CSE-4203: Engineering Ethics [2.

0 credits, 30 hours lecture] (Prerequisite

Courses: None)

Introduction to Engineering ethics and professionalism: What is

engineering ethics? Why study engineering ethics? Responsible
Professionals, Professions, and Corporations, The Origins of
Ethical Thought, Ethics and the Law; Moral Reasoning and Codes of
Ethics: Ethical decision-making strategies, Ethical dilemmas,
Codes of ethics; Case studies Moral Frameworks for Engineering
Ethics: Ethical theories, Personal commitments and professional
life; Ethical Problem-Solving Techniques: Analysis of Issues in
Ethical Problems, An Application of Problem-Solving Methods;
Engineering as Social Experimentation: Engineering as
Experimentation, Engineers as Responsible Experimenters; Risk,
Safety, and Accidents: Assessment of safety and risk, Design
considerations, uncertainty, Risk-benefit analysis, safe-exit and
fail safe systems; Engineer's Responsibilities and Rights:
Employee/employer rights and responsibilities, Confidentiality and
conflict of interest, Whistle-blowing, Case studies on whistleblowing;
Honesty and Research Integrity: Truthfulness,
Trustworthiness, Research Integrity, Protecting Research Subjects;
Computer Ethics: The Internet and Free Speech, Power
Relationships, Property, Privacy; Additional Issues Environmental
Ethics: Engineering, ecology, economics, Sustainable development;
Ethical frameworks Global Issues: Multinational corporations,
globalization of engineering, Technology transfer, appropriate
technology; Cautious Optimism and Moral Leadership: Cautious
optimism as a technology development attitude, Moral leadership in
engineering

Recommended Texts:
1. Engineering Ethics: Charles B. Fleddermann
2. Introduction to Engineering Ethics: Mike W. Martin, Roland
Schinzinger
 1. What is engineering ethics?

Ethics:
Ethics are a set of principles that guide how people
should behave and treat others.
Ethics are a branch of philosophy that studies morality and the
difference between right and wrong.

Ethics are the principles accepted by the society, which also equate to the
moral standards of human beings.

Ethics
The word “Ethics” originates from the Greek word “ethos” meaning
“character”. Ethics are a set of rules or principles that are generally
considered as standards or good and bad or right and wrong, which are
usually imposed by an external group or a society or a profession or so.

Ethics can be understood as the rules of conduct proposed by a society or

recognized with respect to a particular class of human actions or a particular
group or culture. Ethics are dependent on others definition. They may or
may not vary from context to context.

A person who strictly follows a set of ethical principles, may not have any
moral at all while a person who violates ethical principles at times, may
maintain a high moral integrity. The ethical theories include duty ethics,
right ethics, virtue ethics and so on. A best example that can explain ethics
is utilitarianism.

Utilitarianism is the philosophy which explains that the happiness or pleasure

of a greatest number of people in the society is considered as the greatest
good. According to this philosophy, an action is morally right if its
consequences leads to happiness of the people and wrong if the action leads
to their unhappiness. This theory moves beyond the scope of one’s own
interests and takes into account the interests of others.
 Morals
The word “Morality” originates from the Latin word “mos” meaning “custom”.

Morals are the principles or habits with respect to right or wrong of

one’s own conduct. They are not imposed by anyone. Morals are what you
think is good and bad personally.

Though morals are not imposed, they can be understood as the preaching of
our inner self. Depending on a few factors, our mind filters things as good or
bad.

These are the ideas that help frame our personality so that we can
distinguish between what is right and what is wrong.

A moral is the code of conduct that you develop over time and set for
yourself to follow, just like

 Being good to everyone

 Speaking only the truth
 Going against what you know is wrong
 Having chastity
 Avoid cheating
 Being a nice human being etc.

Morals are always defined by one’s own personality . Morals

can be changed according to one’s beliefs as they are completely dependent
on one’s perception towards the ethical values.

Engineering:
is the process of developing an efficient mechanism which quickens
and eases the work using limited resources, with the help
of technology.

Engineering Ethics:
 Engineering Ethics is the study of decisions,
policies, and values that are morally desirable
in engineering research and practice.
The primary objective of this field is to analyze the ethical
principles that engineers must follow in their engineering
projects.

Engineers have significant influence over

technological development, public safety, and
environmental sustainability.

Therefore, ethical practices are essential in making decisions

that have noticeable impacts on the society and the
environment.

An engineer with ethics, can help the society in a better way.

Hence the study of Engineering ethics, where such ethics are implemented in
engineering by the engineers, is necessary for the good of the society.

2. Why study engineering ethics?

Importance of Engineering Ethics:

Engineering ethics is very important, as it provides an
effective set of duties and responsibilities for engineers to make
informed decisions.

Engineering ethics provides a way to ensure public safety, environmental

security, and morality in engineering activities and the profession.

Here is a list of some of the key points that highlight why engineering ethics
is important −
 Engineering ethics helps engineers to uphold the public safety and
welfare as their first priority.

 Engineering ethics provides a guidance for making moral decisions

that benefit society.

 Engineering ethics helps in maintaining society’s trust in engineers that they will
develop safe, effective, and sustainable technological solutions.

 Engineering ethics also plays a vital role in identifying hazards in

engineering activities and reducing them.

 Engineering ethics also encourages engineers to develop designs that have

minimal impacts on the environment and promote sustainable
development.

 Engineering ethics develops a culture of integrity and responsibility

within the engineering profession

 it motivates engineers to maintain high standards, respect, and

transparency in their work.

Why Do Engineers Need

to Learn the Principles of
Ethics?
Engineers play a critical/important role in the society, and
their work affects the public safety, environment,
technological aspects, and economics.

Therefore, it is needed that engineers must follow principles of ethics in

their profession because of the following reasons −

 Maintain public safety and welfare

 Make decisions responsibly
 Protect the environment and promote sustainable
development
 Maintain integrity in the profession and build public trust
 Maintain accountability and professionalism
 Resolve challenges that arise with technological
development
 Helps in personal and professional development, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Engineering Ethics:

The following table highlights some of the key pros and cons of the
engineering ethics −

Engineering Ethics -
Engineering Ethics - Disadvantages
Advantages

Sometimes, the principles of engineering

It helps ensuring safety,
ethics are not found suitable to apply in
health, and welfare of public.
specific situations.

Engineering ethics becomes a cause of

It encourages engineering
pressure on engineers when there is a
practices that minimize the
tension between ethical standards and
environmental impacts.
business goals.

In an unethical corporate environment,

It builds public trust on engineering ethics becomes challenging
engineers and their services. for engineers and it may cause job loss to
them.

It helps engineers to avoid Traditional engineering ethics is limited in

legal issues, conflicts of modern situations.
interest, negligence, and
frauds.

It creates a culture of fairness, Engineering ethics is difficult to keep up-

respect, and equality in the to-date with rapid technological
profession. advancement.

Variety of Moral Issues in Engineering Ethics

There are a variety of moral issues which arise from a number of situations
that engineers face in their profession. These moral issues are often
categorized into the following two main types −

Macro-Ethical Issues
In engineering ethics, those moral issues that affect the entire society at a
large-scale are termed as macro-ethical issues. These issues are mainly
related to responsibility of the engineering profession to the society.

Common examples of macro-ethical issues include environmental impacts,

human health issues, social justice, negative impacts of technology on social
values, etc.

Micro-Ethical Issues
These are moral issues that engineers face everyday in their profession.
Hence, micro-ethical issues are related to engineer’s personal integrity,
ethical responsibilities to employers, colleagues, and clients.

Examples of micro-ethical issues include misbehave with workers, misuse of

other’s intellectual property, unfair relationships with clients, issues
associated with health and safety of public and workers, etc.

Applications of Engineering Ethics:

 The primary application of engineering ethics is to develop honesty
and integrity in engineer’s behavior to follow in their profession.

Listed below is a set of examples highlighting the applications of engineering

ethics, from academics to profession −

 Engineering ethics is studied as a subject in academics to

develop honesty and responsibility in students, which is very
important for their future careers.

 Engineering ethics teaches engineering professionals to balance

between personal and professional ethics.

 Engineering ethics is used to identify and respond to ethical

dilemmas in the profession.

 Engineering ethics teaches engineers to respect other’s

intellectual property.

 Engineering ethics also helps companies to understand their

obligations toward society and community.

3. Responsible of Professionals, Professions,

and Corporations,

Profession
Profession means a job or an occupation, that helps a
person earn his living. The main criteria of a profession involves the
following.

 Advanced expertise
 The criteria of a profession is to have sound
knowledge and skills in both technical aspects and liberal arts as well. In
general, continuing education and updating knowledge are also important.

 Self-regulation
 An organization that provides a profession, plays a major role in
setting standards for the admission to the profession , drafting
codes of ethics, enforcing the standards of conduct and representing the
profession before the public and the government.

 Public good
− Any occupation serves some public good by maintaining
high ethical standards throughout a profession. This is a part of professional
ethics where each occupation is intended to serve for the welfare of the
public, directly or indirectly to a certain extent.

Autonomy: An unusual degree of autonomy in the workplace.

Monopoly: a mono[poly or near monopoly on the provision of professional

services.

Training: Extensive period of training of an intellectual character, usually obtained at a

college or university.

Professionals:
A person who is paid for getting onvolved in a
particular profession in order to earn a living as well as to
satisfy the laws of that profession can be understood as a Professional. The
definition of a professional is given differently by different experts in the
field. Let us see the following definitions −

 “Only consulting engineers who are basically independent and have freedom
from coercion(বল প্রয় োগ) can be called as professionals.” − Robert L. Whitelaw

 “Professionals have to meet the expectations of clients and employers.

Professional restrains are to be imposed by only laws and government
regulations and not by personal conscience.” − Samuel Florman
 “Engineers are professionals when they attain standards of achievement in
education, job performance or creativity in engineering and accept the most
basic moral responsibilities to the public as well as employers, clients,
colleagues and subordinates.” - Mike martin and Ronald Schinzinger

Models of Professional Engineers

An engineer who is a professional, has some tasks to perform by which he
acts as any of the following, which can be termed as Models of Professional
Engineers.

 Savior − A person who saves someone or something from any danger is

called a Savior. An engineer who saves a group of people or a company from
a technical danger can also be called a Savior. The Y2K problem that created
problems for computers and computer networks around the world was
solved by engineers who were the saviors.
 Guardian − A person who knows the direction towards a better future is
known to be the Guardian for the same. An engineer who knows the
direction in which there is scope for the technology to develop can also be
called a Guardian. This engineer provides the organization with innovative
ideas for technological development.
 Bureaucratic Servant − A person who is loyal and can solve problems when
they occur using his own skills, is a Bureaucratic servant. An engineer who
can be a loyal person to the organization and also the one who solves the
technical problems the company encounters, using his special skills can be
termed as a Bureaucratic servant. The company relies on his decision-making
capability for the future growth.
 Social Servant − A person who works for the benefit of the society without any
selfish interest and does not work on any business grounds, is called a Social
servant. An engineer who receives a task as part of the government’s
concern for the society considering the directives laid by the society and
accomplishes the assigned tasks can be termed as a Social Servant. He knows
what the society needs.
 Social Enabler or Catalyst − A person who makes the society understand its
welfare and works towards the benefits of the people in it, is a Social
Enabler. An engineer who plays a vital role in a company and helps company
along with society to understand their needs and supports their decisions in
work can be termed as a Social Enabler or Catalyst. This person quickens the
procedure and helps maintain good environment in the company.
 Game Player − A person who plays a game according to the rules given is a
Game player in general. An engineer who acts as neither a servant nor a
master, but provides his services and plans his works according to the
economic game rules in a given time, can be termed as a Game player. He is
smart enough to handle the economic conditions of the company.

Professionalism
What is a profession?
The use of profess and related terms in the MiddleAges
was associated with a monk s publicprofession of a way
of life that carried with it stringent moral requirements.
By the late seventeenth century, the term had
been secularized to apply to those who
professed to be duly qualified to perform
certain services of value to others.

Three approaches to professionalism are especially

important in understanding the concept, and can be useful
in understanding professional identity.

First, there is the Sociological Account, which holds that

there are characteristics especially associated with
professionalism.
See List 1.2 for one widely known list of such
characteristics.

List 1.2 Characteristics of a Profession

1. Extensive period of training of an intellectual

character, usually obtained at a college or
university.

2. Possessing knowledge and skills vital to the

 well-being of the larger society.

3. A monopoly or near-monopoly on the provision

of professional services, and considerable control
over professional educationand the standards for
admission into the profession.

4. An unusual degree of autonomy in the

workplace.

5. A claim to be regulated by ethical standards,

usually embodied in a code of ethics, that
promotes the good of the public.3

A second way to understand professionalism is the

Social Contract Account. On the Social Contract
Account, professionals have an implicit agreement with
the public.

On the one hand, professionals agree to attain a high

degree of professional expertise, to provide competent
service to the public, and to regulate their conduct by
ethical standards.

On the other hand, the public agrees to allow

professionals to enjoy above-average wages, to have
social recognition
and prestige, and to have a considerable degree of
freedom to regulate themselves.
The idea of such an implicit contractual relationship, if
taken seriously, imposes a powerful sense of obligation
on a professional or a developing professional.
A third account of professionalism is offered by
philosopher Michael Davis, who defines a profession in
the following way:

A profession is a number of individuals in the same

occupation voluntarily organized to earn a living by
openly serving a moral ideal in a morally permissible
way beyond what law, market, morality, and public
opinion would otherwise require.4

Professionalism covers comprehensively (ব্যাপকভাবব্) all

areas of practice of a particular profession.

It requires skills and responsibilities involved in engineering profession.

Professionalism implies a certain set of attitudes.

The art of Professionalism can be understood as the practice of doing the right
thing, not because how one feels but regardless of how one feels.
Professionals make a profession of the specific kind of activity and conduct
to which they commit themselves and to which they can be expected to
conform. Moral ideals specify virtue, i.e., desirable feature of character.
Virtues are desirable ways of relating to other individuals, groups and
organizations. Virtues involve motives, attitudes and emotions.

According to Aristotle, virtues are the “acquired habits that enable us to engage
effectively in rational activities that defines us as human beings.”
 Professional Ideals and Virtues
The virtues represent excellence in core moral behavior. The essentials for
any professional to excel in the profession are behavior, skills and
knowledge. The behavior shows the moral ideology of the professional.

The moral ideals specify the virtue, i.e., the desirable character traits that
talk a lot about the motives, attitude and emotions of an individual.

 Public spirited virtues

 Proficiency virtues
 Team work virtues
 Self-governance virtues

The virtues mentioned above show the professional responsibility of an

individual. Hence, the professionalism that comes in with these virtues is
called Responsible Professionalism. Let us now understand each virtue in detail.

Public-spirited Virtues
An engineer should focus on the good of the clients and the public at large,
which means no harm should be done intentionally. The code of professional
conduct in the field of engineering includes avoiding harm and protecting, as
well promoting the public safety, health and welfare.

Maintaining a sense of community with faith and hope within the society and
being generous by extending time, talent and money to professional
societies and communities, an engineer can maintain the public-spirited
virtue. Finally, justice within corporations, government and economic
practices becomes an essential virtue that an engineer should always
possess.

Proficiency Virtues
These refer to the virtues followed in the profession according to the talent
and intellect of an engineer. The moral values that include this virtue are
competence and diligence. The competence is being successful in the job being
done and the diligence is taking care and having alertness to dangers in the
job. Creativity should also be present in accomplishing the assigned task.
Teamwork Virtues
These virtues represent the coordination among team members which
means working successfully with other professionals. These include
cooperative nature along with loyalty and respect towards their organization,
which makes the engineers motivate the team professionals to work towards
their valuable goals.

Self-governance Virtues
These virtues are concerned with moral responsibilities which represent
integrity and self-respect of the person. The integrity actually means the
moral integrity which refers to the actions, attitude and emotions of the
person concerned during his professional period.

The self-governance virtues center on commitment, courage, self-discipline,

perseverance, self-respect and integrity. The truthfulness and
trustworthiness which represent his honesty are the crucial moral values to
be kept up by a professional.

4. The Origins of Ethical Thought

5. Ethics and the Law

Ethics and the law are both systems that guide human
behavior, but while law represents a set of external rules
enforced by the government, ethics are internal principles that
guide individual conduct based on moral values, meaning that
something can be legal but still considered unethical, and vice
versa; essentially, the law sets a minimum standard of
acceptable behavior while ethics often strive for a higher moral
standard.
The rule of law is expressed by codified legal standards. In the United
States, and most other democracies, laws spell out how we will govern ourselves.
Over centuries, laws have evolved based on commonly understood societal
concepts of right and wrong. Even in the present, the law is evolving to reflect not only
our history but also current ideas of how we want to be governed. Knowing we can
depend on the law provides stability for the country and for ourselves.

Ethics is the area of philosophical study that examines

So, what is ethics?
values, actions, and choices to determine what is right and wrong. Core
principles that have been foundational for ethical behavior were established millennia ago by the
great philosophers Aristotle, Plato, and Socrates. In the fourth century B.C. they defined ethics as
“the science of morals.”

Ethics lays down the principles of human behavior. For example, we can
debate the principle of the greatest good for the greatest number. (“Should this sweet little girl be
given a heart transplant even though many others are ahead on the list?”). Ethics constitutes
moral principles, and values are related more to an individual’s personal set of standards
(Townsville Community Legal Services, 2014).

Morals, on the other hand, has to do with day-to-day actions based on these
principles. “Should I steal coins from the collection basket?” Virtually every culture forbids
stealing, though some give it a wink and a nod.

The Definition of Law

Law is a formal system of rules enforced by governmental institutions. The
law’s objective is to maintain social order, protect rights, and promote justice.

Justice, after all, is a product of moral values, and it is evident that legal
standards and legal systems need to promote justice. However, promoting
justice is just one of the goals of the legal system; other goals include
maintaining social order and supporting social institutions.

The legal system gets its authority from a local, state, or federal government,
which uses its power to enforce laws and mend gaps in the law. By holding
people accountable for breaking the rules – often through penalties – that
accountability ensures that following legal regulations works to everyone’s
benefit.

It is also important to remember that law covers various areas. Criminal law is
different than civil law, and the ethical dilemmas vary for both types of law.
Constitutional law and administrative law, on the other hand, involve ethical
standards. However, their ethical principles can be different than those
principles relating to other fields of law.

The Definition of Ethics

Ethics, by contrast, is a set of moral principles guiding what individuals and
societies deem to be right or wrong. Ethical values often stem from
philosophy, religion, culture, or personal beliefs, offering a framework for
personal ethics regardless of a government’s authority.

Unlike law, which prescribes specific actions, ethics emphasizes personal

growth and virtue. Ethics encourages individuals to cultivate the internal
qualities that guide their behavior. Aristotle’s concept of ethics as a pathway to
personal virtue underlines the goal of ethics: self-improvement and human
flourishing.

What Are Some of the Differences Between Law and

Ethics?
Law has a different source of authority than ethics. Law derives its authority
from formal governmental institutions, statutes, and judicial rulings. Because
law is created and enforced by recognized authorities, it holds the power to
compel individuals and organizations to conform to specific rules. In legal
terms, laws are valid regardless of ethics, including individual beliefs or moral
perspectives.

Ethics stem from cultural norms and/or religious beliefs. Ethics does not
depend on formal institutions for validation – ethics are based on individual
and collective moral judgments and are not enforced by the political power of
the government that compels obedience. Aristotle highlighted this distinction,
noting that ethics is a “reasoned choice” rather than a mandated obligation.

When Aristotle defined the purpose of law, he emphasized its role in

regulating behavior and maintaining public order. Aristotle referred to
the Politeia (political community) and how law serves a practical, utilitarian
function in governance.
Aristotle also explained there is room in the legal system to ensure justice.
While the legal system often reflects societal values, it primarily seeks to
govern interactions among individuals and groups.

The function of law is primarily external, as it governs actions rather than

internal motivations. An ethical obligation, in other words, might be reflected in
legal rules, but not all wrong actions are illegal by definition. New legislation
does not always deal with ethical issues and will not always follow moral
standards, since public order and regulation of behavior outweigh normative
ethics.

Ethics, as Aristotle explained, aims at cultivating a good and virtuous

character. He argued that ethics is about finding “the mean between two
vices,” which he described as a balance between excess and deficiency.

“We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit,”
Aristotle famously noted, emphasizing that ethics is about building character
rather than enforcing specific actions.

Enforcement and Consequences of Violating Laws

and Ethics
When individuals or businesses break the law, consequences like fines,
imprisonment, or other penalties are imposed.

The legal system is connected to law enforcement, and one cannot function
without the other. Ethical behavior, however, is voluntary and internally
motivated.

To be clear, ethical breaches have consequences. Breaking principles may

lead to social disapproval, but the Aristotelian view of ethics focuses on
personal guilt as the main motivation for maintaining respect for morals.

Sometimes, the lack of formal punishments is a pillar of the ethical system.

Aristotle argued that virtuous behavior should be self-driven, as one’s
commitment to ethics should not require external enforcement. “For the things
we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them,” he stated
in Nicomachean Ethics, reflecting his view that ethical growth depends on
self-discipline and personal action.
Moral Reasoning and Codes of Ethics:

6.Ethical decision-making strategies,

INCLUDINGETHICALCONSIDERATIONSIN
DECISIONMAKING
We are all faced with difficult decisions in our work and in our personal life. Most of us
have developed a decision-making process that we execute automatically, without thinking
about the steps we go through. For many of us, the process generally follows the steps
outlined in Figure 1-4.
The following sections discuss this decision-making process further and point out
where and how ethical considerations need to be brought into the process.

Develop problem statement

Identify alternatives
Evaluate and choose alternative
Implement decision
Finished
Success?

Evaluate results
Gather and analyze facts.
Make no assumptions.
Identify stakeholders affected by the decision.
Involve others, including stakeholders, in brainstorming.
What laws, guidelines, policies, and principles apply?
What is the impact on you, your organization,
and other stakeholders?
Evaluate alternatives based on multiple criteria.
Develop and execute an implementation plan.
Provide leadership to overcome resistance to change.
Evaluate results against selected success criteria.
Were there any unintended consequences?
Yes
No
FIGURE 1-4 Decision-making process
Source Line: Course Technology/Cengage Learning.
Chapter 1
20
it.

Develop a Problem Statement

A problem statement is a clear, concise description of the issue that needs to be
addressed. A good problem statement answers the following questions: What do people
observe that causes them to think there is a problem? Who is directly affected by the
problem? Is anyone else affected? How often does the problem occur? What is the impact
of the problem? How serious is the problem? Development of a problem statement is the
most critical step in the decision-making process. Without a clear statement of the problem
or the decision to be made, it is useless to proceed. Obviously, if the problem is stated
incorrectly, the decision will not solve the problem.
You must gather and analyze facts to develop a good problem statement. Seek information
and opinions from a variety of people to broaden your frame of reference. During this
process, you must be extremely careful not to make assumptions about the situation.
Simple
situations can sometimes turn into complex controversies because no one takes the time to
gather the facts. For example, you might see your boss receive what appears to be an
employment application from a job applicant and then throw the application into the trash
after the applicant leaves. This would violate your organization’s policy to treat each
applicant
with respect and to maintain a record of all applications for one year. You could report
your boss for failure to follow the policy, or you could take a moment to speak directly to
your boss. You might be pleasantly surprised to find out that the situation was not as it
appeared. Perhaps the “applicant” was actually a salesperson promoting a product for
which
your company had no use, and the “application” was marketing literature.
Part of developing a good problem statement involves identifying the stakeholders and
their positions on the issue. Stakeholders often include others beyond those directly
involved in an issue. Identifying the stakeholders helps you understand the impact of your
decision and could help you make a better decision. Unfortunately, it may also cause you
to lose sleep from wondering how you might affect the lives of others. However, by involving
stakeholders in the decision, you can work to gain their support for the recommended
course of action. What is at stake for each stakeholder? What does each stakeholder value,
and what outcome does each stakeholder want? Do some stakeholders have a greater
stake because they have special needs or because the organization has special obligations
to them? To what degree should they be involved in the decision?
The following list includes one example of a good problem statement as well as two
examples of poor problem statements:
• Good problem statement: Our product supply organization is continually
running out of stock of finished products, creating an out-of-stock situation
on over 15 percent of our customer orders, resulting in over $300,000 in lost
sales per month.
• Poor problem statement: We need to implement a new inventory control
system. (This is a possible solution, not a problem statement.)
• Poor problem statement: We have a problem with finished product inventory.
(This is not specific enough.)

Identify Alternatives
During this stage of decision making, it is ideal to enlist the help of others, including
stakeholders, to identify several alternative solutions to the problem. Brainstorming
An Overview of Ethics
21
with others will increase your chances of identifying a broad range of alternatives and
determining the best solution. On the other hand, there may be times when it is
inappropriate
to involve others in solving a problem that you are not at liberty to discuss. In providing
participants information about the problem to be solved, offer just the facts, without
your opinion, so you don’t influence others to accept your solution.
During any brainstorming process, try not to be critical of ideas, as any negative criticism
will tend to shut down the discussion, and the flow of ideas will dry up. Simply write
down the ideas as they are suggested.

Evaluate and Choose an Alternative

Once a set of alternatives has been identified, the group must evaluate them based on
numerous criteria, such as effectiveness at addressing the issue, the extent of risk
associated
with each alternative, cost, and time to implement. An alternative that sounds
attractive but that is not feasible will not help solve the problem.
As part of the evaluation process, weigh various laws, guidelines, and principles
that may apply. You certainly do not want to violate a law that can lead to a fine or
imprisonment for yourself or others. Do any corporate policies or guidelines apply?
Does the organizational code of ethics offer guidance? Do any of your own personal
principles apply?
Also consider the likely consequences of each alternative from several perspectives:
What is the impact on you, your organization, other stakeholders (including your suppliers
and customers), and the environment?
The alternative selected should be ethically and legally defensible; be consistent with
the organization’s policies and code of ethics; take into account the impact on others; and,
of course, provide a good solution to the problem.
Philosophers have developed many approaches to aid in ethical decision making.
Four of the most common approaches, which are summarized in Table 1-5 and discussed
in the following sections, provide a framework for decision makers to reflect on the
acceptability of their actions and evaluate their moral judgments. People must find the
appropriate balance among all applicable laws, corporate principles, and moral guidelines
to help them make decisions. (See Appendix A for a more in-depth discussion of
ethics and moral codes.)
TABLE 1-5 Summary of four common approaches to ethical decision making
Approach to dealing with ethical issues Principle
Virtue ethics approach The ethical choice best reflects moral virtues in
yourself and your community.
Utilitarian approach The ethical choice produces the greatest excess of
benefits over harm.
Fairness approach The ethical choice treats everyone the same and
shows no favoritism or discrimination.
Common good approach The ethical choice advances the common good.
Source Line: Course Technology/Cengage Learning.

Virtue Ethics Approach

The virtue ethics approach to decision making focuses on how you should behave and
think about relationships if you are concerned with your daily life in a community.
It does not define a formula for ethical decision making, but suggests that when faced
with a complex ethical dilemma, people do either what they are most comfortable doing
or what they think a person they admire would do. The assumption is that people are
guided by their virtues to reach the “right” decision. A proponent of virtue ethics
believes that a disposition to do the right thing is more effective than following a set of
principles and rules, and that people should perform moral acts out of habit, not
introspection.
Virtue ethics can be applied to the business world by equating the virtues of a
good businessperson with those of a good person. However, businesspeople face
situations that are peculiar to a business setting, so they may need to tailor their
ethics accordingly. For example, honesty and openness when dealing with others are
generally considered virtues; however, a corporate purchasing manager who is
negotiating a multimillion dollar deal might need to be vague in discussions with
potential suppliers.
A problem with the virtue ethics approach is that it doesn’t provide much of a guide
for action. The definition of virtue cannot be worked out objectively; it depends on the
circumstances—you work it out as you go. For example, bravery is a great virtue in many
circumstances, but in others it may be foolish. The right thing to do in a situation also
depends on which culture you’re in and what the cultural norm dictates.
Utilitarian Approach
The utilitarian approach to ethical decision making states that you should choose the
action or policy that has the best overall consequences for all people who are directly or
indirectly affected. The goal is to find the single greatest good by balancing the interests of
all affected parties.
Utilitarianism fits easily with the concept of value in economics and the use of
cost-benefit analysis in business. Business managers, legislators, and scientists weigh
the benefits and harm of policies when deciding whether to invest resources in building
a new plant in a foreign country, to enact a new law, or to approve a new prescription
drug.
A complication of this approach is that measuring and comparing the values of certain
benefits and costs is often difficult, if not impossible. How do you assign a value to human
life or to a pristine wildlife environment? It can also be difficult to predict the full benefits
and harm that result from a decision.
Fairness Approach
The fairness approach focuses on how fairly actions and policies distribute benefits and
burdens among people affected by the decision. The guiding principle of this approach is
to treat all people the same. However, decisions made with this approach can be influenced
by personal bias, without the decision makers even being aware of their bias. If the
intended goal of an action or a policy is to provide benefits to a target group, other affected
groups may consider the decision unfair.
An Overview of Ethics
23

Common Good Approach

The common good approach to decision making is based on a vision of society as a
community
whose members work together to achieve a common set of values and goals. Decisions
and policies that use this approach attempt to implement social systems, institutions,
and environments that everyone depends on and that benefit all people. Examples include
an effective education system, a safe and efficient transportation system, and accessible
and affordable health care.
As with the other approaches to ethical decision making, the common good approach
has potential complications. People clearly have different ideas about what constitutes the
common good, which makes consensus difficult. In addition, maintaining the common
good often requires some groups to bear greater costs than others—for instance,
homeowners
pay property taxes to support public schools, but apartment dwellers do not.
Implement the Decision
Once an alternative is selected, it should be implemented in an efficient, effective, and
timely manner. This is often much easier said than done, because people tend to resist
change. In fact, the bigger the change, the greater the resistance to it. Communication is
the key to helping people accept a change. It is imperative that someone whom the
stakeholders
trust and respect answer the following questions:
• Why are we doing this?
• What is wrong with the current way we do things?
• What are the benefits of the new way for you?
A transition plan must be defined to explain to people how they will move from the
old way of doing things to the new way. It is essential that the transition be seen as
relatively
easy and pain free.
Evaluate the Results
After the solution to the problem has been implemented, monitor the results to see if the
desired effect was achieved, and observe its impact on the organization and the various
stakeholders. Were the success criteria fully met? Were there any unintended
consequences?
This evaluation may indicate that further refinements are needed. If so, return
to the develop a problem statement step, refine the problem statement as necessary, and
work through the process again.

7.Ethical dilemmas,
An ethical dilemma (ethical paradox or moral dilemma) is a problem
in the decision-making process between two possible options, neither
of which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective.

What is an Ethical Dilemma?

An ethical dilemma (ethical paradox or moral dilemma) is a problem in the decision-
making process between two possible options, neither of which is absolutely acceptable
from an ethical perspective. Although we face many ethical and moral problems in our
lives, most of them come with relatively straightforward solutions.
On the other hand, ethical dilemmas are extremely complicated challenges that cannot
be easily solved. Therefore, the ability to find the optimal solution in such situations is
critical to everyone.

Every person may encounter an ethical dilemma in almost every aspect of their life,
including personal, social, and professional.
How to Solve an Ethical Dilemma?

The biggest challenge of an ethical dilemma is that it does not offer an obvious solution
that would comply with ethics al norms. Throughout the history of humanity, people
have faced such dilemmas, and philosophers aimed and worked to find solutions to
them.

The following approaches to solve an ethical dilemma were deduced:

 Refute the paradox (dilemma): The situation must be carefully analyzed. In some cases,
the existence of the dilemma can be logically refuted.
 Value theory approach: Choose the alternative that offers the greater good or the
lesser evil.
 Find alternative solutions: In some cases, the problem can be reconsidered, and new
alternative solutions may arise.
Examples

Some examples of ethical dilemma include:

 Taking credit for others’ work

 Offering a client a worse product for your own profit
 Utilizing inside knowledge for your own profit
Ethical Dilemmas in Business

Ethical dilemmas are especially significant in professional life, as they frequently occur in
the workplace. Some companies and professional organizations (e.g., CFA) adhere to
their own codes of conduct and ethical standards. Violation of the standards may lead
to disciplinary sanctions.

Almost every aspect of business can become a possible ground for ethical dilemmas. It
may include relationships with co-workers, management, clients, and business partners.

People’s inability to determine the optimal solution to such dilemmas in a professional

setting may result in serious consequences for businesses and organizations. The
situation may be common in companies that value results the most.

In order to solve ethical problems, companies and organizations should develop strict
ethical standards for their employees. Every company must demonstrate its concerns
regarding the ethical norms within the organization. In addition, companies may provide
ethical training for their employees.
8.Codes of ethics;
A code of ethics is a guiding set of principles intended to instruct
professionals to act in a way that aligns with the organization's values
and benefits all stakeholders. A business's code of ethics is drafted
and tailored to the specific industry at hand, and it requires all
business employees to adhere to it.

NTEL CODE OF CONDUCT

JANUARY 2012
Code of Conduct
Since the company began, uncompromising integrity and professionalism have been the
cornerstones of Intel’s business. In all that we do, Intel supports and upholds a set of core
values and principles. Our future growth depends on each of us understanding these
values and principles and continuously demonstrating the uncompromising integrity that is
the foundation of our company.
The Code of Conduct sets the standard for how we work together to develop and deliver
product, how we protect the value of Intel and its subsidiaries (collectively known as
‘Intel’), and how we work with customers, suppliers and others. All of us at Intel must
abide by the Code when conducting Intel-related business.

The Code affirms our five principles of conduct:

• Conduct Business with Honesty and Integrity
• Follow the Letter and Spirit of the Law
• Treat Each Other Fairly
• Act in the Best Interests of Intel and Avoid Conflicts of Interest

• Protect the Company’s Assets and Reputation

What Is a Code of Ethics?

A code of ethics is a set of principles intended to guide professionals in
conducting business with honesty and integrity. A code of ethics document
may outline the organization’s mission and values, guide on addressing
problems, establish ethical principles based on the organization’s core
values, and define the standards to which professionals are held.
To evaluate corporate codes of ethics ethically, you must apply universal
moral standards like trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring,
and citizenship to the stages of content, creation, implementation, and
administration.1

Also called an “ethical code,” a code of ethics may encompass areas such
as business ethics, professional practices, and employee conduct.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 A code of ethics outlines an organization’s guidelines and best

practices for maintaining honesty, integrity, and professionalism.
 Violating the code of ethics can lead to sanctions, including termination,
for organization employees or members.
 Specific laws regulate business conduct in some industries, including
banking and finance, while in others, a code of ethics is voluntarily
adopted.
 The main types of codes of ethics include compliance-based, value-
based, and professional codes of ethics.
 Addressing climate change has become a key component of
companies’ codes of ethics, highlighting their commitment to
sustainability.
Joules Garcia / Investopedia

What Is the Purpose of a Code of Ethics?

Business ethics refers to how ethical principles guide a business’s
operations. Common issues that fall under the umbrella of business ethics
include employer-employee relations, discrimination, environmental issues,
bribery, insider trading, and social responsibility.

Although many laws establish basic ethical standards for businesses, it’s
primarily up to business leaders to develop a comprehensive code of ethics.

Ethical conduct has been shown to benefit an organization and society in the
long term. It aligns with the triple bottom line theory of profit, people, and
planet and meets the growing expectations of socially responsible customers,
employees, and investors.2

Businesses and trade organizations usually have a code of ethics that

employees or members must follow. Violating this code can lead to
termination or dismissal. A code of ethics is crucial because it clearly defines
the rules for behavior and offers a basis for preemptive warnings.

While a code of ethics is often not required, many firms and organizations
adopt one to identify and characterize their business to stakeholders. This
can build trust, ensure accountability, and demonstrate a commitment to
ethical behavior, all of which can improve a company’s reputation and
contribute to its success.

Given the importance of climate change and the significant impact of human
behavior, many companies now include climate factors in their code of ethics.
These principles outline the company’s dedication to operating sustainably or
their plans to shift toward sustainable practices.

Although this commitment to sustainability can increase costs, it often proves

worthwhile as consumers increasingly prefer to engage with environmentally
responsible businesses, enhancing the company’s public image.

Regardless of size, businesses count on their management staff to set ethical

conduct standards for other employees. When leaders adhere to the code of
ethics, universal compliance is expected, with no exceptions.

Types of Codes of Ethics

A code of ethics can take various forms. Still, its general goal is to ensure that
a business and its employees follow state and federal laws, conduct
themselves according to exemplary standards, and benefit all stakeholders.
Here are two types of codes of ethics commonly found in business.

Compliance-Based Code of Ethics

For all businesses, laws regulate issues such as hiring and safety standards.
Compliance-based codes of ethics set guidelines for conduct and determine
penalties for violations.

Specific laws govern business conduct in industries like banking, leading

these sectors to adopt compliance-based codes of ethics to enforce
regulations. Employees typically undergo formal training to understand these
rules. Noncompliance can create legal issues for the company, and individual
employees may face penalties for failing to follow guidelines.

Some companies appoint a compliance officer to ensure adherence to the

code of ethics. This individual stays updated on regulatory changes and
monitors employee conduct to encourage conformity.

This type of code of ethics is based on clear-cut rules and defined

consequences rather than personal behavior monitoring. While it ensures
legal compliance, it may not always promote a climate of moral responsibility
within a company.

Value-Based Code of Ethics

A value-based code of ethics addresses a company’s core value system,
setting standards of responsible conduct that benefit the larger public and the
environment. These ethical codes often require more self-regulation than
compliance-based codes.

Some codes of conduct contain language that addresses both compliance

and values. For example, a grocery store chain might create a code
prioritizing health and safety regulations over financial gain. Additionally, the
code might include a commitment to avoiding suppliers that use hormones in
livestock or raise animals in inhumane conditions.

Code of Ethics in Different Professions

Certain professions, such as those in finance or health, have specific laws
that mandate codes of ethics and conduct.
Accountants
Certified public accountants (CPAs), who are not typically considered
fiduciaries to their clients, still are expected to follow similar ethical standards,
such as integrity, objectivity, truthfulness, and avoidance of conflicts of
interest, according to the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants
(AICPA).3

Financial Advisers
Financial advisers registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission
(SEC) or a state regulator are bound by a code of ethics known as a fiduciary
duty, a legal and ethical obligation requiring them to act in the best interest of
their clients.4

Code of Ethics vs. Code of Conduct

A code of ethics and a code of conduct both set professional standards to
guide behavior of an organization’s members. However, there are some
subtle differences:

 A code of ethics ensures that members exercise sound judgment. For

example, legal codes prevent lawyers from handling conflict-of-interest
cases or brokers from trading against clients.
 A code of conduct, meanwhile, specifies expected employee actions,
including norms like punctuality and accuracy. Most companies
implement an employee code of conduct to uphold professionalism and
minimize workplace friction.

Having both a code of ethics and a code of conduct helps ensure that an
organization operates with integrity and maintains professionalism with its
employees.

How to Create a Code of Ethics

Organizations create codes of ethics to eliminate unacceptable or immoral
behavior among their members, often focusing on existing ethical issues
within their industry.

The first step is for an organization to identify its priorities and any ethical
issues it wishes to avoid. For example, a company might want to prevent
conflicts of interest due to past scandals. In that case, its code of ethics might
prohibit inappropriate relationships or actions that could lead to a conflict of
interest.

What Is an Example of a Code of Ethics?

Many firms and organizations have adopted a code of ethics. One good
example comes from the CFA Institute (CFAI), the grantor of the chartered
financial analyst (CFA) designation and creator of the CFA exams.

CFA charterholders are among the most respected and globally recognized
financial professionals. According to the CFAI’s website, members of the CFA
Institute, including CFA charterholders, and candidates for the CFA
designation must adhere to the following Code of Ethics:5

 Act with integrity, competence, diligence, respect, and ethics when

dealing with the public, clients, prospective clients, employers,
employees, colleagues in the investment profession, and other
participants in the global capital markets.
 Place the integrity of the investment profession and clients’ interests
above their interests.
 Use reasonable care and exercise independent professional judgment
when conducting investment analysis, making investment
recommendations, taking investment actions, and engaging in other
professional activities.
 Practice and encourage others to practice professionally and ethically,
which will reflect credit on themselves and the profession.
 Promote the integrity and viability of the global capital markets for the
ultimate benefit of society.
 Maintain and improve their professional competence and strive to
maintain and improve the competence of other investment
professionals.

What Is a Code of Ethics in Business?

A code of ethics in business is a set of guiding principles to inform how
decisions are made across an organization. In this way, it tells employees,
customers, business partners, suppliers, or investors about how the company
conducts business. Companies will use a code of ethics to state the values
they consider important and how these guide their operations.6

What Are the Five Ethical Principles?

In the accounting profession, five ethical principles guide the industry’s code
of ethics: integrity, objectivity, professional competence, confidentiality, and
professional behavior.7

What Is a Code of Ethics for Teachers?

A code of ethics for teachers defines the primary responsibilities of a teacher
to their students and the role of the teacher in a student’s life. The National
Education Association outlines the following two principles for education
professionals. First, commitment to the student involves guiding students to
reach their potential fairly and inclusively. Second, commitment to the
profession includes raising professional standards and exercising
professional judgment.8

What Is an Example of a Code of Ethics?

An example of a code of ethics would be a business that drafts a code
outlining all the ways that the business should act with honesty and integrity
in its day-to-day operations, from how its employees behave and interact with
clients, to the types of individuals it does business with, including suppliers
and advertising agencies.

What Is the Difference Between a Code of Ethics and a

Code of Conduct?
A code of ethics is broader in its nature, outlining what is acceptable for the
company in terms of integrity and how it operates. A code of conduct is more
focused in nature and instructs how a business’s employees should act daily
and in specific situations, which links these to the values and principles of the
organization.

The Bottom Line

A code of ethics is a guiding set of principles intended to instruct
professionals to act in a way that aligns with the organization’s values and
benefits all stakeholders. A business’s code of ethics is drafted and tailored to
the specific industry at hand, and it requires all business employees to
adhere to it.
The moral choices of businesses have evolved, from the industrial age to the
modern era. In the world we live in today, working conditions, how a business
impacts the environment, and how it deals with inequality are all areas that
are garnering a greater degree of attention. A code of ethics helps ensure
that businesses will act with greater integrity at various levels of the
organization.

9.Ethics and the Law

Ethics and law both provide frameworks for guiding human behavior, but they
differ in several important ways:

1. Source of Authority:
o Ethics: Ethical principles often stem from philosophical theories, cultural beliefs,
religious teachings, or personal values. These are generally shaped by societal
norms and moral beliefs.
o Law: Laws are created and enforced by governing bodies like the government,
legislatures, and courts. They are formal, written rules and regulations.
2. Nature of Enforcement:
o Ethics: Ethics are typically not enforced by any authority; they rely on
individual conscience or social expectations. While unethical behavior
may result in social disapproval or personal guilt, there are no formal
consequences.
o Law: Laws are legally enforceable, and violating them can result in formal
punishment such as fines, imprisonment, or other legal consequences.
3. Scope:
o Ethics: Ethics governs broader questions of right and wrong, justice, and personal
behavior. It can apply to all areas of life and is often concerned with actions that
might not necessarily be illegal but are still morally questionable.
o Law: Law typically covers specific rules for social order, such as contracts,
property rights, and criminal behavior. The law defines what is considered legal
or illegal in a society.
4. Flexibility:
o Ethics: Ethical standards can evolve more easily over time based on shifts in
societal values, philosophical thought, or religious interpretations. What is
considered ethical may change as perspectives evolve.
o Law: Laws can also evolve, but the process is more rigid. Legal changes require
legislative action, court rulings, or referendums, which can be slow.
 5. Focus:
o Ethics: Ethics often focuses on individual behavior, personal integrity, and moral
dilemmas. It is concerned with what is right or wrong on a deeper, philosophical
level.
o Law: Law focuses on regulating behavior within a society to maintain
order, fairness, and justice. It is more concerned with maintaining public order
and protecting individuals' rights.

In summary, ethics is more about personal and collective morality, while law is about formal
rules set by institutions to govern behavior within society. Ethics might suggest what we should
do in a moral sense, while the law dictates what we must do to avoid legal consequences.

Moral Reasoning and Codes of

Ethics: Ethical decision-making strategies, Ethical dilemmas,
Codes of ethics; Case studies Moral Frameworks for Engineering
Ethics: Ethical theories, Personal commitments and professional
life; Ethical Problem-Solving Techniques: Analysis of Issues in
Ethical Problems, An Application of Problem-Solving Methods;

9. Ethical decision-making strategies

Ethical decision-making involves carefully evaluating the moral implications of actions and
making choices that align with ethical principles. Various methods can guide this process, and
here are some common strategies:

Steps in Ethical Decision-Making:

1. Identify the ethical issue: Recognize the dilemma or issue that needs to be
addressed.
2. Gather information: Collect relevant facts, details, and perspectives related
to the issue.
3. Identify the affected parties: Consider who will be impacted by the
decision and how.
4. Evaluate alternatives: Explore different options and their ethical
implications using the various ethical approaches above.
 5. Make a decision: Based on the analysis, select the most ethical course of
action.
6. Implement the decision: Take action to carry out the decision.
7. Reflect on the decision: Afterward, reflect on the impact of the decision
and whether it aligned with ethical principles.

Ethical decision-making encourages individuals to take a comprehensive, thoughtful approach

to moral challenges, ensuring the chosen actions are just, fair, and beneficial.

10. The main ethical theories that guide moral decision-making

can be categorized as follows:
1. Utilitarianism (Consequentialism)
o Focuses on the consequences of actions and advocates for the greatest good for the
greatest number.
o Example: A decision that maximizes overall happiness or minimizes harm.
2. Deontological Ethics (Duty-Based Ethics)
o Focuses on the morality of actions themselves, regardless of the consequences. Actions
are morally right if they follow a set of rules or duties.
o Example: Following a moral rule (e.g., "Do not lie") even if the consequences are not
ideal.
3. Virtue Ethics
o Emphasizes the development of good character traits (virtues) and focuses on becoming
a morally virtuous person rather than focusing solely on actions or consequences.
o Example: Being honest, kind, and courageous in all situations.
4. Social Contract Theory
o Suggests that moral norms arise from an agreement or contract among individuals to
form a society, where ethical behavior is based on mutual benefit and societal rules.
o Example: Abiding by laws because they are agreed upon as part of a social contract.
5. Care Ethics
o Focuses on relationships, empathy, and the moral importance of caring for others,
particularly in contexts involving dependency or vulnerability.
o Example: Prioritizing the well-being of a loved one or someone in need over abstract
principles.
6. Divine Command Theory
o Asserts that moral rightness is determined by the will of a divine being (God). Ethical
behavior is defined by adhering to God's commands.
o Example: Following religious commandments, such as "Thou shall not kill."
These main ethical theories each offer a distinct approach to moral decision-making, often
providing different perspectives on what is considered ethically right or wrong.

11. Ethical theories are:

1. Utilitarianism
o Focuses on the consequences of actions and aims to maximize overall happiness or well-
being for the greatest number of people.
2. Deontological Ethics
o Emphasizes duties, rules, and principles in determining whether actions are morally
right or wrong, regardless of the outcomes.
3. Virtue Ethics
o Focuses on the character and virtues of the individual, rather than on specific actions or
consequences. It encourages developing good character traits like honesty, kindness,
and courage.
4. Social Contract Theory
o Suggests that moral rules and ethical behavior arise from an implicit contract or
agreement among individuals to form a society that benefits everyone.
5. Care Ethics
o Centers on the importance of relationships and caring for others, emphasizing empathy,
compassion, and the moral value of nurturing and supporting those in need.
6. Divine Command Theory
o Argues that moral standards are determined by God's will or divine authority, and
ethical behavior is defined by adherence to these divine commands.

These theories form the foundation of moral philosophy and are used to guide ethical decision-
making.

12.

Ethical problem-solving techniques help individuals navigate complex moral dilemmas by

applying structured approaches to identify, analyze, and resolve ethical issues. Below are some
effective techniques for solving ethical problems:
12. The Ethical Decision-Making Model
This is a step-by-step approach that helps guide individuals through difficult
ethical decisions.

 Step 1: Identify the ethical issue

Clearly define the problem. What is the core ethical
dilemma? What is at stake?
 Step 2: Gather all relevant information
Collect facts, data, and other necessary information
to fully understand the situation.
 Step 3: Identify the affected parties
Who will be impacted by the decision? Consider
both immediate and long-term consequences for all
stakeholders.
 Step 4: Evaluate alternative actions
Explore different options and weigh their ethical
implications. Consider the pros and cons of each
alternative.
 Step 5: Make a decision
Based on the evaluation, make an ethical choice.
Ensure it aligns with your core values and principles.
 Step 6: Implement the decision
Take action to implement your decision, keeping in
mind the impact on all affected parties.
  Step 7: Reflect on the decision
After the decision is made and implemented, reflect
on the outcome and the process. Did it align with
ethical principles? What could have been done
better?
2. Utilitarian Approach (Consequentialism)

 Technique: Assess the consequences of each potential decision and choose the option that
produces the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people.
 How to Apply:
o Consider the possible outcomes of each alternative.
o Evaluate how each choice impacts the well-being of all stakeholders.
o Choose the option that maximizes overall happiness and minimizes harm.

3. Deontological Approach (Duty-Based Ethics)

 Technique: Focus on the duties and rules involved in the situation. Actions should be guided by
principles, regardless of the consequences.
 How to Apply:
o Identify the moral principles or rules that apply to the situation (e.g., honesty, justice,
fairness).
o Determine what actions fulfill those duties.
o Choose the option that respects the moral principles, even if the consequences may not
be ideal.

4. Virtue Ethics

 Technique: Focus on the character of the person making the decision and their moral virtues
(e.g., honesty, kindness, courage). The right action is one that a virtuous person would take.
 How to Apply:
o Reflect on the virtues you value most and would like to cultivate (e.g., compassion,
integrity).
o Ask yourself, “What would a virtuous person do in this situation?”
o Choose the action that reflects good character and moral integrity.

5. The "Four-Way Test"

 Technique: Use a series of questions to evaluate the ethical implications of a decision.

 Questions:
1. Is it the truth?
2. Is it fair to all concerned?
3. Will it build goodwill and better friendships?
 4. Will it be beneficial to all concerned?
 How to Apply: Before making a decision, ask these questions to evaluate whether the choice
aligns with fairness, truth, and long-term well-being.

6. The Rights-Based Approach

 Technique: Ensure that the actions respect and protect the rights of all individuals involved,
including their legal, human, and moral rights.
 How to Apply:
o Identify the rights of the stakeholders in the situation (e.g., the right to privacy, the right
to fair treatment).
o Determine which course of action best upholds these rights.
o Choose the option that respects and preserves these rights, even if it may not lead to
the best overall outcome.

7. The "Smell Test" or "Gut Feeling"

 Technique: When in doubt, trust your instincts or intuition to guide you toward the right
decision. This informal approach can help in cases where more formal analysis is unnecessary or
time is limited.
 How to Apply:
o Reflect on how you feel about the decision or situation.
o If something feels "off" or unethical, consider exploring the issue further and examining
your options.

8. Stakeholder Analysis

 Technique: Identify all parties affected by the decision, and evaluate the potential impact on
each of them. This approach ensures that the decision takes into account diverse perspectives
and interests.
 How to Apply:
o List all stakeholders (e.g., employees, customers, the community, shareholders).
o Consider how each alternative will affect each group.
o Choose the course of action that minimizes harm and maximizes benefits for all parties
involved.

9. The "Golden Rule" (Treat Others as You Want to Be Treated)

 Technique: This age-old ethical principle encourages treating others with the same respect and
fairness you would expect for yourself.
 How to Apply:
o Consider how you would feel if you were in the shoes of the person affected by the
decision.
o Choose the action that you would want others to take toward you, ensuring empathy
and fairness in your decision.
10. Conflict Resolution Techniques

 Technique: If the ethical problem involves conflicting parties or interests, apply conflict
resolution strategies to find a fair and ethical solution.
 How to Apply:
o Identify the sources of conflict and the interests of the parties involved.
o Seek compromises or solutions that respect all parties' values and needs.
o Aim for win-win outcomes where all stakeholders can benefit.

11. Consultation with Others

 Technique: In difficult situations, seek advice or consultation from trusted colleagues, mentors,
or ethical boards to gain multiple perspectives and advice.
 How to Apply:
o Present the ethical issue to others with diverse perspectives.
o Discuss different options and weigh the potential ethical consequences.
o Consider their feedback when making your final decision.

Conclusion

Ethical problem-solving requires a thoughtful, systematic approach to ensure that the decision
made aligns with moral principles, respects the rights of others, and leads to the best possible
outcomes. Combining these techniques allows individuals to make informed, fair, and
responsible choices in challenging situations.

13. Analysis of Issues in Ethical Problems,

Analyzing issues in ethical problems involves examining the situation from various perspectives,
identifying the key moral concerns, and understanding the possible implications of different
actions. Ethical problems can be complex, and careful analysis helps ensure that decisions are
made responsibly and with consideration for all affected parties.

Here’s a structured approach to analyzing ethical issues:

1. Identifying the Ethical Dilemma

 Key Questions: What is the core ethical issue at hand? Are there conflicting moral principles or
values?
  Analysis: Clarify the dilemma by breaking down the problem. For example, if you're faced with a
situation where you must choose between honesty and loyalty, the dilemma may be about
balancing truthfulness with your commitment to a person.
 Example: A company might need to decide whether to lay off workers for financial reasons or
find alternative cost-cutting measures, creating an ethical dilemma between loyalty to
employees and financial survival.

2. Gathering Relevant Facts

 Key Questions: What are the facts surrounding the situation? What information is missing?
What assumptions are being made?
 Analysis: Ensure all relevant facts are understood before making a decision. Often, ethical issues
arise from incomplete or inaccurate information. Gathering all details ensures informed
decision-making.
 Example: If an employee is suspected of misconduct, gather the facts about the situation—were
they under pressure, was the action intentional, what were the circumstances?

3. Identifying Stakeholders

 Key Questions: Who will be affected by the decision? How will they be impacted by different
actions?
 Analysis: Identify all the parties involved, whether directly or indirectly. Stakeholders might
include employees, customers, shareholders, the community, etc. Understanding how each
group will be affected is crucial to finding a fair resolution.
 Example: In the case of layoffs, stakeholders include employees (who may lose their jobs),
remaining employees (who may feel demoralized or overburdened), customers (who might be
impacted by changes in service), and shareholders (who are concerned with profitability).

4. Assessing the Ethical Principles Involved

 Key Questions: What ethical principles are in conflict? Are duties, rights, or virtues at stake?
 Analysis: Examine the situation based on key ethical theories like:
o Utilitarianism: Does the decision lead to the greatest good for the greatest number?
o Deontology: Does the decision respect duties, rules, or rights, regardless of outcomes?
o Virtue Ethics: Does the decision align with the virtues of a morally good person (e.g.,
honesty, integrity, compassion)?
o Care Ethics: Does the decision prioritize relationships and care for others involved?
 Example: In deciding whether to disclose a mistake made by an employee, utilitarianism might
focus on minimizing harm to the company, while deontology would emphasize the duty to be
honest, regardless of the potential fallout.

5. Weighing the Consequences

 Key Questions: What are the potential outcomes of different courses of action? What short-
term and long-term consequences should be considered?
  Analysis: Evaluate the possible outcomes of each alternative. Consider both the positive and
negative consequences for all stakeholders. This helps understand the broader implications of a
decision.
 Example: In a decision about whistleblowing, consequences may include legal action, career
damage for the whistleblower, but also long-term benefits for transparency and organizational
integrity.

6. Considering Rights and Justice

 Key Questions: Are the rights of individuals being respected? Is the decision fair to all involved?
 Analysis: A just solution involves fair treatment of all individuals involved, while respecting their
rights. Consider whether any individual’s rights (e.g., privacy, freedom, dignity) will be violated
by certain decisions.
 Example: If a company must monitor employees' internet usage to prevent data leaks, it should
balance the need for security with employees' rights to privacy.

7. Exploring Alternatives

 Key Questions: What other options exist besides the obvious ones? Are there middle-ground
solutions?
 Analysis: Often, there are several ways to approach an ethical issue. Explore creative
alternatives that may offer better outcomes or less harm to stakeholders.
 Example: If layoffs are being considered, are there other cost-saving measures (e.g., reducing
salaries, cutting unnecessary expenses, offering voluntary leave) that could reduce harm?

8. Evaluating Impact on Organizational Values

 Key Questions: Does the decision align with the organization’s core values? What message will
the decision send to employees and stakeholders?
 Analysis: Consider whether the decision aligns with the company’s or individual’s values.
Decisions should reflect ethical standards that promote the long-term integrity and success of
the organization.
 Example: If an organization values diversity, how will a hiring decision that discriminates against
a certain group affect the organization's reputation and values?

9. Seeking Advice and Consultation

 Key Questions: Who can provide guidance or a different perspective on the ethical issue? What
would others with experience or expertise suggest?
 Analysis: Consult colleagues, mentors, or an ethics committee to gain a broader perspective and
avoid biases or narrow thinking.
 Example: In cases of legal or financial complexity, consulting with legal advisors or professional
ethics boards may help clarify the correct course of action.
10. Making the Decision and Reflecting on It

 Key Questions: After weighing all considerations, what is the best course of action? Can I stand
by this decision in the future?
 Analysis: Once a decision is made, it’s important to feel confident that it is the right one. Reflect
on the process, and make sure that the decision reflects the highest moral standards.
 Example: After taking action, it’s essential to assess the outcome. Did it resolve the ethical
dilemma? Did it lead to unintended consequences that need addressing?

Conclusion:

Ethical problems often involve complex and multi-faceted issues. By breaking down the problem
into manageable components, examining all stakeholders, and evaluating options through various
ethical lenses, individuals and organizations can make informed, morally responsible decisions.
Ethical analysis ensures that decisions are thoughtful, fair, and aligned with both personal and
organizational values, leading to a positive impact on all involved parties.

14. An Application of Problem-Solving Methods;

Let’s walk through an application of problem-solving methods in an ethical dilemma. I'll
demonstrate how one can apply a structured approach to make decisions that address both the
immediate concerns and broader ethical implications.

Scenario: Ethical Dilemma in the Workplace

You are a manager at a medium-sized company, and you discover that one of your employees
has been taking office supplies home for personal use. This behavior has gone on for some time,
and you've just found out. You now need to decide how to address this issue.

Step-by-Step Application of Problem-Solving Methods

1. Identify the Ethical Dilemma

 Core Issue: An employee is taking office supplies for personal use, which is unethical as it
violates company policy on resource usage.
 Moral Conflict: The dilemma lies in deciding whether to take strict punitive action (such as
termination) or address the issue in a way that gives the employee a chance to change their
behavior.
2. Gather Relevant Facts

 Facts to Consider:
o The scale of the theft: How much is being taken, and how frequently?
o The employee's history: Is this a one-time mistake, or has this been happening for a
while?
o The company policy: What does the company policy say about theft or misuse of
company resources?
o The employee’s possible reasons: Are there any personal issues, stress, or
misunderstandings leading to this behavior?

3. Identify the Stakeholders

 The Employee: They are at the center of the situation, and their actions could have
consequences on their career.
 The Team/Co-workers: If this issue is not addressed, it may affect team morale and cause
resentment among other employees.
 The Company: The company’s resources are being misused, which affects its financial health
and reputation.
 You (Manager): You must balance being fair to the employee while upholding company policies
and maintaining a moral workplace environment.

4. Assess the Ethical Principles Involved

 Utilitarianism: Consider the consequences of both options. If you take strict action, it might
send a strong message about adherence to company policy. On the other hand, providing a
chance for reform might be more beneficial in the long run for both the employee and the
company’s culture.
 Deontology: According to duty-based ethics, you have a responsibility to uphold the company’s
rules and ensure employees respect company resources. The employee's actions breach these
rules, so taking action is necessary.
 Virtue Ethics: A virtuous manager would balance firmness and fairness, showing compassion to
the employee while ensuring they understand the consequences of their actions. A decision that
reflects integrity and fairness is key.
 Care Ethics: This approach emphasizes relationships and empathy. You might want to consider
whether the employee is struggling with personal issues and offer support or resources to help
them make better choices.

5. Weigh the Consequences

 Option 1: Immediate Termination:

 o Pros: Sends a clear message to other employees about the seriousness of theft and
maintaining integrity.
o Cons: May damage the employee’s career, hurt team morale, and could potentially lead
to an overreaction depending on the scale of the behavior.
 Option 2: A Formal Warning and Training:
o Pros: Gives the employee an opportunity to correct their behavior. Shows fairness and
willingness to give a second chance, which could build loyalty and trust.
o Cons: There’s a risk that the employee might not change their behavior, and it could be
seen as too lenient by other employees.
 Option 3: Reprimanding the Employee with a Clear Consequence for Future Behavior:
o Pros: Shows that the company takes the issue seriously, but the employee is given a
chance to change and redeem themselves.
o Cons: May not fully address the breach of trust if the employee doesn’t understand the
severity of the issue.

6. Consider Rights and Justice

 Employee’s Rights: The employee has the right to a fair hearing and due process. You must
ensure they are given an opportunity to explain their actions.
 Justice for the Company: The company has the right to protect its resources and ensure that all
employees follow the rules. The decision should be just and ensure fairness for all parties
involved.

7. Explore Alternatives

 Alternative 1: One-Time Reprimand: You could issue a formal written warning with a clear
explanation of the company policy and the consequences of future violations.
 Alternative 2: Offer to Help with Personal Issues: If the employee's actions are related to
personal struggles, offer assistance, such as counseling or support, to help them correct their
behavior.
 Alternative 3: Provide a Probationary Period: Offer the employee a probationary period in
which their behavior is monitored, and if they demonstrate improvement, they can continue
their role without further punishment.

8. Evaluate Impact on Organizational Values

 Integrity: Maintaining honesty and transparency is critical. The decision must reflect the
company’s commitment to integrity.
 Fairness: Whatever decision you make should be seen as fair to both the employee and other
members of the team.
 Respect and Responsibility: The company should value its employees and treat them with
respect, even when holding them accountable for their actions.
9. Seek Advice and Consultation

 Consult HR: Speak with the Human Resources department to understand the company's policies
on theft and to ensure any decision made aligns with these policies.
 Consult with Senior Leadership: It may be helpful to discuss the situation with senior
management to gain their perspective, especially if it involves setting a precedent for similar
cases in the future.

10. Make the Decision and Reflect on It

 Decision: After evaluating all options, you decide to issue a formal written warning and
provide the employee with a probationary period in which their actions will be
monitored. During this period, they will also undergo training on company policies and
ethics. The warning will outline clear consequences if the behavior is repeated.
 Reflection: This decision aligns with fairness and transparency, offering the employee a
chance to redeem themselves while also maintaining the company’s integrity. The
decision is compassionate but firm, aiming to correct the behavior while upholding
company standards.

Conclusion:

By applying a structured problem-solving method, you’ve taken a balanced approach to

addressing the ethical dilemma. You considered the ethical principles involved, weighed the
consequences, and chose an action that aligns with both the company's policies and its
commitment to fairness and respect for employees. This method ensures that you address the
issue thoughtfully, minimize harm, and promote an ethical workplace culture.

Engineering as Social Experimentation: Engineering as

Experimentation, Engineers as Responsible Experimenters;

Engineering as Experimentation refers to the process by which engineers apply scientific
principles, creativity, and trial-and-error methods to design, create, test, and refine systems,
products, or structures. Engineering, in this context, is a continuous cycle of experimentation,
learning from failures, improving designs, and ultimately finding the most effective solutions.

Key Elements of Engineering as Experimentation

1. Hypothesis and Design

o Engineers start by identifying a problem or a need and hypothesize possible solutions.
The solution is often a prototype or model, designed based on scientific principles,
theoretical calculations, and previous experience.
o Example: Designing a new bridge to withstand high winds. The hypothesis might involve
specific structural designs, material types, and safety features.
2. Prototyping and Testing
o Engineers create prototypes, models, or simulations to test their hypotheses. These
prototypes are used to understand how the design performs in real-world conditions.
o Example: A mechanical engineer might build a small-scale version of a product to test its
functionality under different conditions (e.g., stress, temperature, or usage).
3. Data Collection and Analysis
o As experiments are conducted, engineers collect data to analyze the performance of the
design. This data helps validate or disprove the hypotheses.
o Example: After testing the prototype of a new car engine, engineers measure
performance metrics like fuel efficiency, power output, and emissions.
4. Iteration and Improvement
o Based on the findings from the testing phase, engineers modify the design, materials, or
systems to improve performance, efficiency, or safety.
o Example: After discovering that a bridge design fails to perform well under certain wind
conditions, engineers might adjust the angle of the bridge or reinforce materials in
specific areas to enhance stability.
5. Scaling Up
o Once a prototype has been successfully tested and refined, engineers scale up the
design to create the final product or system. This might involve additional testing or
changes to make sure the design works at a larger scale.
o Example: After testing a new material for use in aerospace components, the material is
scaled up to be used in actual spacecraft parts.
6. Feedback Loops and Continuous Learning
o Engineering is often an ongoing process, and even after a product is finalized, engineers
monitor its performance and gather feedback from real-world use. This feedback can
lead to further experimentation and design improvements.
o Example: After a new software system is deployed in a company, the engineering team
continues to monitor performance and user feedback, making updates and
improvements where necessary.

Importance of Experimentation in Engineering

 Innovation: Experimentation is at the heart of technological progress. By trying new ideas and
approaches, engineers push the boundaries of what is possible.
 Risk Management: Testing prototypes helps engineers identify risks and flaws in designs before
they become costly problems in real-world applications.
  Optimization: Through iterative testing and feedback, engineers optimize designs for better
performance, lower costs, and improved functionality.
 Problem-Solving: Many engineering problems require creative solutions. Experimentation
allows engineers to test different approaches to find the most effective one.

Examples of Engineering Experimentation

1. Aerospace Engineering: Testing and refining new materials and technologies for
spacecraft or aircraft. For instance, NASA conducts numerous experiments to test the
impact of extreme temperatures and speeds on spacecraft materials before sending them
into space.
2. Civil Engineering: Experimenting with different materials for buildings and bridges,
such as testing concrete or steel structures under stress, to determine the best materials
and designs for safety and durability.
3. Software Engineering: Engineers experiment with different algorithms, coding
practices, and design patterns to develop efficient and user-friendly software solutions. A
typical process might involve A/B testing or using agile development methods to iterate
on a product's features.
4. Mechanical Engineering: Creating and testing prototypes of new mechanical devices,
such as engines or consumer products, to ensure they function as intended and meet
safety standards.

Challenges in Engineering Experimentation

 Uncertainty: Experiments often deal with variables that are difficult to control or predict, and
the outcomes might not always align with initial hypotheses.
 Resource Constraints: Prototypes and tests can be expensive and time-consuming, so engineers
must balance experimentation with practical constraints like budgets, time, and available
materials.
 Safety Considerations: In fields like aerospace or civil engineering, failure of experiments can
have serious consequences. Engineers must design experiments that prioritize safety and
minimize risk to people and the environment.

Conclusion

Engineering as experimentation involves a cycle of hypothesizing, testing, analyzing, and

iterating to solve real-world problems. It's a creative, adaptive process that allows engineers to
develop innovative solutions, learn from failures, and optimize designs for practical use.
Whether it’s creating new technologies, improving existing products, or ensuring safety and
performance, experimentation is at the heart of engineering, driving progress and continuous
improvement in various fields.
Engineers as Responsible Experimenters
Engineers as Responsible Experimenters refers to the ethical, professional, and conscientious
approach that engineers must take when conducting experiments, designing solutions, and testing
new products or systems. The role of engineers is not just to innovate and solve technical
problems, but to do so in a manner that considers the broader implications of their work on
society, safety, the environment, and future generations.

Key Responsibilities of Engineers as Responsible Experimenters

1. Ensuring Safety
Engineers have an obligation to prioritize safety in every experiment or project they
undertake. This involves considering both the immediate risks during the testing phase
and the long-term safety implications of the final product.
o Example: In aerospace engineering, before sending a spacecraft into space, engineers
conduct extensive safety testing, considering possible failures and ensuring that the
design meets all necessary safety standards to protect astronauts and equipment.
2. Adhering to Ethical Standards
Engineers must act with integrity, ensuring their work aligns with ethical standards. This
includes honesty in reporting results, acknowledging limitations, and not falsifying data.
They must also ensure that their experimentation does not cause harm to others or the
environment.
o Example: In medical device engineering, engineers must rigorously test devices (such as
pacemakers) to ensure they meet safety standards and do not compromise patient
health. Any issues uncovered during testing must be transparently reported.
3. Environmental Impact Consideration
Responsible engineers consider the environmental impact of their designs and
experiments. This involves ensuring that products are not only effective but also
sustainable, using resources efficiently and minimizing waste and pollution.
o Example: Civil engineers testing new materials for construction projects may prioritize
sustainable materials or design solutions that reduce carbon emissions and waste.
4. Risk Management and Mitigation
Every engineering experiment or product design carries some level of risk. A responsible
engineer is expected to manage these risks effectively by identifying potential hazards,
creating risk assessments, and implementing mitigation strategies.
o Example: In chemical engineering, experiments with hazardous materials must include
stringent safety protocols, such as containment measures, emergency plans, and proper
disposal methods, to mitigate risks of accidents.
5. Transparency and Accountability
Engineers must maintain transparency in their work, making their methods and results
accessible to stakeholders and the public. They should be open to scrutiny and willing to
take responsibility for the outcomes of their designs and experiments.
o Example: When testing new automotive safety technologies, engineers should be
transparent about the methodologies used to test crashworthiness and report findings
honestly, even if the results are unfavorable.
 6. Respect for Human Rights and Public Welfare
Engineers must always consider how their experiments and innovations impact the
public. This includes respecting privacy, ensuring fair access, and safeguarding the well-
being of individuals and communities affected by their work.
o Example: In software engineering, engineers need to ensure that the products they
create do not violate privacy or compromise personal data, and that users are informed
about how their data is being used.
7. Compliance with Legal and Regulatory Requirements
Engineers must ensure that all experiments, designs, and products comply with local,
national, and international laws, codes, and regulations. This helps ensure that the work is
conducted within a legal framework that promotes safety, fairness, and accountability.
o Example: Engineers working on medical devices must ensure that their products meet
the regulatory standards set by organizations like the FDA or the European Medicines
Agency before they can be marketed.
8. Collaborative Decision-Making
Engineering experiments often involve multidisciplinary teams. Engineers, as responsible
experimenters, should foster collaboration, communicate effectively with team members,
and contribute to the decision-making process to ensure all perspectives are considered.
o Example: In construction projects, engineers may work alongside architects,
environmental scientists, and urban planners to ensure that the final structure is not
only safe and functional but also respects the community’s needs and environmental
concerns.

Examples of Responsible Experimentation in Engineering

1. Nuclear Engineering

In nuclear engineering, experimentation with nuclear reactors and materials is highly sensitive.
Engineers are responsible for ensuring that safety protocols are followed strictly, that risks are
minimized, and that the design of nuclear facilities ensures the safety of the public and the
environment. Engineers must also handle waste disposal and radiation exposure responsibly,
ensuring long-term solutions to mitigate any potential harm.

 Key Responsibility: Ensuring that experimental reactors or technologies do not pose a threat to
surrounding populations and the environment.

2. Biomedical Engineering

Biomedical engineers designing new medical technologies (like implants, prosthetics, or

diagnostic devices) must rigorously test prototypes to ensure they do not harm patients. These
experiments are subject to strict ethical review, and engineers must maintain transparency about
any risks or side effects.

 Key Responsibility: Ensuring that new medical devices undergo extensive testing for safety and
effectiveness before being used in human trials or sold to the public.
3. Civil Engineering

Civil engineers designing bridges, highways, or buildings are responsible for testing materials
and designs in ways that prioritize safety and durability. They must ensure their designs can
withstand extreme weather conditions, natural disasters, and high traffic loads. The testing phase
often involves experimentation with different materials and construction methods.

 Key Responsibility: Designing structures that are safe, sustainable, and resilient to potential
disasters, while minimizing the environmental impact of construction.

4. Software Engineering

In software engineering, testing code and systems for bugs, security vulnerabilities, and
performance issues is essential. Engineers must ensure that software is both functional and
secure. They also need to consider user experience and ensure that personal data is protected
according to privacy laws.

 Key Responsibility: Ensuring that software applications are secure, user-friendly, and respect
privacy laws and regulations.

The Role of Ethical Frameworks in Responsible Experimentation

To help engineers navigate complex ethical dilemmas, several ethical frameworks can guide
their decisions:

 Utilitarianism: Engineers may use this framework to evaluate the consequences of their
decisions, aiming to maximize the overall benefit and minimize harm. In
experimentation, they would assess the risks and benefits to society, the environment, and
stakeholders.
 Deontology: From a duty-based perspective, engineers are required to uphold certain
duties, such as ensuring safety and transparency. This framework emphasizes that
engineers must act according to principles of fairness and integrity, regardless of the
consequences.
 Virtue Ethics: Engineers are encouraged to develop virtues such as responsibility,
honesty, and courage. A virtuous engineer would consider how their work reflects their
personal and professional character and how it affects others.
 Care Ethics: Engineers working in fields that impact human well-being, like biomedical
or environmental engineering, should adopt a care-based approach, emphasizing
empathy, responsibility, and the importance of nurturing relationships with the public.
Conclusion

As responsible experimenters, engineers must balance innovation with responsibility, safety,

and ethical considerations. Experimentation in engineering is not just about technical progress
but also about understanding and mitigating potential risks and impacts on people, communities,
and the environment. By adhering to ethical principles and maintaining a commitment to public
welfare, engineers can ensure that their work benefits society and contributes to the common
good.