Chapter I

Research Methods: An introduction

1.1. Meaning of Research

Everywhere our knowledge is incomplete and problems are waiting to be solved. The word
research is used in everyday speech to cover a broad spectrum of meaning. In the word research
the prefix “re” implies “searching again”. In a common parlances/ sense, research refers to a
search for knowledge. Research is an art of scientific investigation; as to some people, consider
as a movement - movement from the known to unknown; a voyage of discovery; and
inquisitiveness.

Research is the process for systematic collection, description, analysis and interpretation of data
that can be used to improve individuals or groups or communities; or to answer a certain
question or solve a problem. It also refers to a systematic method consisting of defining
(enunciating) the problem; formulating a hypothesis; collecting the facts or data; analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s) towards the concerned
problem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulations.

Some other definitions of research given by different scholars are such as:
 “Research is careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.
 “Research comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulating hypothesis.”
 “Research is a focused and systematic inquiry that goes beyond generally available
knowledge to acquire specialized and detailed information, providing a basis for analysis
and descriptive comment on the topic of inquiry.”
 “Research is a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of
knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles; and also “research is a structured
inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and creates new
knowledge that is generally applicable.”
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  “Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.”
 “Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
propositions about the presumed relationships about various phenomena.”
 Research is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extent, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It aims at adding to knowledge of human beings about the problems which face
the society. And also it is a pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
method of finding a solution to a problem as well as the systematic approach concerning
generalization and formulation of theory. It is the function of the researcher to contribute to the
understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others.

Business Research Defined

Business research covers a wide range of phenomena. For managers, the purpose of research is
to provide knowledge regarding the organization, the market, the economy, or another area of
uncertainty. A financial manager may ask, “Will the environment for long-term financing be
better two years from now?” A personnel manager may ask, “What kind of training is necessary
for production employees?” or “What is the reason for the company’s high employee turnover?”
A marketing manager may ask, “How can I monitor my retail sales and retail trade activities?”
Each of these questions requires information about how the environment, employees, customers,
or the economy will respond to executives’ decisions. Research is one of the principal tools for
answering these practical questions.

Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance. Business research is more than conducting surveys. This process
includes idea and theory development, problem definition, searching for and collecting
information, analyzing data, and communicating the findings and their implications.

Business research is designed to facilitate the managerial decision-making process for all aspects
of the business: finance, marketing, human resources, and so on. Business research is an essential
tool for management in virtually all problem-solving and decision-making activities. By
providing the necessary information on which to base business decisions, research can decrease
the risk of making a wrong decision in each area. However, it is important to note that research is
an aid to managerial decision making, never a substitute for it.

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1.2. Types of Research
Research can be classified in terms of: goal of research, specific objectives of research, approaches of
research, the type of data used in research, and fields of study.

A. Classification of Research based on the Goal of Research

The goal of research is problem solving. The nature of the problem that the research attempts to solve
could be theoretical or practical – building a theory or solving immediate practical problems.
These two types of problems that the research tries to solve leads to two broad classifications of
research:
1. Basic research
2. Applied research
1. Basic Research
Basic research (also called fundamental or pure research) has as its primary objective the
advancement of knowledge and the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables. It is
basically concerned with the formulation of a theory or a contribution to the existing body of
knowledge. That is, basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge
and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.
The major aims of basic research include:
• Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate, expand, or evaluate theory; and
• Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge.
2. Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve
the human condition. It is undertaken to solve immediate practical problem. Applied research can
be about finding out the answer to a specific problem, such as ‘Is global warming avoidable?’ or
‘Does a new type of medicine really help the patients?’
B. Classification of Research based on the Specific Objectives of Research
Research also addresses specific purposes. Your interest could be describing a phenomenon of
interest or explaining causal link between two variables. Or you may be interested in comparing two
or more groups on the basis of a particular phenomenon. Research, therefore, can be classified
differently when the issues at hand are specific objectives of research. Hence, according to the
specific objectives research can be classified as:
i. exploratory
ii. descriptive, or
iii. explanatory research

1. Exploratory Research

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Exploratory research is less formal, sometimes even unstructured and focuses on gaining
background information and helps to better understand and clarify a problem. It can be used to
develop hypotheses and to develop questions to be answered. Exploratory research is most
commonly unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken to gain background information
about the general nature of the research problem.
Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher does not know much about the
problem and needs additional information or desires new or more recent information.
Exploratory research is used in a number of situations:
• To gain background information
• To define terms
• To clarify problems and hypotheses
• To establish research priorities
It can be said that exploratory research is generally a precursor to a more formal study. The results of
exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide
significant insight into a given situation.
2. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at individuals, groups,
institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast, classify, analyze and
interpret the entities and the events that constitute the various fields of inquiry. It aims to describe the
state of affairs as it exists. The goal of descriptive research is to describe some aspect of a
phenomenon, i.e., the status of a given phenomenon. It can help understand a topic and lead to causal
analysis.

3. Explanatory Research
Explanatory research aims at establishing the cause and effect relationship between variables. The
researcher uses the facts or information already available to analyze and make a critical evaluation of
the data/information. The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research.
The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics, to analyze and explain why or how
something is happening.
Thus, explanatory or analytical research aims to understand phenomena by discovering and
measuring causal relations among them. That is, explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.
There are two types of explanatory research:
i. Experimental Research
In its simplest form, experimental research involves comparing two groups on one outcome
measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation. The key element in true experimental
research is scientific control and the ability to rule out alternative explanations. It is the best
method when the purpose of research is to determine causal influences between variables. In
experimental research, the researcher intentionally manipulates one variable (independent
variable) to measure its effect on the other (dependent variable).

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 ii. Ex Post Facto Research
Ex post facto research is a method of teasing out possible antecedents of events that have
happened and cannot, therefore, be engineered or manipulated by the investigator. Ex post facto
in research means after the fact or retrospectively and refers to those studies which investigate
possible cause-and-effect relationships by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and
searching back in time for plausible causal factors.

C. Classification of Research based on Approaches of Research

Research can be classified as qualitative research and quantitative research when the issue at hand is
the approaches to be employed in conducting research.
1. Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through
statistical summary or analysis. Qualitative research seeks to describe various aspects about
behavior and other factors studied in the social sciences and humanities. In qualitative
research data are often in the form of descriptions, not numbers.
2. Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative properties
and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop
and employ mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural phenomena.
D. Classification or Research by Type of Data
Depending of the type of data generated and used research can be classified as Primary research (also
called field research) and Secondary research (also known as desk research).
1. Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist.
2. Secondary research involves the summary, collaction and/or synthesis of existing data
rather than generating primary data, where data are collected from, for example, research
subjects or experiments.
E. Classification of Research by Fields of Study
Research can also be classified based on fields of study. Therefore, there are:
• natural science research, • behavioral science research,
• social science research, • health science research, etc.
• educational research,

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Research Methods and Research Methodology

Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly) used interchangeable.

• Methodology – the study of the general approach to inquiry in a given field. OR “The theory
of how research should be undertaken, including the theoretical and philosophical
assumptions upon which research is based and the implications of these for the method or
methods adopted.”
• Method – the specific techniques, tools or procedures applied to achieve a given objective.
The term ‘research methods’ refers to all those methods and techniques that are used by a
researcher in conducting a research. The term, thus, refers to the methods, techniques or tools
employed by a researcher for collecting and processing of data, establishing the relationship
between the data and unknown facts, and evaluating the accuracy of the results obtained.
Sometimes, it is used to designate the concepts and procedures employed in the analysis of data,
howsoever collected, to arrive at conclusion. In other words, ‘research methods’ are the ‘tools
and techniques’ in a ‘tool box’ that can be used for collection of data (or for gathering evidence)
and analysis thereof.
The term ‘research methodology’, on the other hand, refers to a way to systematically solve the
research problem. It may be understood as a ‘science of studying how research is done
scientifically’. It involves a study of various steps and methods that a researcher needs generally
to adopt in his investigation of a research problem along with the logic behind them. It is a study
of not only of methods but also of explanation and justification for using certain research
methods and of the methods themselves. It includes in it the philosophy and practice of the
whole research process. In other words, research methodology is a set of rules or procedures
about the way of conducting research. It includes in it not just a compilation of various research
methods but also the rules for their application (in a given situation) and validity (for the research
problem at hand).
A researcher, therefore, is required to know not only the research methods or techniques but also
the methodology, as he needs to decide as well as to understand the relevancy and efficacy of the
research methods in pursuing the research problem at hand. He may be confronted with equally
relevant and efficacious alternative research methods and techniques at each stage of his research
study. A researcher, therefore, has to consciously resort to the research methods and techniques
that are most appropriate to carry his investigation in a more systematic manner. This becomes
possible only when he is acquainted with the underlying assumptions and utility of various
research methods or techniques available to him. A study of research methodology equips him
with this kind of knowledge and skill.
C.R.Kothari (in his work “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques”), bringing out the
correlation between research methods and research methodology, observed: “Research

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methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus,
when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also
consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that
research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why
a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been identified, in what way
and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular technique of analyzing data has been used and a host of
similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a
research problem or study”.
1.3. Motivation of doing Research

What makes or motivates people to conduct (undertake) research?

Since research has been broadly defined as the generation of new knowledge using the scientific
method to identify and deal with problems, the possible motives for doing research can be many
but some of them are:
 desire to serve the society/ community;
 desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative work;
 desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problems;
 desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 desire to get respectability, noble prize; directives of government; employment
conditions;
 curiosity about new things;
 desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening; etc.

1.4. Research and Scientific Method

Business research is the application of the scientific method in searching for truth about business
phenomena. The research must be conducted systematically, not haphazardly. It must be
objective to avoid the distorting effects of personal bias.

Scientific research is a systematic attempt to obtain answers to meaningful questions about

phenomena or events through the application of scientific procedures. It is impartial, objective,
empirical and logical analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the
development of generalizations, principles or theories, resulting, to some extent, in prediction and
control of events that may be causes or consequences of specific phenomena.

In scientific method ideas are evaluated and corrected through observing by means of our
bodily senses or measuring devices and using reason to compare various theoretical
conceptualization based on experience . In this case science can be seen as a systematic and

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controlled extension of common sense and a direct application of the principles of logic. This
blend of direct sensory experience (or measurement) and reason gives science a self-corrective
nature. One of the characteristics of science is a reliance on information that is verifiable through
experience. That is, it must be possible for different people in different places and at different times
using the same method to obtain comparable results.

The Scientific Method

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.
But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
1. Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation
follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard
way.
2. Empirical- this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
3. Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
4. Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed are
crucial to a research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free
from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
5. Rigorous-you must be scrupulous (trustworthy) in ensuring that the procedures followed
to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified.
6. Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of
control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set
up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences as most of the
research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences it is extremely difficult
as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such
controls are not possible. Therefore in social science researches, as you cannot control
external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

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1.5. The Research Process
Research process consists of a series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

The chart below (Fig. 1) indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely
related activities. These activities can overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence. The research process has no beginning or end. Rather, it is a cyclical
process that keeps returning to the steps already completed, but each time it does so it attains a
higher level representing a progression toward a more adequate explanatory system.

The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding
the research process.

Identification and Formulation of a Research Problem

↓
Review of Literature
↓
Formulation of Hypotheses
(where feasible)
↓
Research Design
↓
Collection of Data
↓
Analysis of Data
↓
Interpretation of Data
↓
Research Report

Fig 1: Research process

The following sections provide a quick glance at the whole process to acquaint you with the
various tasks you need to undertake to carry out your study.

Formulating (defining) a research problem

Defining a research problem implies identifying the research problem; deciding the general area
of interest or aspect of subject matter that researcher would like to inquire into; understanding
the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms, selecting a topic for
research.

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The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss with one’s own colleagues or with those
having some expertise in the matter. The problem to be investigated must be defined clearly for
that will help distinguishing relevant data from irrelevant ones. A research problem identifies
your destination. And it should tell you, your research supervisor and your readers what you
intend to research.
The statement of the problem is of basic importance because it determines the data to be
collected; the characteristics of the data which are relevant; the choice of the techniques to be
used in these expectations, and the form of the final report, etc. If there are certain pertinent
terms, they should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem.
Research problems come up as part of ongoing work, because one research project may easily
lead to another. It raises issues that the researcher had not previously considered. It may also be
suggested by reading the work of other researchers in books and journals, & may arise out of a
certain awareness of specific trends in society.

Literature review
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. Reviewing the literature is a continuous process. It begins before a
research problem is finalized and continues until the report is finished.
The researcher must review the already existing evidence by reading other researchers’ work in
the area for the following reasons:
 It might be the previous research has already satisfactorily clarified the problem, making
other research endeavor absolutely unnecessary.
 Even if it turns out that the problem has not been clarified, the researcher will still need to
examine through whatever related research does exist to see how useful it is for the
purpose at hand. He may find answers to questions such as
o Have the previous researchers spotted the same puzzle (problem)?
o What aspects of the problem has left unanalyzed?
The researcher may review two types of literature
i. The conceptual literature - concerning the concepts and theories; and
ii. Empirical literature - consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed
Procedure for reviewing the literature
 Search for existing literature
 Review the literature selected
 Develop a theoretical framework
 Develop a conceptual framework
Reasons for reviewing the literature are to:
 Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
 Improve your methodology
 Broaden your knowledge base in your research area

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Developing the hypotheses
Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made to draw out and test its logical and empirical
consequences. Hypotheses are the focal point for research. The role of hypothesis is to guide by
delimiting the area of research and to keep the researcher on the right track. It sharpens the
researcher thinking and focuses attention on the important facets of the problem. It also indicates
the type of data and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
Developing a hypothesis answers questions like
 What do you intend to test?
 What is your tentative assumption?
 What is the relationship between variables? etc.

Preparing the research design

It is concerned with selecting one or more research methods: experiment, survey, use of existing
sources, etc. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. It is the conceptual structure within which research should be conducted; and consists
of the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
The preparation of research design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal cost.
Research design includes:
 sampling design - deals with the method of selecting item to be observed
 Sampling - is the process involving the selection of a finite number of elements from a
given population of interest for purposes of an inquiry. The main concern in sampling is
to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population we are interested to study.
 Sample - the small group that is chosen for the study
 Sample size - the number of individuals or observations in a sample; and usually denoted
by n
 Census - is a collection of data from the whole population. It is the actual measurement
or observation of all possible elements from the population or it is a survey of everyone in
the population

Data Collection
This relates to the actual implementation of the designed data collection- i.e. collect the data;
monitor the project and record information. Data can be collected from two sources -Primary
source that provide first hand information for the use of immediate purpose and Secondary
source which provide data originally collected for other purpose by them or by others (usually
they are published or unpublished materials, records, reports, etc).
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time as
scheduled and make sure that the collected information is in accordance with the predefined
standard of accuracy. A careful watch should be kept for unexpected factors to keep the research
as much realistic as possible.

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Analyzing and Interpreting Data
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of
categories; application of these categories to raw data through editing, coding, tabulation and
then drawing statistical inferences. The raw data should be condensed in to a manageable groups
and tables for further analysis.
Coding is done at this stage; it is through which the categories of data are transformed in to
symbols that may be tabulated or counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of
data for coding. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure where the classified data are put
in the form of tables.
Analysis of data after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc by applying various well defined statistical formulae/method.
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any formulated
earlier. Hypotheses testing will result in
 either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting it
 workout the implication of the data
 generalization and interpretation of the data

Report the research findings

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. The report should
ssbe written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such
as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’, and the like. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be
used only if they present the information more clearly.

1.6. Criteria of Good Research

Good research can be thought of as the one that uses the scientific method.
Qualities of a good research are:
 Systematic - means research is structured with specific steps to be taken in a specified
sequence (logical sequence) in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
 Logical - implies that research is guided by the rule of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction. Logical reasoning makes research more meaningful
in the context of decision making.
 Empirical - implies that research is related to aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
 Replicable - allows that research results to be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Characteristics of Good Research

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Good research can be thought of as the one that uses the scientific method. The following
features are considered as characteristics of Good Research:
 Clearly defined purpose  Adequate analysis
 Detailed research process  Unambiguous presentation
 Thoroughly planned design  Conclusions justified
 High ethical standards  Credentials
 Limitations addressed

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