Unit – I INTRODUCTION

Mobile Computing–Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking–Mobile Computing Applications–

Characteristics of Mobile computing–Structure of Mobile Computing Application. MAC Protocols–
Wireless MAC Issues–Fixed Assignment Schemes–Random Assignment Schemes – Reservation Based
Schemes.

Mobile Computing

What is Mobile Computing?

 Mobile Computing is also called ubiquitous computing or nomadic computing

 Mobile Computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice, and video etc
via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device

Mobile Computing involves the following concepts or operations

 Mobile Communication
 Mobile Hardware
 Mobile Software
Mobile Communication
 Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of
mobile computing technology
 In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure(is used to wirelessly
transmit and receive data between devices seamlessly and safely) that ensures
seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices.

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
 Fixed and Wired
 Fixed and Wireless
 Mobile and Wired
 Mobile and Wireless

Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and they
are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.
For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and
they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with other devices.
For Example, Communication Towers, WI-Fi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and some are
mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.
For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can communicate with
each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any network without the use
of any wired device.
For Example, Wi-Fi Dongle

Mobile Hardware
 Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used to
receive or access the service of mobility.
 Examples of mobile hardware can be Smartphone’s, laptops, portable PCs, tablet PCs,
Personal Digital Assistants, etc.

Mobile Software
 Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal
capably with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications.
 This is the operating system for the appliance of mobile devices.
 In other words, you can say it the heart of the mobile systems. This is an essential
component that operates the mobile device.
Advantages of mobile computing
 Increased Productivity: Mobile Computing allows users to use mobile devices in various
fields and companies. So, it has reduced the time and cost for clients and themselves
also that's why productivity is increased.
 Portability : It allows you to move freely and not restricted to one location to complete
your communication or do your jobs
 Entertainment: Due to the emerging of mobile devices and Smartphone’s, the
entertainment industry is enhanced quickly and bigger than ever. You can use it for
entertainment purposes also.
 Cloud Computing: Mobile Computing provides the service of Cloud computing, which
can be used for saving data, documents, audio, video files etc. on an online server and
being able to access them anytime and anywhere by having only an internet connection
 Location Flexibility
 Saves time
 Effective communication
Disadvantages of mobile computing
Availability issue
Battery issue
Security issue
Disconnection
Bandwidth Variation
High on Power Consumption

Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking

 These two terms are not synonymous.
 mobile computing essentially denotes accessing information and remote
computational services while on the move
 Wireless networking provides the basic communication infrastructure necessary to
make this possible.

 Thus, we can say that mobile computing is based on wireless networking and helps one
to invoke computing services on remote servers
 It should be clear that wireless networking is an important ingredient of mobile
computing, but forms only one of the necessary ingredients of mobile computing.
 Mobile computing also requires the applications themselves—their design and
development, and the hardware at the client and server sides.
 In fact, we can say that mobile computing subsumes the area of wireless networking.
 Instead of studying the different aspects of mobile computing applications, their design
and development, we need to have a good knowledge of the basics of wireless
communications technologies.
 Wireless networking is increasingly replacing traditional networks because of the low
setup time and low initial investment required to set up the wireless network.
 Wireless networks can be classified into two basic types One is an
i)Extension of wired networks
 Wireless network based on fixed infrastructures(Ex:
Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11 protocol(WLAN))
 ii)Ad hoc Networks( Wireless network having no fixed infrastructures)(EX: wireless
sensor)

Ad hoc Networks
 An ad hoc network is also known as a Mobile Ad hoc Network(MANET).
 It is a collection of mobile nodes that form a network on the fly without requiring the
support of any fixed infrastructure. Wireless sensor networks are a special type of
wireless ad hoc networks.

Bluetooth technology
 Bluetooth technology can also be used to establish direct wireless connection of cell
phones with devices such as printers, cameras, scanners, and laptop and desk
computers.
  Bluetooth is gradually replacing cables and infrared as the dominant way of exchanging
information between devices.
 One of the objectives of the Bluetooth technology is to enable users to easily connect to
a wide range of personal computing and telecommunication devices, without the need
to buy, carry, or lay out cables.
 In fact, the Bluetooth technology enables setting up of personal area networks (PANs)
known as piconets and ad hoc networks known as scatternets.
 It provides opportunities for rapid deployment of ad hoc connections, and the possibility
of automatic, transparent connections between devices.
 It promises to eliminate the need to purchase additional or proprietary cabling and
configuration exercises needed to connect the individual devices

MOBILE COMPUTING APPLICATIONS

Vehicles:
 Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information are
received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB)
 Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of
information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance.
 In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and
ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service provider.
 Buses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic information
to their home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet management), and saves
time and money.
Emergencies:
 An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry vital
information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the accident.
 All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only
means of communication in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or
earthquakes.
 In the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive.

Business:
 Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major customers.
They can access the latest market share information.
 At a small recess, they can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information.
They can communicate with the office about possible new offers and call meetings for
discussing responds to the new proposals.
 Therefore, mobile computers can leverage competitive advantages. A travelling
salesman today needs instant access to the company’s database: to ensure that files on
 his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all
activities of their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc.
 With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient
and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data consistency.

Credit Card Verification:

 At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers use credit
cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the bank central
computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card usage, can
take place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit.
 This can speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals .

Replacement of Wired Networks:

 Wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for
tradeshows, or in historic buildings.
 Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather
forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental information.
Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation.
 Other examples for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in
historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.

Infotainment:
 Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate location.
 The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building (knowing via
GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you are) downloading
information about a concert in the building at the same evening via a local wireless
network.
 Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and games
to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together.
Limitations of Mobile Computing
 Resource constraints: Battery
 Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using shielding
and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates respectively
 Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still very low
for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more efficient
communication protocols with low overhead.
 Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a region,
thus link delays and connection losses
 Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection stability
 Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards
 Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio
interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always include
encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to
use.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing

Ubiquity: he dictionary meaning of
ubiquity is present everywhere. In
Ubiquity:
 The dictionary meaning of ubiquity is present everywhere the context of mobile
computing, ubiquity means the ability of a user to perform computations from
anywhere and at anytime.
 For example, a business executive can receive business notifications and issue business
transactions as long he is in the wireless coverage area.

Location awareness:
 A hand-held device equipped with global positioning system (GPS) can transparently
provide information about the current location of a user to a tracking station.
 Many applications, ranging from strategic to personalized services, require or get value
additions by location-based services For example, a person travelling by road in a car,
may need to find out a car maintenance service that may be available nearby.
 He can easily locate such a service through mobile computing where an application may
show the nearby maintenance shop. A few other example applications include traffic
control, fleet management and emergency services. In a traffic control application, the
 density of traffic along various roads can be dynamically monitored, and traffic can be
directed appropriately to reduce congestions.

Adaptation: Adaptation in the

context of mobile computing implies
Adaptation:
 Adaptation in the context of mobile computing implies the ability of a system to adjust
to bandwidth fluctuation without inconveniencing the user.
 In a mobile computing environment, adaptation is crucial because of intermittent
disconnections and bandwidth fluctuations that can arise due to a number of factors
such as handoff, obstacles, environmental noise, etc.

Broadcast:
 Due to the broadcast nature of the underlying communication network of a mobile
computing environment, efficient delivery of data can be made simultaneously to
hundreds of mobile users.
 For example, all users at a specific location, such as those near a railway station, may be
sent advertising information by a taxi service operator.

Personalization:
 Services in a mobile environment can be easily personalized according to a user’s
profile. This is required to let the users easily avail information with their hand-held
devices.
 For example, Subscribing for specific news channels or news topics and get the valid
information.
 Structure of Mobile Computing Application
 A mobile computing application is usually structured in terms of the functionalities
implemented.
 The three tiers are named
1) Presentation tier
2) Application tier
3)Data tier
Presentation tier
Presentation tier or user interface tier
 The topmost level of a mobile computing application concerns the user interface.
 A good user interface facilitates the users to issue requests and to present the results to
the them meaningfully. Obviously, the programs at this layer run on the client’s
computer.
 This layer usually includes web browsers and customized client programs for
dissemination of information and for collection of data from the user.

Application tier or logical tier

 This layer has the vital responsibility of making logical decisions and performing
calculations. It also moves and processes data between the presentation and data
layers.
 We can consider the middle tier to be like an “engine” of an automobile.
 It performs the processing of user input, obtaining information and then making
decisions. This layer is implemented using technology like Java, .NET services, cold
fusion, etc.
 The implementation of this layer and the functionality provided by this layer should be
database independent.
 This layer of functionalities is usually implemented on a fixed server.

Data tier
 The data tier is responsible for providing the basic facilities of data storage, access, and
manipulation. Often this layer contains a database.
 The information is stored and retrieved from this database. But, when only small
amounts of data need to be stored, a file system can be used.
 This layer is also implemented on a fixed server.
 MAC Protocols
 Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol
 The MAC protocol is a sublayer of the data link layer protocol and it directly invokes
the physical layer protocol
 The primary responsibility of a MAC protocol is to enforce discipline in the access of a
shared channel when multiple nodes contend to access that channel.
 At the same time, two other objectives of any MAC protocol are :
1) maximization of the utilization of the channel
2) minimization of average latency of transmission.

Properties Required of MAC Protocols

 It should implement some rules that help to enforce discipline when multiple nodes
contend for a shared channel.
 It should help maximize the utilization of the channel.
 Channel allocation needs to be fair. No node should be discriminated against at any
time and made to wait for an unduly long time for transmission
 It should be capable of supporting several types of traffic having different maximum
and average bit rates.
 It should be robust in the face of equipment failures and changing network conditions
 At present IEEE 802.11 has emerged as a popular and standard MAC protocol for
wireless networks.
 wireless networks can be divided mainly into two categories:
(a) infrastructure-based wireless networks that include the WLANs
(b) Infrastructure-less wireless networks that include the mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs)
  The MAC protocols for these two environments have many things in common, MAC
protocols for Infrastructure-less networks are surprisingly much more complex .
Wireless Mac protocols issues
HIDDEN and EXPOSED Terminal .problem
Hidden terminal problem
 In Infrastructure-less networks, the issue of hidden a n d e x p o s e d
t e r m i n a l s m a k e a M A C P r o t o c o l extremely inefficient.
 The hidden terminal problem arises when at least three nodes (Ex A, B, C)
communicates among each other.

 B is in the radio range of A and also in the radio range of C. However, the nodes A
and C are not in the range of each other.
 If both A and C start to transmit a data to B at the same time, the data received at
node B would get unclear.
 Such a situation arises because A and C are hidden from each other.
 In this situation, when one node starts to sense the medium before transmission, it
cannot sense that the other node is also transmitting.
 This creates a very difficult and important arbitration problem.

Exposed Terminal Problem

 In exposed terminal problem, MAC protocols usually inhibit transmission when

transmission from another terminal is detected.
 A node will not be able to transmit data to any node when B is transmitting to C.
 The problem occurs because A is exposed to B’s transmission.
  The problem arose only because A and B are within each other’s transmission range,
though the destination nodes are in the transmission range of only one of the nodes. In
other words, the problem occurs because A is exposed to B’s transmission.
 The overall effect of this problem is that it leads to inefficient spectrum usage as well as
unnecessary transmission delays unless these are carefully addressed by a wireless MAC
protocol

TAXONOMY OF MAC PROTOCOLS

A large number of MAC protocols have been proposed. These MAC protocols can be
broadly divided into three categories:
1. Fixed Assignment schemes
2. Random Assignment schemes
3.Reservation-based Schemes
 The Fixed assignment schemes are called as circuit-switched schemes.
 The random assignment and reservation based schemes are called as packet-
switched schemes.
Fixed Assignment schemes
In the fixed assignment schemes, the resources required for a call are assigned for the entire
duration of the call.
A few important categories of fixed assignment MAC protocols are the following:

• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
MAC Protocols 51
3.4.1
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
 In FDMA, the available bandwidth (frequency range) is divided into many narrower
frequency bands called channels.
 The following figure shows a division of the existing bandwidth into many channels
showns as Ch 1, Ch 2, etc.).
 For full duplex communication to take place, each user is allocated a forward link
(channel) for communicating from it (mobile handset) to the base station (BS), and a
reverse channel for communicating from the BS to it.
 Thus, each user making a call is allocated two unique frequency bands (channels), one
for transmitting and the other for receiving signals during the call.
 Obviously, when a call is in progress, no other user would be allocated the same
frequency band to make a call.
 Unused transmission time in a frequency band that occurs when the allocated caller
pauses between transmissions, or when no user is allocated a band, goes idle and is
wasted.
 FDMA, therefore, does not achieve a high channel utilization.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
 TDMA is an access method in which multiple nodes are allotted different time slots to
access the same physical channel.
 Timeline is divided into fixed-sized time slots and these are divided among multiple
nodes who can transmit.
 All sources use the same channel, but take turns in transmitting, following Figure shows
the situation.
 where time slots are allocated to users in a round robin manner, with each user being
assigned one time slot per frame.
 Unused time slots go idle, leading to low channel utilization.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 In CDMA, multiple users are allotted different codes that consist of sequences of 0 and
1 to access the same channel.
 A special coding scheme is used that allows signals from multiple users to be
multiplexed over the same physical channel.
 Different users who have been assigned separate codes are multiplexed on the same
physical channel.
  In CDMA, multiple users use the same frequency at the same time and no time
scheduling is applied.
 All the senders send signals simultaneously through a common medium.
 The bandwidth of this medium is much larger than the space that would be allocated to
each packet transmission during FDMA and the signals can be distinguished from each
other by means of a special coding scheme that is used.
 This is done with the help of a frequency spreading code known as the m-bit pseudo-
m
noise (PN) code sequence. Using m bits, 2 – 1 different codes can be obtained. From
these codes, each user will use only one code.

It is possible to distinguish transmissions from different nodes by

 It is possible to distinguish transmissions from different nodes by ensuring some
properties on the codes.
 A code for a user should be orthogonal (that is, non-interfering) to the codes assigned to
other nodes.
 The term “orthogonal” means that the vector inner product is zero, and good
autocorrelation uses the bipolar notation where a code sequence of binary 0 is
represented as –1 and binary 1 is represented as +1.
 On the receiving end, only the same PN sequence is able to demodulate the signal to
successfully convert the input data.

 For simplicity, we assume that all nodes transmit on the same frequency at the same
time using the entire bandwidth of the transmission channel.
 Each sender has a unique random number key, and the sender XORs the signal with this
random number key. The receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the
pseudorandom number.
 Consider an example, where X, Y are the transmitters and Z is a receiver.
 Sender X_data = 1 and X_Key = (010011). Its autocorrelation representation is (–1, +1, –
1, –1, +1, +1). The signal to be calculated at sender X is Xs = X_data  X_key = +1X_key =
(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1).
 Similarly, sender Y_data = 0 and Y_key = (110101) and the signal to be sent at Y is Ys = –
1Y_key = –1(+1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = (–1, –1, +1, –1, +1, –1). The signal received by
 receiver Z is Xs + Ys = (–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) + (–1, –1, +1, –1, +1, –1) = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2,
0).
 At the receiver, in order to receive the data sent by sender X, the signal Z is dispread. So
now if Z wants to get information of sender X data, then ZX_key = (–2, 0, 0, –2, +2,
0)(–1, +1, –1, –1, +1, +1) = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6 > 0 (positive), that is the original bit
was a 1.
 Similarly, the information of sender Y data may be obtained as ZY_key = (–2, 0, 0, –2,
+2, 0)(+ 1, +1, –1, +1, –1, +1) = –2 + 0 + 0 – 2 – 2 + 0 = – 6 < 0 (negative). So the Y data
original bit was a 0.

Features FDMA TDMA CDMA

Full Forms FDMA is an GPRS is an CDMA is an abbreviation for

abbreviation for abbreviation for Code Division Multiple
Frequency Division Time Division Access.
Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

Mode of It distributes a single It only shares the It shares both time and
Operation bandwidth among time of transmission bandwidth among multiple
multiple stations by through the stations by allocating a
dividing it into sub- satellite, not the unique code to each slot.
channels channel.

Flexibility It has a little flexible. It has moderate It has high flexibility.

flexibility.

Codeword It doesn't require a It also doesn't It needs a codeword.

codeword. require a codeword.

Rate of Data It has a low data It has a medium It has a high data rate.
 rate. data rate.

Mode of Data It uses continuous It uses signals in It uses digital signals for
transfer signals for data bursts for data data transmission.
transmission. transmission.

Synchronizati It doesn't need any It requires It also doesn't require any

on synchronization. synchronization. synchronization.

Terminals Every terminal has Every terminal on Every terminal may remain
its own constant the same frequency operational at the same
frequency. is active for just a time and in the same
short period of time. location without
interruption.

Cells Capacity It has a limited cell It also has a limited It has no capacity
capacity. cell capacity. restriction for a channel,
although it is interference-
limited.

Cost It has a high cost. It has a low cost. Its installation cost is high,
but the operational cost is
low.

Guard times It needed guard It needed guard It needed both guard times
and Bands bands. times. and guard bands.

Fading It doesn't require an It needed an RAKE receiver may be

Mitigation equalizer. equalizer possible in CDMA.

Advantages It is a very reliable, It is highly flexible, It is more flexible, needs

well-established, and entirely digital, and less frequency planning,
straightforward well-established. and offers a softer signal
protocol. handover.

Disadvantage It is very flexible, and It requires guard It works with extremely

s the frequencies are space. complicated receivers, and
limited. senders/transmitters need
a more complex power
control method.

Random Assignment Schemes

Random Assignment Schemes

There are a number of random assignment schemes that are used in MAC
protocols. A few important ones are the following:

• ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA
• CSMA
• CSMA/CD
• CSMA/CA
ALOHA Scheme
 It is a simple communication scheme
 The basic (also called pure) ALOHA scheme, is a simple protocol.
 If a node has data to send, it begins to transmit.
 Note that the first step implies that Pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is
busy before transmitting.
 If the frame successfully reaches the destination (receiver), the next frame is sent. If the
frame fails to be received at the destination, it is sent again
 It works only small amount of sender data is sent.
 Collisions occurs when transmission is high.
 Improvement over the pure ALOHA scheme is the slotted ALOHA.

slotted ALOHA scheme

 In the slotted ALOHA scheme, the chances of collisions are attempted to be reduced by
enforcing the following restrictions.
 The time is divided into equal-sized slots in which a packet can be sent. Thus, the size of
the packet is restricted.
 Only at the beginning of a slot packet can sent.
 The slotted ALOHA system employs beacon( primarily radio, ultrasonic, optical,) signals that are
sent at precise intervals that mark the beginning of a slot, at which point the nodes
having data to send can start to transmit.
 if the number of stations contending to send data is high. In such cases, the CSMA
scheme works better.
The CSMA Scheme
 A popular MAC arbitration technique is the Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA).
 A node senses the medium before starting to transmit.
 If it senses that some transmission is already underway, it defers its transmission.
 Two popular extensions are
the collision detection (CSMA/CD)
the collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) techniques.

CSMA/CD
 In the CSMA/CD technique, the sender starts to transmit if it senses the channel to be
free.
 But, even if it senses the channel to be free, there can be a collision (why?) during
transmission.
 In wireless network it is very difficult for a transmitting node to detect a collision, since
any received signal from other nodes would be too weak compared to its own signal and
can easily be masked by noise.
 As a result, a transmitting node would continue to transmit the frame, and only the
destination node would notice the corrupted frame after it computes the checksum.
This leads to retransmissions and severe wastage of channel utilization.
  In contrast, in a wired network when a node detects a collision, it immediately stops
transmitting, thereby minimizing channel wastage.
 Avoidance scheme works much better compared to a collision detection-based scheme.
 A collision avoidance scheme is based on the idea that it is necessary to prevent
collisions at the moment they are most likely to occur, that is, when the bus is released
after a packet transmission.
 We explain the reason for this in the following.
 During the time a node is transmitting on the channel, several nodes might be wanting
to transmit.
 These nodes would be monitoring the channel and waiting for it to become free.
 The moment the transmitting node completes its transmission, these waiting nodes
would sense the channel to be free, and would all start transmitting at the same time.
 To overcome such collisions, in the collision avoidance scheme, all nodes are forced to
wait for a random time and then sense the medium again, before starting their
transmission.
 If the medium is sensed to be busy, a node waiting to transmit waits for a further
random amount of time and so on.
 Thus, the chance of two nodes starting to transmit at the same time would be greatly
reduced.

Reservation-based Schemes
A basic form of the reservation scheme is the RTS/CTS scheme.
Sender transmits an RTS (Ready to Send) packet to the receiver before the actual data
transmission.
Receiver sends a CTS (Clear to Send) packet , and the actual data transfer commences only after
that.
When the other nodes sharing the medium sense the CTS packet, they refrain from transmitting
until the transmission from the sending node is complete.
In a contention-based MAC protocol, a node wanting to send a message first reserves the
medium by using an appropriate control message.
For example, reservation of the medium can be achieved by transmitting a “Ready To Send”
(RTS) message and the corresponding destination node accepting this request answers with a
“Clear To Send” (CTS) message. Every node that hears the RTS and CTS messages defers its
transmission during the specified time period in order to avoid a collision.
Examples:
MACA, MACAW, MACA-BI, PAMAS, DBTMA, MARCH, S-MAC

MACA
3.6.1 MACA
MACA stands for Multiple Access Collision Avoidance.
MACA solves the hidden/exposed terminal problems by regulating the transmitter power.
A node running MACA requests to use the medium by sending an RTS to the receiver. Since
radio signals propagate omni-directionally, every terminal within the sender’s radio range will
hear this and then refrain from transmitting. As soon as the receiver is ready to receive data, it
responds with a CTS.
Figure shows how MACA avoids the hidden terminal problem.
Before the start of its transmission, it sends a Request To Send (RTS).
B receives the RTS that contains the sender’s name and the receiver’s name, as well as the
length of the future transmission. In response to the RTS, an acknowledgment from B is
triggered indicating Clear To Send (CTS).
The CTS contains the names of the sender and receiver, and the length of the planned
transmission.
This CTS is heard by C and the medium is reserved for use by A for the duration of the
transmission.
On receipt of a CTS from B, C refrains from transmitting anything for the time indicated in the
CTS.
Thus a collision cannot occur at B during data transmission, and the hidden terminal problem is
solved.
Though this is a collision avoidance protocol, a collision can occur during the sending of an RTS.
Both A and C could send an RTS at same time.
But an RTS occurs over a very small duration compared to the duration of data transmission.
Thus the probability of collision remains much less. B resolves this contention problem by
acknowledging only one station in the CTS.
No transmission occurs without an appropriate CTS.

Figure schematically shows how the exposed terminal problem is solved in MACA. Assume that
B needs to transmit to A. B has to transmit an RTS first as shown in Fig. 3.7. The RTS would
contain the names of the receiver (A) and the sender (B). C does not act in response to this
message as it is not the receiver, but A responds with a CTS. C does not receive
this CTS and concludes that A is outside the detection range. Thus C can start its transmission
assuming that no collision would occur at A