Computer Science Revision:

Computer System:

A computer system takes a set of digital inputs, processes them and creates a set
of outputs. Done by a combination of hardware (physical part) and software. To do
this, the computer needs a set of instructions provided by the program.

Embedded System: a computer which performs one specific task. They use
firmware.

● Input device: A hardware device that allows a user to enter data into a computer
system. Can be manual or automatic.
- Manual: requires user to enter data physically (keyboard…).
- Automatic: will automatically read data and enter it into a computer. (Temp sensor can
record the temp and input it into a computer without user interaction).

- Keyboards: One of the most common methods to enter data; set of keys that when
pressed allow entry of letters, numbers and symbols used in everyday language; also
have special command and function keys that perform specific tasks. Virtual (on-screen)
keyboards are created by software rather than being a hardware device.
- Concept keyboard: a keyboard designed for a specific purpose. Each button can be
programmed to do a specific task; limited amount of data. (Mc screen).
Advantages: simple, person trained to type fast is efficient.
Disadvantages: easy to make a mistake, if person not trained they are slow.

- Mouse: Used to control/navigate a pointer or cursor on a screen and click on the items.
Newer mice have an optical laser that tracks the movement of the mouse across the
surface.
Advantage: simple, efficient.
Disadvantage: needs a flat spaced surface, if dirt gets into the roller ball or optical laser
it can stop the mouse from working.

- Scanners:
2D scanner- used to scan a physical document, from a flat surface. They then can
convert these into digital format to be used on a computer. A scanner works by shining
light into the surface of the document, moves across the document and the reflected
light is captured onto a light sensitive device using mirrors and lenses, then converted
into a digital signal. OCR (optical character recognition), is used to turn scanned text
into a text file. OMR (optical mark recognition), captures human-marked data from a
document, such as surveys and tests.
 3D scanner- used to produce a 3D model. Can scan 3D objects using a laser or
a light source. Measures and inputs the geometry of an object into a computer system.
Model can then be a digital model or used in conjunction with a 3D printer. 3D scanners
are now used as a security measure in airports.
Biometric devices- used to identify people. Then scan biological features (retina,
fingerprint, face…) and store then in a computer system. When scanned, they will look
for a match in the computer.

Barcodes- Created to help in the retail trade. Barcode reader is an input device with
software that converts data pre-coded into a barcode. This then translates the barcode
into a number. When scanned it’s illuminated with a red light (illuminator), a
sensor inside the reading device detects the light and reflects it back to a
light detecting component that generates a pattern that is then translated
into a number. The black and white lines reflect light differently and that is
how the scanner is able to identify different digits and therefore translate
them. The CPU then interprets this data.
Advantages: efficient, useful to keep a record of stock levels for a product, no longer
need to trust staff to remember key prices, more accurate and reliable receipts, prices
can change without changing the barcode.
Disadvantages: if damaged, not printed clearly or rubbed away, it may not be scanned
properly. If the data has not been recorded into a computer system, it will not be able to
find it.

QR codes- It is believed to have been invented by Denso Wave (part of Toyota) in 1994
to track parts of manufacturing vehicles. Each black and white square is called a
molecule. The large squares in the corners tell the qr reader where the corners of the
square are. QR codes store information vertically and horizontally. Their ability to store
data makes it useful for creating links and storing things. To read= qr code reader
(smartphone cameras…) When read we are directed to a website or a message could
be displayed. They have an error correction method (Reed Solomon method) this
means it can normally still be read in some modules are covered up.

- Digital Camera: Steven Sasson, creator of first digital camera 1975. These cameras
encode (convert data to a particular form) images and videos and stores (built in
memory or SD card) them for viewing and later use. They capture an image via a
sensor (CCD: charge-coupled device) and stored. The higher the number of pixels
allowed, the higher the quality.

- Touch screen: is an interactive device that contains an LCD (liquid crystal play) with
touch-sensitive detectors. Sensors recognise the simple touches, screen determines
where touched, the application utilising it translates the input into an action. Without
 touch screens some devices might not exist or may be much larger. They can
be imprecise because our finger isn't as small as a pinpoint.
Capacitive- uses natural electrical signals from our body to detect when we are touching
the screen (cannot detect with gloves).
Resistive- has multiple layers with space in between that when light pressure is applied,
the layers touch and the device recognises that we are touching the screen.
Infrared: is in a heat-sensitive system. In an optical system, it uses an array of sensors
like a grid on the screen where touch is categorized into the coordinates of the sensors
on the grid. There is multi-touch and allows touch from gloved fingers. Has good
durability, but expensive. Heat-sensitive doesn’t allow for gloved fingers to touch, and
the visibility in sunlight is mediocre.

- Interactive whiteboard: acts as a virtual whiteboard (similar to a touch screen) , but is

only a input device connected to a computer via a USB. The computer display is
projected onto the board, the board is calibrated to line up with the image and then
works like a touch screen. They come with a special software that can be used like a
real whiteboard and allows different actions to be carried out.

- Microphone: analogue input device that records sound. This sound wave must be
converted into digital before the computer to process it (ADC: analogue to digital
convertor). The computer then saves the sound in a file for later use. Can also transmit
into another computer (eg: video conferencing).
Advantages: allow speech recognition systems, disabled users can use this for
commands.
Disadvantages: sound might not be accurately recorded or understood, these have to
be trained properly before use.

● Output device: First output device from computers were cards with holes punched into
them (pattern represented data). Now:
- Soft copies (from displays): data and information that is virtual.
- Hard copies: data and information that is physical.

- Displays:
An electronic device that outputs information via a screen or projection (text, images,
video). Most modern computers contain a built-in screen. An external display (eg:
desktop pc), is referred as a monitor. Built up of thousands of tiny illuminated pixels,
quality of image depends on resolution(N of pixels) of display. Small number of pixels=
low resolution, large number of pixels= high resolution.

Monochrome- two colours, one foreground and one background, black and white.
 Colour images- images combining 3 primary colours (RGB), different mixtures
make different shades and colours.
Colour depth is represented in a series of bits. Greater the bits, the greater the colour
depth and closer to a particular shade.

- CRT displays: Cathode Ray Tubes, very old style display which uses the fluorescent
blue tube and it projects the electrons to the screen at a time, projections are
responsible for creating the images on the screen. These displays contain the refresh
rate which is that how fast the electrons can actually get sprayed on the screen and how
fast the image can be changed and produced.

- Flat panel displays: panel displays are thin in depth and are fairly lightweight. Flat panel
displays are ideal for use in devices where size and energy use are important, such as
laptops, mobile phones and digital cameras.
They have a high resolution , bright , flicker free image , low energy requirements.
Easily damaged if dropped , can suffer from dead pixels that will spoil the display.

LCD displays: Liquid Crystal Display. Very common type of the display that one
can find anywhere. This contains liquid crystals and these displays don’t contain
tubes. Instead, there is a back light that always keeps the liquid crystal display on.
The power is given to a transistor which then repolarizes light and shines light
behind the pixels. If the crystal is transparent, the pixels are illuminated; when crystal is
solid the pixels remain dark. To create colours different amounts of RGB pixels are
shown.

LED: Light Emitting Diode. More advanced version of LCD, works the same way except
the pixels are backlit with LEDs, produce brighter displays.

TFT: Thin Film Transistor. A type of LCD flat-panel display screen, in which each pixel
is controlled by from one to four transistors.

OLED: Organic Light Emitting Diode. This is another type of LED display. Contains a
different light layer made up of a film of organic compound that emits light in response
to an electric current. These are brighter, lighter, thinner, more flexible, have large fields
of view and consume less power. Do not require backlighting.

- Digital projectors: a display connected to a computer used to protect digital video output
onto a flat area such as a wall, projector screen or interactive whiteboard. Used when
outputs need to be shown on a large scale. The further away form the flate are, the
larger the image.
 LCD: Liquid Crystal Display. Contains three separate LCD glass panels (RGB). Light
pass through the panels, individual pixels are opened, to allow light to pass; or closed,
to block light. These are useful when contrast and brightness is important.

DLP: Digital light processor. Uses millions of tiny mirrors to reflect light towards the
projector lens. Creates image with excellent colour production. As they have fewer
internal components, they are smaller, more portable.

- Printers: produce hard copies of information. Base colours of a printer are Cyan,
Magenta,Yellow and K black, (CMYK). Mixing these colours you get other colours and
different tones. RGB are darker, so when something is printed out, the CMYK looks
lighter and different to a display. Produce by printing tiny dots (dots/inch), the more the
higher the resolution.

Inkjet printers: uses ink to print information. They use a mixture of cyan, magenta ,
yellow and key (black).
Slow, image quality can be poor and difficult to print on both sides of paper.
Cheaper than other printers , if photographic paper excellent quality.

3D printers: print solid objects. They are not designed for mass production of objects ,
but more for creating individual items. First needs to be drawn either by CAD (computer-
aided design) application, or a 3D scanner. This is split into lots of horizontal layers and
are printed one by one from the bottom to the top (polymers, acrylic, plastic).
Dangerous items may be printed , expensive
Any shape can be printed, designs can easily be shared.

Laser printers: Produce high quality hard copy outputs (paper), use toner pressed on a
page, print large amounts very quick, use a buffer memory which stores information
before being printed out. Use a laser beam to draw (leaves positive electric charge on
drum where it drew), a powder (toner) is sprayed onto the drum and sticks to the parts
that contain the positive electric charge, this is then pressed onto paper, heated (fused)
so that the toner stays on.
Expensive, on photographic paper is not as good, have a large footprint.
Quick, really good quality, cheap to run cuz toner cartridges last longer, suitable for
duplex printing.

- CAD: Computer Aided Design is a software that allows a user to design and create an
image of an object. Controls and monitors the machine tools to make sure the product is
done correctly.
 - CNC: Computer Numerical Control is the method of control used by CAM. The
numbers used for information in machines. Once its been programed and controlled
using CNC, many items can be manufactured.

- CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing is a process where computers and machinery

perform together to make products. CAM utilises CAD software and 2D/3D cutters.
Works by issuing a series of numbers to the machine tools to control it, the numbers are
information the machine needs.
Training is required, expensive to produce.
Higher precision than by hand, high quality.
2D CAM machines: Blade cutters cut and trim materials often used to create signs and
advertising. Cheap, noisy. Laser cutters use a laser to cut and etch into materials.
Usually used for industrial manufacturing. Laser enables precise shapes to be cut out of
sheets or blocks. Quick, accurate and quiet. Water jet cutters using a high pressured jet
of water. Can cut a material without spoiling them .
3D Cutters: Normally used for cutting wood, MDF, wax, plastics and acrylics. Used to
test and modify prototype designs. Reduce errors, saves money and time.

- Speakers and headphones: Speaker outputs sound, the digital sound file needs to be
converted to analogue via DAC (Digital-to-analogue convertor), usually in form of a
sound card. Speaker translates this signal into a sound wave by vibrating.
Variety of info provided to the user, aid a disabled user when operating, useful to warn
large amount of people at once.
Often give low quality sound reproduction, may disturb, a sound card DAC is needed for
speaker to output info.

- Actuators: is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and controlling a

mechanism or system. Can rotate, open, close, push and pull an object. Applied by a
use of energy converted into motion. (Controlling a robotic arm, spinning a fan, pumping
water).

● Sensors: Another type of input device, records data in a continuous loop about physical
environment around it, outputted in form signal for computer to process. All the types
trigger an actuator connected to the sensor to act upon the information recorded.

- Light sensors: is a device that detects light. Can detect the ambient light (brightness or
darkness at the current time), security systems (light beams), street lights, mobile
phones (adapt brightness to the ambient light around), QR code scanners, barcode
 readers, robots (how they see to navigate around a room; when light bounces
back and object is close)...

- Temperature sensors: device that measures heat generated by an object or system.

Contact (physical contact) or noncontact (measures the energy transmitted/radiated
from an object). Used to regulate and adapt temperature in most modern things like
fridges. A thermostat is a device that keeps temp constant. Infrared sensor detect
infrared radiation from an object/person. Used in TVs (remote control send infrared
waves to tv), in cameras (to detect through objects or in dark places)...

- Motion sensors: detects movement. Used in security systems (by heat or microwaves
that bounce of objects and detect change in the usual pattern), businesses/households
(detect when person walks in room to turn on lights and when they leave to turn them
off), doors, games (using an accelerometer- device that detect rotation and tilt)...

- Magnetic field sensors: detect changes in magnetic fields. Measure strength and
direction and respond to the changes. Used in phones (to detect where N S E W are).

- Gas sensors: detects the presence of a gas in a certain area. Often used to detect
carbon monoxide in homes, to detect fires, toxic gases…

- Pressure sensors: measures pressure of liquid or gas.

- Moisture and humidity sensors: measures amount of moisture in a material and

humidity in air + temp. Often used in farms for crops…

- pH sensors: measures how acidic or alkaline a material is.

● Storage Media:

- Primary Storage: is a computer's internal storage. Where data is held for processing.
Capacity is quite small.
RAM (Random Access Memory): primary storage that temporarily holds running
programs and data for processing, data is erased when no longer needed/power
switched off (Volatile). Amount of RAM built depends on the type of computer, its
purpose and can be expanded often to increase storage. (Embedded computers have
one purpose so they don’t have much RAM storage; GenEral purpose computers are
used for many applications so they need a few gigabytes of RAM).
Once you write something to read from it can be erased, holds data for processing, can
change its capacity.
It loses its contents when power is switched off (volatile).
 ROM (Read Only Memory): primary storage that can be read from but not
written to. ROM is non-volatile, meaning it keeps its contents when power is switched
off. Embedded computers use ROM to hold the software that’s running.
It retains its contents when the power is switched off (non-volatile), holds firmware and
bootstraps.
Once written, it can be read from but not erased, smaller capacity.

- Secondary storage: Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a long-
term basis. It’s internal to the computer/ device, it’s not directly accessed by the CPU
and it’s non-volatile. Common secondary storage devices are the hard disk and optical
disks.
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Solid State Drive (SSD)

Magnetic Storage: uses electromagnets and magnetic fields to read, write

and erase data. Either tape or disk based. is one of the most affordable ways
to store large amounts of data and has been implemented using magnetic
tape, floppy disks and hard disk drives. Read, write and erase data by using
electromagnets and magnetic field to control tiny magnetic dots data. The
dots represent binary. A small hard drive typically has only one platter.
Bigger drives have a series of platters stacked on a central spindle, with a
small gap in between them.

Optical Storage: shine a laser beam onto a disk with a reflective surface, data is stored
in form of indentations (pits), raised areas (land). These devices generally have less
capacity and slower data transfer rates than magnetic. Have disks that are coated with
aluminium to make them reflective, reflective surface is covered in one large track that
spirals outwards from the centre, data is written on the track by using a laser to make
indentations known as pits. These pits represent binary data. The areas in between pits
are known as land. As a pit reflects light back differently from land, the optical device is
able to differentiate between binary 1s and 0s.
Pits: an indentation on the surface of an optical disk, used to represent data.
Land: The raised surface between pits and optical disk.
Compact Disk (CD): an early but still used ,optical medium.
Digital versatile disk (DVD): a later, higher capacity optical medium.
Blue-ray disk: a modern, extremely high capacity optical medium.

- Solid State Storage (SSS): have no moving parts, use electronic switches that
substitute for binary (on=1, off=0), use high speed flash memory to store data, are
fast at transferring data (<230 megabytes/sec), have smaller capacity and are more
expensive, useful as portable storage device. USB, RAM Sticks, SSS hard drives,
SD cards.

- Offline Storage: is a non-volatile storage device that is disconnected or removed from a

computer. CD, Blu-ray disks, USB, RAM sticks, external hard drives and magnetic tape.
 - Calculating Storage Requirement:
8 bits = 1 byte or 1B
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (1KB)
1024 kilobytes = 1 megabyte (1MB)
1024 megabytes = 1 gigabyte (1GB)
1024 gigabytes = 1 terabyte (1TB)

Black and white pixels (1 bit/pixel)

Pixels in an 8-bit colour image (1 byte/pixel)
Characters in an ASCII text string (1 byte/character)
Sound in a wave file (86 kilobytes/sec)
Uncompressed frame of standard definition TV (27 megabytes/frame)
Uncompressed frame of high definition TV (182 megabytes/frame).

- Choose an appropriate storage:

Capacity- amount of data that can be stored.
Speed- rate which data can be transferred from one place to another.
Portability- how easily it can be transported.
Durability- how resistant the medium is to damage, tear and pressure.
Cost- how expensive the medium is (cost/MB or cost/GB).

● Data Representation:
 - Binary numbers: Computers cannot process analogue data (stream of data that our
human senses respond to), only digital data. We use denary (base 10), computers use
binary number system (base 2 w/ 0 & 1).

32768(^15) 16384(^14) 8192(^13) 4096(^12) 2048(^11) 1024(^10) 512(^9) 256(^8) 128(^7) 64(^6) 32(^5) 16(^4) 8(^3) 4(^2) 2(^1) 1(^0)
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1

32768 + 4096 + 2048 + 256 + 128 + 16 + 8 + 1 = 39321

- Adding binary:

- Hexadecimal numbers: Denary uses base 10 because they use ten symbols and
binary use base 2 because they use two symbols, so hexadecimal uses base 16
which uses 16 symbols. This is more readable to humans than binary, used in
computing because its a shorter way to represent a byte. A byte of data in binary
requires 8 digits (bits), in hexadecimal it only requires 2.
Uses: HTML colour codes, error messages, MAC & IP addresses, locations in
memory, memory dump.
- Data Storage:
Characters (Text, number and symbols)- ASCII (8 bits) 256 characters and suitable for
standard English, but not enough for other character set for other languages. Unicode
(16 bits) 65536 characters. All represented as binary.

Pictures- Pixels, if simply black or white in binary Black (1) and White (0). To use a
series of binary in a grid we need to know the dimensions (metadata), tells computer
how many pixels wide and high an image should be (resolution). Colours RGB (bytes),
become larger files to get the correct colour depth and have a detailed image.

Sound- Recorded at set times intervals (sampling), converted into binary, if these
samples (hertz) are closer together its higher quality, with more samples more can be
accurately captured, more info. 1 hertz/sec. Telephone communication (8000 Hz), CD
(44100 Hz).

Data compression- When the bit structure of a file is manipulated into becoming a
smaller size, less storage needed and transmission is easier, compressed using
algorithms (step by step instructions), that remove repeated data temporarily or
permanently.
- Lossy Compression:
A form of compression that reduces digital file sizes by removing data. With lossy
compression, data that is unnecessary is removed in the compression process
permanently. Mostly used in audio, video and image files.
- Lossless Compression:
Lossless compression reduces a file's size with no loss of quality, less effective
at reducing file sizes than lossy, files can also be restored to their uncompressed
quality. This is done by using patterns.

File formats- method chosen to store data into a computer. Text, data, audio, video,
image or other.

● Von Neumann Architecture:

- History: in the 1940s, computers could only do one specific task and had to be rewired
to do another (fixed program machines). In 1945, John von Neumann (mathematician)
realised that it was possible to build a computer which could switch between programs
 without the need to rewire it. This idea was the ‘stored program computer’ or
the ‘Von Neumann architecture.’ Not an actual computer.

- Architecture: This idea, the program instructions and data are stored in the Random
Access Memory (RAM), with this, the CPU can change task by load a different program
into the computer memory without rewiring it.

- Features: needs to have enough space for both programs and data to be loaded; CPU
needed to process the program instructions; these are carried on by buses; there is an
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), responsible for carrying out the calculations and logic
comparisons; there are registers in the CPU that are a type of memory; there are ways
to input and output data into a computer. The control unit decides the appropriate
signal to other parts of a computer.

- Registers: type of internal fast temporary memory that holds data and instructions
during processing. As the CPU processes data the software shifts the next data or
instructions in and out of these.

Memory Address Register (MAR): holds the the location of the data that the CPU wants
to read.
Memory Data Register (MDR): used to store data/ instructions coming or going to the
memory.
Program Counter (PC): used to store the address of the next instruction to be fetched
for execution. When the instruction is fetched, the value of IP is increased.
Instruction Register (IR): Once instruction is fetched from main memory, it’s stored in
the IR. The control unit takes instruction from this register, decodes and executes it.
Accumulator Register: located inside the ALU. Control unit stores data values fetched
from main memory in the accumulator for arithmetic or logical operation. This register
holds the initial data to be operated, and the final result is transferred to main memory
through MBR.
- Fetching, Decoding and Executing (F-D-E) Cycle:
Fetch → During the first stage the value of the program counter is copied into
the Memory Address Register (MAR). Once the MAR is loaded, the Control
Unit loads the address on to the address bus and also sends a signal to main
memory to read the instruction contained at that address. Now the
instruction is passed across the data bus and copied into the Memory Data
Register. Then the instruction in the MDR is copied into the Instruction
Register so that it is ready to use during the next stage (decode). The
program counter’s value changes so it’s ready to begin the next ‘fetch’
operation. The CPU fetches the information/ instructions and stores them in
its own internal temporary storage (IAS-immediate access control), uses the
address bus and moves it from main memory; registers are then used for
specific tasks.
Decode → In the 'decode' stage, the control unit reads the Instruction Register and
makes sure that it is an instruction that the CPU can carry out i.e. it is in its instruction
set. If it is, then various parts of the CPU are prepared for the next stage, which is the
'Execute' stage. Now the CPU needs to understand the instruction, and uses the
‘Instruction Register’ for this. This is the decoding stage.
Executing → After, the CPU executes the instruction and if any arithmetic
calculations need, they are executed in the ALU, this is then moved by the
MAR by an address bus back to the RAM.

● Operating Systems:

- An operating system is a program that controls and manages the hardware and
software of a computer. They perform basic tasks (recognising inputs and outputs,
keeping track of files, controlling other devices…)
They all: Control hardware of computer, manage software, provide security and a user
interface.
 Before they developed to have GUI, they had a Command Line Interface
(CLI), which is a text base representation in which the user types commands to operate
the software or devices.
Modern OS use GUI (Graphical User Interface), which are a visual representation in
which the users can interact with software or devices through graphical icons. Eg:
Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS, Android, IOS…

- Kernel: is a collection of software services. Loading / Unloading applications from

memory, Scheduling tasks to run efficiently on the CPU, Memory management, File
storage to and from secondary storage devices such as the hard disk, File
management, Data security…

- Interrupts: is a signal received will inform a software that something has happened; from
a device connected to the computer or a program within. Causes a computer to stop
and work out what to do next. When detected, the OS will continue running or begin
running a new program. It can only run one at a time but can multitask (will take turns).
The OS contains an interrupt handler which prioritise signals and places them in the
queue.

- interface: provides a user interface so it is easy to interact with the computer

- manages the CPU: runs applications and executes and cancels processes
- Multi-tasks: allows multiple applications to run at the same time
- manages memory: transfers programs into and out of memory, allocates free space
between programs, and keeps track of memory usage
- manages peripherals: opens, closes and writes to peripheral devices such as storage
attached to the computer
- organises: creates a file system to organise files and directories
- security: provides security through user accounts and passwords
- utilities: provides tools for managing and organising hardware.
● Languages:
- High level language: developed in the 1950s and are very similar to the language
humans understand, they need to be run by a compiler (whole source code in one go)
that produces an executable file/ text file, or interpreter (one line at a time) to be turned
into machine code and processed by a computer.
Why use?: closer to human language (easier to understand), quicker to read/write, less
likely to make errors, one line of code can carry out multiple commands.
Eg: BASIC, C, C++, C#, Pascal, Java and Python.
Compiler: all in one go, creates an executable file, creates a list of errors, optimises the
source code to run efficiently.
Interpreter: one line at a time, machine code is directly executed, will identify an error as
soon as it finds it.
 - Low level language: a computer's native language, can be run easily without a
translator. (Machine code). Each line will perform one task. Device drivers (software
that controls a particular type of hardware attached to a computer) for hardware
(graphics card, printer…) use LLL and need a download for the driver that enable it to
communicate with the computer.
Eg: machine code and assembly language.
- Machine code: LLL, computers can only process this (binary).
- Assembly language: LLL, that uses mnemonic code to create programs. Uses software
called assembler to convert to machine code. Will take basic instructions (mnemonics).
ADD, SUB, INP, OUT…
- Instruction set: complete set of commands and instructions available for each CPU.
- Syntax: structure of language in a program.
- IDE: Integrated Development environment, provides a set of tools needed for
programming. (Project manager, code editor, translator, debugger):

● Data transmission:
Occurs either wirelessly by radio waves or over cable, transmitted as a stream of bits.
The bit rate is the number of bits that can be transmitted in a given period of time (bps).

- Serial transmission: uses a single wire to transfer the data bits,

one bit at a time with a set time interval between sending each
bit, commonly used over long distances, cheaper, safer but
slower transmission as it is easier to accurately collect the bits
together one at a time, has a lower interface and won't be
skewed. (USB)

- Parallel transmission: uses several wires to transfer the data

bits at the same time, it’s quicker, but its limited to shorter
distances and is more expensive, it’s less safe as they are
sent simultaneously and errors can occur in collecting them
together at the receiver’s side. (Printer connection to a
computer).

- Interference: disturbances that can occur in the signals when sending data that may
corrupt it.

- Asynchronous transmission: data is sent in groups in an agreed bit pattern, starts with a
start bit and ends with a stop bit, controlled bits are used to separate groups of data at
the receiver end. (USB).
 - Synchronised transmission: data is transmitted in s string of bits, contains
timing signals generated by an internal clock, sender and receiver are synchronised
with each others timing signals, receiver counts the number of bits received and turns
them into bytes, faster than asynchronous transmission. (Network communications).

- Simplex transmission: data is sent in one direction only. (TV broadcast, mouse).
- Duplex transmission: data is sent both directions at the same time. (Telephone
conversations).
- Half duplex: data is sent both directions but only one at a time. (Walkie talkies).

- Error detection and correction: errors can occur when transmitting data, so there are
methods to try and avoid them.
Checksum- simple method. Number of bits transmitted is counted up and transmitted,
the receiver can see if the same number of bits arrived.
Echo check: for data transferred over a computer network or other communications link,
data received is stored and transmitted back to its point of origin, where compared with
the original data.
Parity check- uses a parity bit to make sure the data has been sent accurately, sent in
bytes. In this check, the first 7 bits of the byte are the information and the last bit is the
parity check. Uses odd or even parity, all the bits are added together and depending if
they’re odd or even a 1 or a 0 is used.
Check digits- uses identification numbers such as barcodes, ISBNs and bank account
numbers, used to detect human error. Calculation is performed, the computer will
perform the same calculation and compare the two numbers.
Automatic repeat request- is a set of rules, when the device detects that there is an
error with a packet after performing checks on the perceived data, it automatically sends
a request to resend the packet. This will be sent repeatedly until the packet is received
error free or a limited amount of resend requests are reached. Uses acknowledgement
and time out.

- Security Aspects: these are various security issues that can be encountered when using
the internet.

Malware: is a software program that is designed to damage or disrupt a computer.

Viruses- is a software program that is designed to corrupt a computer and the files on it,
it’s downloaded on to the computer without the user’s knowledge or permission, they
replicate themselves over and over until it brings your computer system to a halt.
(Sharing files and attachments on emails). First known virus was called the Creeper
virus
.
 Spyware- is a software program that collects user information through their
internet connection, normally to be sold on for marketing purposes, can gather info on
passwords, bank details, credit card details…, used to steal a user's identity. Often
downloaded from untrustworthy webs, hides itself inside the data and infects the
computer without the users knowledge, reduces the users bandwidth available.

Pharming- a malicious code installed on the hard drive of a user’s computer or on a web
server; this code will redirect the user to a fake website without the user’s knowledge.

Phishing- creator of code sends out a legitimate-looking email in the hope of gathering
personal and financial information from the recipient; requires the user to click on the
link in the email or attachment.

Ransomware- encrypts critical files and data and demands a payment to unlock them.

Scareware- prompts the user with a problem and creates a solution that involves
downloading more malware.

Worm- massively copies itself, using up system resources.

Trojan- disguises itself as legitimate software.

Adware- forces a browser to display unwanted advertisements.

Rootkit- alters permissions and access levels on a user’s device.

Hacking: is someone who tries to gain unlawful access to a computer or a network by

writing a program that will do this, they look at weaknesses of a network or computer
system and use it as a way to enter. White hat hacker exposes security issues in a
network or system,not for unlawful reasons (to help improve the security of a firm); black
hat hacker gains access unlawfully.

Protecting against risks:

Antivirus: detects a virus attack and remove it any that it finds, new viruses are
constantly being developed so the antivirus software releases an update every now and
then, can also remove malware and spyware, they cannot prevent attack happening.

Firewalls: is a system that protects unauthorised access to or from a computer or

network, monitor transmissions coming and going, hardware firewalls are more
expensive than software firewall but are stronger than a software which can be disabled
 by a virus, uses a set of rules to determine whether the device is allowed to do
something. Messages sent and received are called trafic (come is unauthorised-
spyware, DoS, malware, email), security technology that monitors incoming and
outgoing traffic, provides a protective barrier, they work through the use of rules (certain
programs are allowed, access to places can be blocked), if it meets the rules traffic is
forwarded, if not it’s blocked.

- Principles of operation:
Internet service provider: global wide area network (WAN) of interconnected computers
and devices, to access the internet we need and IPS (Internet Service Provider), this is
a company that provides access to the internet. When a modem (hardware device that
transmits from computer to computer over tel wires), these wires are cheap but very
slow, ppl in businesses use dial-up connections as they may not have the cabling in
place broadband. These connections sometimes use different cabling such as fibre
optic cables. (Quicker speed). ISPs have terms of service that a customer needs to
agree on and follow when using the internet, will often allow a customer to personalize
access to the internet, such as setting a filter to prevent access to any underage webs.
Internet browser: a website consists of one or more pages of information that can be
accessed by other computers on the internet, browser is a program used to access the
World Wide Web that displays the html files, content is presented as texts, images,
videos… To access a website, user inputs the address into the browser, URL (Uniform
Resource Locator), this is then translated into a unique internet address that hosts the
web browser accesses the website and download the content and also allows the user
to navigate to different webpages on the website via hyperlinks.

Web server: a computer hosts a website known a web server, stores each page of the
website with its content, retrieving the information is known as downloading, sending
information is known as uploading, accessing one is known as a request, they handle
many requests simultaneously, requests are downloaded as packets ( unit of data sent
across a network), also used to manage facilities such as data storage, many
organisations use a local network area making them private, if many requests are sent
the web can crash (eg: when tickets come out), or can be forced offline is a DDOS
attack happens (when hackers flooding the web with lots of requests).

Internet protocols:
Hypertext transfer protocol:
(Protocol- an agreed format or set of rules to transmit data) (http) is the core protocol
that governs transmission of data via the internet. TCP (transmission control protocol),
handles the transfer of the data and checks to ensure the transmission is error free. A
secure version of http is https, but slower and usually used in financial transactions. If a
 web server uses https it means they’re using a SSL/TLS and that the data sent
to and from the web server is encrypted.
Ethernet: a system for connecting multiple computer systems to form a local area
network, with protocols to control the passing of data and avoid simultaneous
transmission by two or more systems.

Markup language:
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) document consists of the content to be displayed
and instructions on how content is to be formatted, structure, displayed and read by the
browser (not displayed by it). The structure and presentation are defined using (markup)
tags (</>)({}) and they dictate the appearance of the web. Structure is used for layout,
presentation is used for formatting.
Hypertext is text that conveys information and link to it, within this the hyperlink is the
URL to this information.

Cascading style sheets:

(CSS), in websites it's usually preferable to separate structure and
content from presentation, styling markup instructions are placed in a
separate document as html and later linked together.

Internet addresses:
IP (internet protocol) address: internet and networks use the TCP
(transmission control protocol), for communication, every device
needs an address so other devices and TCP can reach it and know
where to send the information. Consists of a 32 bit code, broken
down into 4 groups of 3 digits (0-225). Number of devices grown=
less IP addresses available, new addressing has been launched
(IPv6), 128 bit code. Static IP addresses are fixed, even when the device is offline.
Dynamic IP address the device had the address for a limited period of time, then they
are reassigned a new address or same one, when offline the IP address might have
been taken by another device.

Uniform resource locator: (URL) website address, made up of the access protocol (http
and https), when types it’s then translated into a 32 bit IP address.
URL has 3 parts:
- Protocol (https://)
- Domain (www.something)
- Filename (/index.htm)
 MAC address: each device also has another address called the MAC address
(media access control), identifies each device, assigned by the manufacturer not the
network like IP addresses, cannot be changed, 6 pairs of 2 digit hexadecimal numbers,
which are translated into 48 bit binary.

Cookies: tiny pieces of data that are downloaded when it visits a website, stored in a
computers browser and accessed by the website whenever visited by the client, help
keep track of whether a user is logged in to secure webs, others store dynamic data
(items added to a shopping cart), others tack users internet surfing, adapt online adverts
to match users interests, others used to store login info and personal details. Then can
be removed or declined by a user.

● Security:

- Security, prevention against accidental data loss or change: human error, theft, physical
causes, power failure, hardware failure, misplacing portable media.

Backups: is a copy of the data being used in case data is lost, the main data is copied
onto a separate storage medium and kept separate from the main system, this can be
transferred back to the computer system, must be updated regularly (bank= number of
financial transactions, patients records, student teacher records each day, home user
files.
Magnetic media- external hard disk, magnetic tape.
Optical media- CDs, DVDs, Blue-ray disks.
Cloud storage- smartphone manufacturers provide online backup facilities,
automatically.

Verification: is a check that asks the user to confirm whether or not they want to go
ahead with something, question in a dialogue box, user responds with confirmation or
cancellation (save a file with a name that already exists, copying older version of file into
file with a newer version, deleting a record or amending data in a database), forces the
user to stop and think, not foolproof.

- Unauthorised access to computer systems and data: protecting data from unauthorised
users, accessed locally (user has physical access to the computer system and its data),
or online (user is able to access the computer system and data via a network or the
Internet). Unauthorised attempts (attacks) are because of malware, phishing, pharming
and DoS (denial of service attacks).

Malware: software is designed to disrupt or modify a computer system and its data,
installed without the users knowledge, causes damage or inconvenience.
 Viruses, worms, trojan horses and spyware.

Phishing: creator of code sends out a legitimate-looking email in the hope of gathering
personal and financial information from the recipient; requires the user to click on the
link in the email or attachment and enter information or download something.

Pharming: malicious code installed on the hard drive of a user’s computer or on a web
server; this code will redirect the user to a fake website without the user’s knowledge,
directs them to another IP address.

Denial of Service attacks (DoS): deny service, not designed to gain access to data, but
to prevent access to data, webs and networks are accessed by servers (computer
which handles requests), can only handle one request at a time, when large number
they are placed in a queue, if bit it takes longer. Usually attacks that come from one
computer, another attack is when two computers attack a server at the same time DDoS
(distributed denial of service attack), infected with malware to continually send requests
to a server.

- Security and protection against attacks: to keep safe computers use physical security,
authentification, anti-virus software, firewalls, proxy servers, protocols and encryption.

Physical security: is a security which prevents physical/local access to a computer,

cannot help recover information.
Locks- kept in a locked room, organisations that hold sensitive and private data keep
their computer systems, data and backups here, only authorised users can access.
CCTV- cameras can be used to monitor who accesses a system, they’ll be seen.
Security guards- data is especially sensitive, guards often employed as an extra level of
security to help stop those users who don’t have permission.

Authentication: is the security which prevents access to a computer even if the user has
physical access, can gain access locally or remotely (over internet), user ID and
password protection, correct combination allows access. Strong password: eight
characters +, doesn’t have real name or ID or organisation name, not contain complete
word, mixture of characters from the keyboard. Used to log in, confirm banking
transactions, gain access to a wireless network, login to online services and access
emails.

Biometrics: as human has individual physical characteristics, they provide a unique way
to identify a user to a computer system (this is called ‘biometrics’), have been
introduced as an alternative means of authentication, they use scanners or sensors to
record input that is then converted from analogue to digital (using an ADC), sent to the
 CPU which then compares the new recorded data to the data previously stored
in the database. If they match, the user is allowed access; if not, the user will be denied
access and notify security.
Fingerprint scanners need the finger against a scanner and an image of their
fingerprint is taken, computer compares series of ridges and bumps recorded with an
image previously taken, only granted access if the image matches, fairly cheap, reliable
means, but unsuitable for children as a child fingerprint alters as they grow.
Voice recognition software requires the user to speak a phrase known to the
computer into a microphone, access granted if phrase and voice pattern match. Fairly
reliable technology, but suffers in noisy environments where it’s difficult to hear the
voice amongst the background noises, might fail is user is sick.
Facial recognition, uses a camera to take an image of the user’s face, notes the size
and shape of facial features (eyes, nose and cheekbones + distances between them),
access granted if the pattern matches stored match, is reliable, but can fail if poor
lighting causes facial recognition to be incorrectly measured, additional changes can
affect it.
Iris scanners, require user to place their eye to a scanner, records high resolution and
detailed image of the iris pattern and access granted if image pattern matches, is highly
reliable but expensive to implement, can be uncomfortable.

Proxy servers: directs traffic away from the network server to an intermediary server,
when request comes from the internet they examine the request, if it’s valid the
corresponding data is retrieved from the network server and transmitted to the
requesting computer.
- As a result, attack only hits the proxy server and not the network server, can
contain copies of data:
- If data is lost, corrupted or changed the original data is still safe and secure,
- An external computer can only access the proxy server, not the sensitive data
held on the network server,
- Can held requests and transfer data so the network is free to handle requests of
own network, speeding up the internal access times,
- Can hold copies of frequently visited web, speeds up access to the pages as
they don’t have to be downloaded again.
- Used to prevent users on a network from accessing external webs (accessing
unsuitable material),
- An organisation that receives large amounts of requests use them to spread the
load, speeds up response time.

Encryption: a way of modifying data to make it difficult to understand if intercepted, does

not prevent data from being accessed, it prevents it from being understood by
unauthorised user. Works by using a key (info that describes how message is encrypted
 or decrypted), famous way to encrypt is the Caesar cipher, it works by changing
the letters of the alphabet by another, number of positions is the offset, to decrypt the
process is reversed, modern use complicated algorithms (set of rules).
Keys are created from numbers generated using binary digits, can be asymmetric (two
keys that work as a pair) or symmetric (same key used to decrypt).

Protocol: are a set of rules that handle communication between electronic devices.
- HTTP- governs communications across the internet.
- HTTPS- secure version often used for financial transactions.
- FTP (file transfer protocol)- governs transfer of files across the internet.
- SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol)- handles email communication. Sends
emails to the email server.
- POP (Post office protocol)- used by users to get emails from the mail server.
- IMAP (Internet message access protocol)- similar to POP, but offers more
complex commands to manage emails on the server itself.
- TCP/IP (transfer control protocol/ internet protocol)- handles communications on
a network.
- VoIP (Voice over internet protocol)- handles audio/visual communication.
- Secure Socket Layer (SSL)- allows secure links between computers, used
asymmetric encryption, often used for online credit transactions, sensitive info
exchanged online, transfer of files over HTTP and FTP, web based email,
connection between email clients and servers, cloud-base storage systems,
intranets and extranets, virtual private network.
- Transport layer security (TLS)- more recent version of SSL, works the same but
is more secure.

- 4 Layer model: a conceptual model made to understand how different protocols interact.
Doesn't actually exist. Each layer has a function to perform and is given a number and a
name. Protocols in each layer can only communicate with the layers directly above or
below it.
- Advantages: Focus on one area in particular, useful for manufacturers to
ensure it is compatible with existing protocols, can map how layers interact with
each other, can recognise roughly what a protocol does by the layer it resides in,
new protocols are given the appropriate layer.
- Domain Name Servers (DNS): are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book.They
translate domain names into IP Addresses, which computers can understand. This is
necessary because, although domain names are easy for people to remember,
computers or machines, access websites based on IP addresses.

● Ethics: guidelines that state whether something is right or wrong. Computer ethics that
govern (influence or provide legal authority on product/ process) are forced to change
according to more advanced technological standards (level of conduct or morals that
should be met).

- Plagiarism: stealing the work of another without making reference to the source where it
was obtained.
- Copyright: legally protecting work to give the sole right to distribute the work,often with
payment, a person must seek permission to use their work.
- Free software: software that we have freedom to run, share, copy and change.
- Freeware: a copy of the software given to a person free of charge that cannot be
changed or redistributed due to copyright.
- Shareware: a free trial or limited version of a software, then they will require us to pay a
fee to continue.

- Ethics in electronic communications:

Hacked: accessing a system unlawfully, breaking through security methods.
Cracked: accessing a system, software or website with purpose or changing or defacing
it.
 Malware: computer program designed to disrupt or damage a computer system.

● Logic gates: a logic gate is a basic foundation of a digital circuit that controls the flow of
electronics signals, represented by binary digits 1 (true), 0 (false). Various tasks can be
performed by switching on a high or low voltage, some circuits have a few logic gates,
others have thousands (microprocessor), each controls the flow of electrons in a
predetermined way.

- Truth tables: is a way of showing every outcome of a logic gate.

Eg: truth table of AND NOT NAND OR NOR XOR XNOR logic gates.

- AND gate: the output will be true if both inputs are true.
X = A AND B , X = A.B

- OR gate: the output will be true if input A or input B is true.

X = A OR B , X = A+B

- NOT gate: only one input and one output, the output will be true if the
input is false.
X = NOT A , X = Ā

- NAND gate: combination of an AND followed by a NOT

gate, the output will be false if both inputs are true.
 X = NOT (A AND B)

- NOR gate: combination of OR followed by a NOT

gate,the output will be false unless both inputs are false.

X = NOT (A OR B)

- XOR (EOR) gate: exclusive OR gate means that the

output will be true if either of the inputs are true.

- Logit circuits: is an electronic circuit that

combines a number of gates, these will
control the flow of electricity through the
circuit.

- How to tackle essay-style questions:

1. Identify the stakeholders (anyone who has an interest or will be
affected by the business).
2. Identify the technologies involved.
3. Identify any potential issues associated with the topic, such as social,
cultural, legal and environmental concerns.
4. Describe the effects of those issues on the stakeholders.