Crimea.
Snedeker, Caroline D.: The Coward of Thermopylæ.
Southey, Robert: The Life of Nelson.
Sterling, Mary Blackwell: The Story of Parzival; The
Story of Sir Galahad.
Strickland, Agnes: The Queens of England; The Queens
of Scotland.

CHAPTER SIX
Building the Story
Story-telling is a creative art, and therefore a knowledge of
underlying principles is as indispensable to the narrator as to the
sculptor or painter. Without this knowledge he cannot hope to adapt
material to his needs, but must be limited in his choice to what is
already in form to give to children; with it he can avail himself of
many opportunities to bring to his charges treasures of which they
could know nothing but for his ability to dig them from the profound
tomes in which they are hidden, polish and clarify them, and put
them in a setting within the understanding of the child. For this
reason a course in story-writing is a part of the training of the
professional story-teller, and while the mother or teacher cannot
make such extensive preparation, she may to advantage master and
apply a few cardinal principles of construction.
The beginning of the oral story should never be an introduction,
because from the first word the child expects something to happen,
and if nothing does happen his attention scatters and interest is lost.
Therefore the narrator must bring his actors on the stage and get
them to work at once; he must not let them stand around waiting
while he gives a detailed description of their hair and eyes and of
the clothes they wear, but must have them do something. It is often
necessary to make some explanatory remarks in the beginning, but
it should be done in such a way that the hearer has no time to
wonder when the story is going to begin. For instance, if your tale is
about a boy in Holland, do not delay bringing the boy in while you
tell about the country. Let him enter at the beginning, and then, by a
sentence here and a clause or phrase there, give the setting with the
action. The story must bristle with human interest; for while the
child knows nothing about the meaning of that term, he
nevertheless demands that something happen, and if nothing does
happen you lose his attention. The written story may depend for its
charm upon character drawing and local color, but the oral story
demands plot, and if this plot is badly hung together the story fails
in its aim, for it does not make a deep impression.
The narrative style is better adapted to beginning the oral story
than dialogue, because it is more easily handled by the novice. Of
course the professional story-teller is not restricted to one field, and
genius is privileged to range at large and ignore rules with no dire
results. But it is safe for the amateur to keep to the narrative style.
In the depths of dialogue, his little craft may founder, but the much-
loved words “Once upon a time” or “Long, long ago” arrest the
attention immediately, even though the teller be not an artist; and
having made a good beginning, he is reasonably sure of holding his
hearers to the end. On the other hand, if he does not get them at
the start, his story-telling time is apt to end in failure.
There are no set phrases or clauses with which one must begin a
story, and it would be a mistake to say that dialogue can never be
used safely in opening the oral story, for the professional often uses
it with fine effect; but it is easier and safer for the amateur to use
the narrative beginning, and introduce dialogue as the plot develops.
 Dr. Berg Esenwein, whose excellent work, Writing the Short Story,
will be of value to the story-teller as well as to the story-writer, lays
down these rules:
“Do not strike one note in the beginning and another in the body
of the story.
“Do not touch anything that is not a live wire leading direct to the
heart of the story.
“Do not describe where you can suggest.”
An examination of some of the perfect stories of the world shows
that these rules hold good in every case. The tales of Grimm,
Andersen, Perrault, and Bechstein are flawless in construction, and
each plunges directly into the thread of the story. Take, for instance,
“The Three Tasks” of Grimm:
 There once lived a poor maiden who was young and
fair, but she had lost her own mother, and her
stepmother did all she could to make her miserable.

“The Pea Blossom,” of Hans Christian Andersen:

There were once five peas in a pod. They were

green and the pod was green, and they thought all the
world was green.

“Red Riding Hood,” as written by Perrault, begins thus:

Once upon a time there lived in a small village in the

country a little girl, the prettiest, sweetest creature
that ever was seen. Her mother loved her fondly, and
her grandmother doted on her still more.

“The Twin Brothers” by Grimm:

There were once two brothers, one of whom was

rich and the other poor. The rich brother was a
goldsmith and had a wicked heart. The poor brother
supported himself by making brooms, and was good
and honest.

It is the same in Ruskin’s “King of the Golden River,” in Robert

Southey’s “Three Bears,” in all the tales of De Maupassant that are
suitable for telling, and in those of Alphonse Daudet. Note the
beginning of Daudet’s “Last Lesson”:

Little Franz did not want to go to school that

morning. He would much rather have played. The air
 was so warm and still. You could hear the blackbirds
singing at the edge of the wood, and the sound of the
Prussians drilling down by the old sawmill.

Every one of these stories begins with narrative, and every one is
a perfect tale for telling.
Next in consideration comes the body of the story, which our
rhetoric teachers taught us is a succession of events moving toward
the climax. Until the climax is reached the oral story must be full of
suspense. In other words, the hearer must be kept guessing about
what is going to happen. The child does not care about a story in
which he sees the end. He does enjoy hearing the same story told
over and over again if it thrilled him at the first telling, because he
likes to re-experience that thrill. But if a new tale holds no suspense,
it falls flat. Stevenson says: “The one rule is to be infinitely various—
to interest, to disappoint, to surprise, yet still to gratify. To be ever
changing, as it were, the stitch, yet still to give the effect of an
ingenious neatness.” In other words, the succession of events must
follow one another in a regular sequence, and each must contribute
something to the one following it.
As a rather homely illustration of the meaning of this, we may say
that plot centers around a hole, and in a well-constructed story the
steps by which the hero gets into the hole are traced, and then
those by which he gets out. The getting out is the climax or, as Dr.
Barrett says, “the apex of interest and emotion.” In other words, it is
the top of a ladder, and the story must move in an unbroken line
toward that topmost rung. If it does not do this, if the thread of the
tale is broken to interpolate something that should have been told in
the beginning, the narrator loses his audience.
The climax must be a surprise to the child. This holds good in all
the great oral stories. Take as an example “The Ugly Duckling”:

And he flew toward the beautiful swans. As soon as

they saw him they ran to meet him with outstretched
 wings.
“Kill me,” he said.
But as he bent his head he saw reflected in the
water, not a dark, gray bird ugly to see, but a beautiful
swan.

In Hawthorne’s “Great Stone Face” the climax lies in the discovery

that Ernest is the likeness of the Great Stone Face, a delightful
surprise to the child.
It is the same in “Red Riding Hood,” in “Tarpeia,” in “Why the Sea
Is Salt.” It is the same in Daudet’s “Last Lesson.” Note the splendid
climax of that masterpiece, the surprise that comes to Franz as he
sits awaiting punishment, when the teacher, in all kindness, makes
this announcement:

“My children, this is the last time I shall ever teach

you. The order has come from Berlin that henceforth
nothing but German shall be taught in the schools of
Alsace and Lorraine. This is your last lesson in French.”

With very young children the surprise element should be simple.

Repetition used in a sequence, or jingle, accomplishes it well, as in
the “Fee, fi, faugh, fum” in “Jack and the Beanstalk,” or “Who’s been
sitting in my chair?” in “The Three Bears,” or “The better to see you,
hear you, eat you” in “Red Riding Hood.” Each time the child hears
the expression his interest is roused to a higher pitch, and his
imagination is fired to such a point that he expects almost anything
to happen.
After the climax is reached, the oral story should descend rapidly
to a close. Many of the best oral stories end in the climax, and those
that do not, add but a sentence or two or a paragraph at most to
round out to completion. But they do not moralize and point out a
lesson to the child. They leave him to see the moral for himself, and
he sees it more clearly and is the more deeply impressed by it if he
is allowed a few moments of silence after the completion of the
story, instead of being drawn into conversation concerning it. Marie
Shedlock, the English story-teller who has done so much to put the
narrator’s art upon the plane where it deserves to be, advocates five
minutes of silence after each story period, and in my own experience
I have found that it is of value to the child. Conditions under which
one works will, of course, govern this; but above all, do not end a
story that delights a boy or girl and then kill the whole effect by
saying, “Now, Peter, what does that story teach you?” Give the child
credit for being an intelligent human being, and do not spoil a tale
for him by turning it into a sermon while he is still tingling with the
wonder and joy of it.

CHAPTER SEVEN
Telling the Story
Since story-telling, like music, is an art, it is no more possible for
every mother, teacher, or librarian to become a Scheherazade than it
is possible for every child who takes music lessons to blossom into a
Mozart or a Mendelssohn. The inspiration, the creative fire that
beguiles the wrath of a sultan or gives birth to a symphony,
emanates from within, from the fairy germs planted somewhere in
the soul and nurtured into fruition through unceasing effort. Yet it is
possible for every worker with children, provided he be willing to
devote some time and labor to the study of technique, to learn to
tell stories convincingly and entertainingly, although not with the
artistry of the professional.
First of all, whenever possible, he should choose stories that
appeal to him, those he will enjoy giving his listeners because they
fit his own moods, for he cannot hope to tell every variety of tale
with consummate excellence any more than an actor can be
supreme in all types of rôles. The genius of Sothern displays itself to
best advantage in the tragedies of Shakespeare, while that of Henry
Miller, Forbes-Robertson, or David Warfield is suited to dramas of
another kind. Each of these artists tried various rôles until he found
his forte. Then he kept to the field in which he could excel,
concentrating all his effort upon it. So it should be with the story-
teller. He should experiment with every kind of narrative, then make
a specialty of the one in which he can be at his best, and use it to
accomplish his most far-reaching results. Of course the mother or
teacher cannot confine herself to one variety of story. Her interests
being varied and many, she cannot hope to reach the height of
specialization attained by the artist who has but one purpose, one
aim, and never swerves from it. She must endeavor to acquire a fair
degree of proficiency in the rendition of every type of story, that she
may not be found wanting by her youthful auditors; but she should
specialize with the kind of tale that is nearest an expression of her
own moods, because in this way she can obtain the most gratifying
results.
Perhaps she is particularly skilled in presenting humorous material.
Then let her use that ability as a magnet to draw her hearers to the
story period and to hold them through it to the end. A good plan is
to begin the program with a merry tale to put the group into a
happy, receptive mood, follow it with a serious one containing the
message or information the children should receive, and then give
another humorous one. The serious narrative may be difficult for her
to handle, and may not be given with the skill and charm that mark
her rendition of another type of conte, but the children,
understanding that one of her delightful “funny” stories is to follow,
will listen through the less desired number and unconsciously receive
its lesson, because of their eagerness to hear the succeeding one.
Thus, by knowing her field of excellence and making the most of it,
she can carry children into other fields because of their delight in
meeting her in the one in which she is most at home.
After the story is selected, the atmosphere and setting should be
studied. The teller should have a clear idea of the topography of the
country in which the events occur, of the customs of the people who
move through it, of their homes, their modes of life, and their
manner of dress, because the more into the spirit of the tale he can
put himself, the more effectively will he give it. If it be a narrative of
Scotland in the days of Bruce, he should try to hear the bagpipes,
see the lochs and glens of the Highlands, and walk side by side with
the heroes of that time. This means gleaning many fields for
materials and giving something of an artist’s labor to preparation, in
which, of course, he will be limited by the time at his disposal. But
according to the preparation will be the result, and to believe
previous thought and study unnecessary because one has natural
facility for story-telling is to be gravely mistaken. Artists of the stage
discovered long ago that no matter how gifted they may be, nothing
can take the place of preparation. Adrienne Lecouvreur
demonstrated the truth of this statement several centuries ago when
she revolutionized acting, and theatrical folk are still demonstrating
it, for in just this respect lies the difference between the third- and
fourth-rate player and the great dramatic star. The leading man or
woman who is satisfied to learn lines and do nothing more, does not
get beyond stock. But one ambitious to climb to the top rung of the
histrionic ladder will travel every bypath that may possibly yield him
a fuller and richer comprehension of the part he has to play.
Geraldine Farrar read everything obtainable about Japan and
Japanese life before attempting to create the rôle of “Madame
Butterfly,” and Maude Adams spent months studying the life of the
Maid of Orleans, following every step of her career from the hills of
Domrémy to the pyre at Rouen, before being satisfied to present
“Jeanne d’Arc” at the Harvard Stadium. So it must be with the story-
teller. Only the professional can devote weeks, or even days, to the
preparation of one program, but every one who attempts to tell
stories must know more than the plot of the tale and must have felt
its events in all their possibilities, if his hearers in their turn are to
feel them.
The amount of preparation necessary varies with the individual.
Those possessing natural facility and those who heard much story-
telling in childhood need less than those whom Nature has not
gifted, or who were not so fortunate in early environment. But every
one needs some preparation, and there is much slovenly, valueless
story-telling because this fact is not generally recognized. Many
teachers do not regard story-telling seriously enough, and devote far
less thought to it than to other branches of their work, because the
idea is prevalent that any one can spin a yarn or two. Consequently
they accomplish little through the medium of the story. But there is
another group of workers who believe that story-telling means as
much today as it meant centuries ago, and its members are sending
children into the libraries. As nearly as time and the conditions of
their work will permit them, they are following in the footsteps of the
medieval narrator. Like him, they are giving an artist’s labor to their
work because they realize that great results come only through great
effort. But the number of these story-tellers, compared with the
workers with children, is very small, and consequently results are not
yet gratifying. They can become gratifying only when child leaders
cease to think that the story period is the one period of the day for
which no preparation need be made, and realize that every minute
devoted to previous thought and study will make the language come
more spontaneously and fluently and will bring before the eyes of
the listeners pictures that are clear because they first have been
clear before the eyes of the teller.
Every scene in a story should be visualized until it is as vivid as a
painting on a canvas. It must be studied and imagined until it shifts
smoothly and rapidly into the succeeding one. Then there will be no
danger of the teller having to pause and think what comes next, or
of having to interpolate something that should have been introduced
at an earlier stage of the tale. This is not equally easy for every one.
Those who are imaginative by nature will find it no task, while for
others it will be difficult at first. But no one need be discouraged.
Each succeeding attempt will bring clearer pictures and smoother
shifting of scenes, and gratifying results will follow labor and
perseverance. It is a good plan for the beginner to jot down in
outline form the successive events of the story and study them until
he can carry the sequence in his mind.
When the pictures are clear and the order of events is fixed, the
story should be practiced. This does not mean that it should be
learned verbatim. Untrained narrators often make the mistake of
memorizing paragraph by paragraph and sentence by sentence, and
then giving the tale like a recitation, which is not story-telling at all.
Story-telling is a constructive, creative art, and the tale that grips
and convinces and inspires must be told in a manner that makes it
seem like the teller’s own. Practicing the story means facing an
imaginary audience and describing so vividly and clearly what is
seen that others may see the pictures that pass before the mind’s
eye.
Shall gesture and facial gymnastics be used? This depends entirely
upon the temperament and personality of the narrator. If it is natural
for him to gesticulate as he speaks, gesture will come spontaneously
and will heighten the effect of the tale. But if movements of hand
and head and body are not spontaneous, they will mar the rendition
and scatter the interest of the listeners by dividing it between the
teller and the tale. Story-telling then becomes touched with
affectation and loses its artistry. It degrades the story-teller into a
sort of acrobatic performer and makes him a personage upon whom
the attention is centered, which is not as it should be. He is simply
the medium through which the picture is made clear to the
audience. He is not an actor, and should not occupy the center of
the stage. As Dr. Partridge says: “The story-teller should pleasingly
suggest the mood and scene of the story, then step into the
background, turn down the lights on the present, and carry his
hearers to a distant region, which he must make, for the time being,
more real than the here and now.” This is why the story-teller is at
his best away from the glare of electricity, among the shadows of a
summer gloaming, or by the open hearth when the firelight is dim,
because then his hearers do not see him or think of him, but only of
the pictures and scenes painted by his voice and words.
 Therefore let the guiding rule of the narrator be, “I must describe
pictures so that others will see them, and think, not of me, but of
the scenes to which I lead them.” And he must do it in his individual
way. If gesture comes naturally, it belongs in the tale. If it is studied
and artificial, it destroys the effect and value. Some of the greatest
story-tellers of the past used no gesture, while others used body,
head, and hands with wonderful effect. They were persons of strong
individuality and did things in an individual way. Let the present-day
story-teller profit by their example.
Change of voice in dialogue adds to clearness of pictures. Nothing
is more colorless than a reading by one whose intonation is not in
keeping with the part he interprets, and the story told in a monotone
is boresome and valueless to the child. He associates tone and
action and wants them to be true to each other. He is dissatisfied if
the old witch speaks like a loving mother, while the heavy tones of
the wicked giant, the gentle ones of the good fairy, and the mirthful,
rippling notes of the joyous, beautiful maiden delight him and make
him responsive to the tale. They transform the personages of the
story into living, breathing creatures who walk in his presence and
smile or frown in his face.
Pauses are wonderfully effective in heightening the interest in a
story. Children fairly quiver with expectation if frequent pauses are
used when the moments of suspense grow big. They creep nearer in
their eagerness to hear about what happens next, fearing that they
will miss a bit of the attractive thread. One small boy, asked why he
took such delight in listening to a certain story-teller, said: “I don’t
know if it’s the way she looks or the way she says it. She’ll be going
along, telling about what happens, and all at once she’ll say, ‘And
then——’ and stop a little bit until you think all kinds of things are
going to happen.” This feeling is general with children, although they
may not voice it, and behind the naïve words is a psychological
truth. The pause heightens the dramatic effect and focuses the
interest on the coming sentences.
 Above all things, there should be no stopping in the midst of a tale
to correct a child. If one shows evidence of lagging interest, mention
his name as if the story were being told for him. “And, John, when
little Red Riding Hood reached her grandmother’s house she knocked
on the door.” This makes him feel that although many children are
listening to the story, it is being given solely for his benefit. It
touches his pride and grips his attention long enough to enable the
narrator to muster all his forces and heighten the interest in the tale
so that it will abound in suspense from that point. If it fails to do
that, something is wrong, either with the selection or the
presentation. Perhaps the pictures are not being made clear because
they were not first clear in the mind of the teller. Perhaps the story is
not an interesting one to that particular group of children. It is the
narrator’s business to find the reason, just as artists in Europe must
learn what is at fault when their hearers hiss. Audiences on the
Continent are not so polite as those in America, and there is no
mistaking their feeling about a performance. When sounds of
disapproval sweep over the house, the performer must rise to
heights that will compel admiration or face a ruined career. Likewise,
when a small boy becomes troublesome, the story-teller should not
pause to correct him, but should make the tale so thrillingly
fascinating that the lad forgets to be naughty. Mothers seldom meet
with this problem, but settlement workers are having to solve it
constantly, and they do it successfully only by knowing what lies
close to the child’s interests and telling stories that touch those
interests.
There are those who denounce story-telling in the schoolroom
because they happen to have known of poor story-telling and the
disorderly conduct that often ensues when the children’s interest is
not held. Not long ago I came across this statement in the report of
a lecture delivered at a teachers’ institute:
“It is to be hoped that story-telling will soon be eliminated from
the primary grades, and that the spectacle of a teacher pausing in
the midst of a tale to grasp a child by the arm and exclaim, ‘Here,
Johnny, straighten up and listen,’ will become past history.”
 It certainly is to be hoped that such story-telling will be
eliminated, but it is no more fair to condemn story-telling as an art
or to deprecate its value as an educational or ethical factor because
there is poor story-telling, than it is to decry painting and sculpture
because there are bunglers with brushes and chisels. The remedy
does not lie in abolishing it, but in elevating the standard of the
workers to a higher plane and in demonstrating that story-telling
syncopated by scoldings and admonitions is not story-telling at all.
When shall we tell stories? Whenever, in the opinion of the
teacher, a story will do more effective work than something else. Do
not depend wholly on regular periods. These have a place on every
school, library, or settlement program, but the story period should
not be the only time for telling stories, because often a tale told at
the psychological moment will make a deeper and more lasting
impression than those given during a dozen regular periods. When
the children are tired, tell a story for rest and relaxation. If there has
been a fight or swearing, follow up the incident as soon as possible
with an apt narrative. It will do more good than moralizing. If the
geography class is struggling over the map of Turkey and can see
nothing but a series of dots and marks on a piece of paper, put aside
the formal recitation for that day and tell them of the building of the
Mosque of Ahmed the First on the Golden Horn, of the merry
craftsmen who raised the dome of St. Sophia, and give them some
idea of how this glorious waif of the Orient came to stand on
European soil. Make story-telling fit occasions and conditions instead
of trying to make conditions fit story-telling.
And above all, never moralize! As one authority says, “It is bad
pedagogy and worse art.” Remember what Dr. van Dyke says: “If a
story is worth telling, moralizing is not necessary.” It is not only
unnecessary, but harmful. The child sees for himself that virtue is
rewarded and evil-doing is punished. He resents not being given
credit for having sufficient intelligence to understand it, and a
personal application antagonizes him.
 Tell the tale in a direct, unassuming manner—not as if you are
talking down to a group of children, but as if you are one of the
number, talking with them. Boys and girls dislike the patronizing
story-teller as much as adults dislike the patronizing person, and are
quick to detect affectation and insincerity. They will not receive the
message a posing raconteur has to give, because his manner of
delivering it irritates and estranges them. The successful story-teller
must be like the poet, a joy bringer, and he can be that only when
his work is marked by sincerity and genuineness as clear as brook
water.

Books on Story-Telling

Allison, S. B., and Perdue, H. A.: The Story in Primary

Education.
Bailey, Carolyn Sherwin: For the Story-Teller.
Bryant, Sara Cone: How to Tell Stories to Children.
Coe, Fanny E.: First Book of Stories for the Story-Teller;
Second Book of Stories for the Story-Teller.
Cowles, Julia D.: The Art of Story-Telling.
Dye, Charity: The Story-Teller’s Art.
Forbush, William B.: Story-Telling in the Home.
Keyes, Angela M.: Stories and Story-Telling.
Lindsay, Maud: The Story-Teller for Little Children.
Lyman, Edna: Story-Telling: What to Tell and How to Tell
It.
McMurry, Charles A.: Special Method in Primary
Reading and Oral Work, with Stories.
Partridge, Emelyn N. and George E.: Story-Telling in the
Home and School.
 St. John, Porter: The Story in Moral and Religious
Education.
Shedlock, Marie L.: The Art of the Story-Teller.
Wiltse, Sara E.: The Place of the Story in Early
Education.
Wyche, Richard Thomas: Some Great Stories and How to
Tell Them.

CHAPTER EIGHT
Story-Telling to Lead to an Appreciation of
Literature
One of the specific aims of education is to endow children with an
appreciation of literature, and to this end much of a teacher’s energy
is directed. From the elementary school through the university the
curriculum includes a course in English, and even in kindergarten
and primary grades a point is made of introducing children to those
authors whose work is conceded to have a strong appeal for them.
The first, second, or third grade boy is required to read and
memorize selections from Stevenson, Riley, and Eugene Field; not
infrequently he is detained after school because of failure to have his
lesson prepared at recitation time, and responds to the requirement
in a mood that brings discouragement to his teacher.
On the other hand, there are schools in which the literature or
reading hour is a period of joy, where the learning of songs of the
singers of childhood is accomplished without coercion. These schools
are the ones in which the teachers have learned that the acquisition
of knowledge, to be of real value, must be attended with enjoyment.
It is a mistake to believe that although the function of the school
is to equip the man, the aim of education is only to give enjoyment
in the future. It is also the aim of education to give enjoyment now,
because in this way capacity for enjoyment in the future is made
possible. The boy or girl whose early association with poetry or
beautiful prose is attended with displeasure and discomfort is no
more likely to be drawn to the finer types of literature later than the
man or woman is apt to be fond of a person, the first meeting with
whom was a disagreeable experience. If we would have the man
love good literature, we must first lead the child to love good
literature, and we can do this only through having him enjoy good
literature.
Because story-telling brings pleasure to the child, it is a most
effective means of leading him to an appreciation of literature.
Through the medium of the story we not only can heighten his
capacity for enjoyment and elevate the standard of his taste, but we
can equip him with knowledge he will never acquire if the literature
period is associated with force and punishment. If a tale brings
pleasing pictures before his eyes and is beautiful in theme and
language, he unconsciously forms a taste for beautiful language, for
he is not only getting the succession of events that make the plot,
but is also absorbing words and expressions. Certain sentences stick
in his memory, and teachers who have children reproduce stories
know that frequently they use the exact phrases and sentences that
have been used by the teller. They do not remember these for a day
or an hour and then forget them; they remember them as years go
by, and associate certain words with certain narratives.
William McKinley once said that the mention of willows by a river
made him think of the story of Moses in the bulrushes, and brought
to mind this sentence: “And she hid the basket among the rushes in
a spot where willows hung over the river.” The story had been told
him in childhood and brought him enjoyment, and some of the
narrator’s expressions left a lasting imprint on his mind. “I believe
that story, more than anything else,” he once said, “gave me a
fondness for elegant English.”
 James A. Garfield voiced almost the same thought, declaring that
his taste for literature was shaped by stories from great authors told
him by his mother during his early years, and many other men of
achievement have attested to the same truth. They have proved
conclusively out of their own experience that even with little children
it is possible to lay a foundation upon which a noble and enduring
structure can be built. We can give them an appreciation of stories
and poems that are among the gems of literature.
We can also interest children in the life of an author so that they
will want to know something of his work. This statement often
brings the question, “How, since little children want stories that are
full of action, and not biographies of men and women they never
have seen?” Is it not true that the childhood of all great men
contained interesting experiences, that if told as stories will lead little
people to want to know about what these boys and girls did when
they grew up?
Robert Louis Stevenson is a good example. Every child will listen
sympathetically to the tale of the poor little rich boy who was often
so ill that he could not run and play, but who made the best of
things and amused himself with toys on his bed. He built cities out
of blocks. He watched the lamplighter go on his evening rounds
along the street, and sometimes in the summer, the dewy, Scotch
summer that can be pictured so attractively to children, when he
went with his nurse to the country or the shore, he put leaves and
chips in the river and pretended that they were boats. He dug holes
in the sand with his wooden spade and laughed to see the vagrant
waves come up and fill them. The child who hears about his various
experiences will become intensely interested in little Robert, and will
grow to love “The Land of Counterpane,” “The River,” “At the
Seashore,” and other selections from A Child’s Garden of Verses.
Every time he reads or hears them he will see a picture of the wee
Scotch lad whose story touched his heart.
This is no untried theory. Through story-telling, the author of
Treasure Island has become a living personage and A Child’s Garden
of Verses a source of delight in more than one first grade. A teacher
who had charge of forty little Italians devoted fifteen minutes each
morning to stories of writers and their works, and by the end of the
term the children had a knowledge of Stevenson and Field that
amazed the superintendent. More valuable than the knowledge
acquired was the capacity for real enjoyment of some of the works
of these men, enjoyment so intense that during the half hour of
song and games that was a feature of every Friday, it was not
unusual for a small Tony or Gulielmo to flutter a brown hand and ask
to be permitted to recite:

Of speckled eggs the birdie sings,

And nests among the trees.

Another teacher was rewarded for her work by hearing the mother
of one of her pupils tell at a parent-teachers’ meeting of how a
certain little lad amused himself while recuperating from measles by
entertaining the household with songs from Stevenson and stories
about little Robert, who became the big Robert that wrote the book.
In doing this sort of work, however, it is necessary to keep in mind
the story interests of childhood, to remember that children are
interested in children, and not begin, “When Robert Louis Stevenson
was a little boy,” but rather, “Once there was a little boy who lived
far away from here, and his name was Robert.” Let the approach be
from the child to the man instead of from the man to the child.
Focus the interest of children upon one like themselves, then lead in
a natural way to the man and his achievements.
Sometimes children can be interested in a piece of literature
through a story about it or suggested by it, because often one tale
helps to illuminate and clarify and add interest to another.
Suppose a primary teacher or a mother wishes to take up
Tennyson’s “Sweet and Low,” a piece of literature that is either a
succession of vivid, delightful pictures or a vague group of words,
according to the manner in which it is presented. Tell of the baby
who lived with the father and mother in a fishing village on the Isle
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