BENGALURU NORTH UNIVERSITY

(Under the State Education Policy-SEP-2024)

Optional English
(For BA., B.Sc., B. Com., BBA., BHM & BCA) 2024-2025 onwards

Aurora – I

An Anthology of Poetry, Short Story, Essay and Language Exercises

For I Semester B.A

Chief Editor
Ms. Doreen Snehalatha Kotian

Editor
Dr. Beena Muniyappa
 DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
UG SYLLABUS FOR OPTIONAL ENGLISH
Editorial Board
Ms Doreen Snehalatha Kotian
Chairperson of BoS
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, GFGC, Hoskote
1. Dr D. R. Uma Sundari
Member of BoS,
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, GFGC, Varthur,Bengaluru

2. Dr Indu M. Eapen
Member of BoS,
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, GFGC, Varthur,Bengaluru

3. Dr Manjushree M
Member of BoS
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, LBS GFGC, RT Nagar, Bengaluru
4. Dr Sangita Patil
Member of BoS
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, LBS GFGC, RT Nagar, Bengaluru

5. Mr B. R. Venkataramu
Member of BoS
Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, GFGC, Gudibande

6. Dr Lydia Glory I
Member of BoS
Associate Professor, Dept, of English, Goodwill Christian College for
Women, Bengaluru
7. Dr Beena Muniyappa
Member of BoS
Principal (I/C), University Constituent College,
Dept. of English, Lingarajapuram, Bengaluru

8. Ms Prasanna Udipikar,
Member of BoS
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, VVN Degree College, Bengaluru
 BENGALURU NORTH UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

List of members of the Optional English Text Book Committee

1) Dr.Beena Muniyappa
Head of the Department
Department of English Coordinator
University Constituent College,
Bengaluru North University
Lingarajapura, Bengaluru-560084

2) Dr. Lydia Glory l

Associate Professor
Dept of English Member
Goodwill Christian College for Women
Frazer Town, Bangalore -560005

3) Mrs K Kavitha Reddy

Assistant Professor
HOD Dept of Humanities and Languages Member
United International Business School
Hennur Bagalur Road, Bangalore – 562149

4) Ms. Shalini.A.E
Associate Professor
Department of English Member
Goodwill Christian College For Women,
Frazer Town, Bangalore – 560005

5) Ms. Livea Paul Thekkekara

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Humanities Member
Krupanidhi Degree College
Carmelaram, Bangalore – 560035
 CURRICULUM STRUCTURE FOR THE B.A OPTIONAL ENGLISH
UNDERGRADUATE DEGREE

Name Of the Degree BA

Semester I
Total Credits for the Program: 5
Year of implementation 2024-25
Discipline/Subject Optional English - 1
Teaching hours per week 5

Course Objective: This course aims to familiarize and enhance the chronological study of selected
texts and authors through the divergent course of consecutive periods in British Literature. British
Literature as a whole is a culmination of diverse genres and narratives from Old English Period to
the Postmodern Period. Each period is marked by its own specific history, school of thought and
societal changes influenced by political and socio-economic situation. From Geoffery Chaucer to
J.K. Rowling the numerous writers have explored new modes of creative expressions fueled by the
gesture of the then society. This course intends to provide a comprehensive knowledge of the
significant literary works in British Literature.

Course Outcome: After completing the course, the students are expected to learn different modes
of expression in literature and develop critical thinking through the appreciation of literary texts.
The expected specific course outcomes are:

1. Discuss the literary works in all genres through the ages in English Literature
chronologically from the Old English Period to the Postmodern Period.
2. Interpret the English people’s moral, ethical, social, political, traditional and secular values.
3. Analyze connections among the political, historical, social, cultural and literary movements
in English literature.
4. Create the universality of human experiences based on the diversity of values reflected in
the English literary works.
5. Summarize the general concepts concerning the nature, structure and function of language.
6. Illustrate a model of the speech organs and identify the parts and their use.
7. Articulate the significance of words and employ intonation, rhythm and stress centered on
the received pronunciation.
 Semester – I – Optional English Syllabus
Paper Title British Literature & Facets of Language
No. of Credits 5
Teaching Hours Per Week 5
Total No. of Teaching Hours 75
Name of the Textbook AURORA – 1

Sl.NO SYLLABUS HOURS

Unit – I - Introduction to British Literature (10 hrs.)
Defining Literature – Literary Genres – Definition & Examples – Literature
1 02
& Life
Key Concepts – Old English Period – Puritan Age – Elizabethan Era –
2 08
Romantic Age – Victorian Age – Modern Age – Post-Modern Period
Unit – II – Poetry (12 hrs.)
3 Geoffery Chaucer’s – Excerpt from Canterbury Tales – The Friar 02
4 John Donne – The Sunne Rising 02
5 John Milton – Excerpt from The Paradise Lost 02
6 William Blake – A Poison Tree 02
7 William Wordsworth – Ode to Duty 02
8 William Butler Yeats – Sailing to Byzantium 02
Unit – III – Prose & Podcast (06 hrs.)
9 Virginia Woolf – A Room of One’s Own 03
10 British Podcast – The Witch Trials of J.K Rowling (Chapter 1) 03
Unit – IV – Novel & Short Story (12 hrs.)
11 Novel - Charles Dickens – Great Expectations 09
12 Short Story – James Joyce – The Dead 03
Unit – V – Drama, One-Act Play & Short Films (14 hrs.)
13 William Shakespeare – The Tempest 09
14 Samuel Beckett – Waiting for Godot 03
 15 An Irish Goodbye – Short Film (BAFTA Award Winner) 02
Unit – VI – Facets of Language (14 hrs.)
16 Introduction to Phonetics 02
17 Speech Mechanism 02
18 Classification of Vowel Sounds 03
19 Classification of Consonant Sounds 03
20 Phonetic Transcription 04
Tests/Seminars/Revision (07 hrs.)
Total 75

References
1. Rees R. J. English Literature: An Introduction for Foreign Readers. Macmillan: Madras,
1987
2. Green, David. Ed. The Winged Word: An Anthology of Poems for Degree Course.
Vishakhapatnam: Macmillan Publication, 2007.
3. https://www.thoughtco.com/british-literary-periods-739034
4. An Irish Goodbye – Short Film https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jvgton25o4s
5. British Podcast – The Witch Trials of J.K Rowling
https://open.spotify.com/playlist/4YpLUBMe0wRFWOTVRwqpUE?si=Zy1-
a3lATN6kIfywd2HHjg&pi=a-Y8TiP3NXRByK
6. https://bookerhorror.com/postmodernism-multiculturalism-and-contemporary-british-
literature/
7. Ogden, Richard. An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
ASSESSMENT

A Formative Assessment 20 Marks

B Summative Assessment 80 Marks

Total 100 Marks

A. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT -20 Marks

Formative Assessment
Assessment type Weightage in Marks
Internal Test 05
Attendance 05
Seminar 05
Assignment 05
Total 20
 Unit I
Introduction to British Literature
 1. Defining Literature - Literary Genres - Definition & examples - Literature & Life

Literature is a compilation of written works written in or translated into the English language. The
term is derived from the Latin word, literatura meaning "learning or writing”. The written works
include poetry, drama, novel, short stories, biographies, autobiographies, diaries, memoirs, letters,
etc. This also encompasses writing in both print & digital form. British literature, American
literature, Australian literature, Canadian literature, New Zealand literature are some of the branches
of the canon of English literature.

Literary Genres means types or classes of literature i.e. literary works being grouped based on
various criteria. These criteria are based on literary technique, tone, content, etc. There are five major
literary genres. They are: 1. Poetry, 2. Fiction, 3. Non-fiction, 4. Drama & 5. Prose. These are again
sub-divided into:

● Poetry - Epic, Narrative, Lyric, Dramatic

Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings that takes its origin from emotion
recollected in tranquillity. This definition of poetry was given by Willaim Wordsworth. Poetry
portrays the human experiences both the lived experiences and the imaginative. Some of the epic
poems are Iliad, Odyssey, etc. Narrative poems Fiction. include The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,
Idylls of the King, etc. Lyrical poems are Ode on a Grecian Urn, The Solitary Reaper, etc.

 Fiction - Mystery, Historical Fiction. Realism, magic realism, fantasy, romance, science fiction,
Dystopian, Horror, Fable, Mythology

Any creative work that portrays events, people in an imaginary set up is known as Fiction. Some of
the examples of mystery fiction include Murder on the Orient Express, The Da Vinci Code, etc.
Historical fictions include War & Peace, The Name of the Rose, etc. Realism novels encompass One
Hundred Years of Solitude, To Kill a Mockingbird, etc. Kafka on the Shore, Life of Pi, etc are some
of the magic realism fictions. Harry Potter, Game of Thrones, etc are some of the fantasy fictions.
Pride of Prejudice, Anna Karenina, etc are some of the romantic novels. Science Fiction includes
Jurassic Park, Mission of Gravity, etc.

● Non- Fiction - Autobiography, Biography, essay

Literary works that are based on facts or information are termed as non-fiction. Some of the
examples of autobiographies are Long Walk to Freedom by Nelson Mandela, An Autobiography or
My Experiments with Truth. etc. Essays include The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes, Why
I Write by George Orwell, etc.

● Drama - Tragedy, Comedy, Musical, Melodrama

A type of performance that incorporates emotions, conflicts and the depiction of human experiences
through dialogue and action is called Drama. Tragedy is a form of drama based on human suffering.
E.g. Antigone by Sophocles, The Witch of Edmonton by William Rowley, Thomas Dekker & John
Ford, etc

Literature & Life - Literature assists a person to understand life better. It explores the
interconnections between literature & life to understand & appreciate the complex but fragile human
relationships at various levels such as individual, family, society, etc. These are portrayed in essays,
poems, dramas, etc from various types of literature. Literature teaches, entertains and inspires
people. It is a window to various cultures and time periods in history.

● ⁠Answer in about a page each.

a. What is Literature?
b. What is a Literary Genre?
● Answer in about two pages each.
a. What is Literature and life?
b. Define Drama & its types
● ⁠Suggested/further reading list
1.Barnet, S., Burto, W., and Cain W.E. 2008. An Introduction to Literature. New York: Pearson
Longman.

2.Bennett, A., and Royle, N. 2015. This Thing Called Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing.
London: Routledge

3.Kusch, C. 2016. Literary Analysis: The Basics. London: Routledge.

4.Scholes, R., Comley, N. R., Klaus, C. H., and Silverman, M. Eds. 2013. Elements of Literature,
4th ed. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
2. Key Concepts - Old English Period - Puritan Age - Elizabethan Era - Romantic Age -
Victorian Age - Modern Age - Post-Modern Period

● Old English Period: Old English is the name given to the earliest recorded stage of the
English language, upto approximately 1150AD (when the Middle English period is generally
taken to have begun). It refers to the language as it was used during the period of time
between the advent of the invading Germanic invaders and settlers to Britain—in the period
following the collapse of Roman Britain in the early fifth century—upto the Norman
Conquest of 1066, and beyond into the first century of Norman rule in England. It is thus the
first and foremost the language of the people normally referred to by historians as the Anglo-
Saxons.

Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons, the majority of the population of Britain spoke
Celtic languages. In Roman Britain, Latin had been in extensive use as the language of
government and the military and probably also in other functions, especially in urban areas
and among the upper echelons of society. However, it is uncertain how much Latin remained
in use in the post-Roman period. During the course of the next several hundred years,
gradually more and more of the territory in the area, later to be known as England, came
under Anglo-Saxon control.

Cædmon, Bede, Alfred the Great, and Cynewulf are some of the well-known authors of
this age.

● Puritan Age : Puritanism, a religious reform movement in the late 16th and 17th centuries
that sought to “purify” the Church of England of remnants of the Roman Catholic “popery”
that the Puritans claimed had been retained after the religious settlement reached early in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Puritans became noted in the 17th century for a spirit of moral
and religious earnestness that informed their whole way of life, and they sought through
church reforms to make their lifestyle the pattern for the whole nation. Their efforts to
transform the nation contributed both to civil war in England and to the founding of colonies
in America as working models of the Puritan way of life.
Puritan Age is also known as the Restoration Age. (1620-1750). Paradise Lost by Milton is
the most famous work in this era. John Milton & Anne Bradstreet were the famous two
Puritan Writers.
● Elizabethan Era : The Elizabethan Age is the time period associated with the reign of Queen
Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and is often considered to be a golden age in English history. It was
an age considered to be the height of the English Renaissance, and saw the full flowering of
English literature and English poetry. In Elizabethan theatre, William Shakespeare, among
others, composed and staged plays in a variety of settings that broke away from England's
past style of plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration abroad, while at home the
Protestant Reformation was established and successfully defended against the Catholic
powers of the Continent.
The Elizabethan Age is viewed so highly because of the contrasts with the periods before
and after. It was a brief period of largely internal peace between the English Reformation,
with battles between Protestants and Catholics, and the battles between parliament and the
monarchy that would engulf the seventeenth century. The Protestant Catholic divide was
settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement and parliament was still not
strong enough to challenge royal absolutism.

Notable authors include Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Sir Philip
Sidney, etc. Romeo & Juliet, Hamlet, Dr. Faustus, Every Man in his Humour, are some of
the notable works of this era.

● Romantic Era: Romanticism is the term applied to the literary and artistic movement that
took place between 1785 and 1832 in Western Europe. Occurring in the context of the
Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution, and the social, political, and economic changes
that occurred following the Augustan Age, Romanticism moved away from an emphasis on
the importance of an empirical, material worldview and looked to the imagination and nature
as sources of insight. Writers expressed a great reverence for nature and believed that
intuition, emotion, and imagination were more instructive than empiricism and reason.

The Romantic Period overthrew the values instilled during the Augustan Age and strove to
serve itself from the rigid writing styles of the ancient, classical examples of Virgil, Horace,
and Homer. Instead, poets and authors were inspired to write in their own individual and
creative voices. William Wordsworth, John Keats, Lord Byron are some of the famous
writers that belong to this age. The Solitary Reaper, Ode on a Grecian Urn etc are some of
the notable works.
 ● Victorian Age : Queen Victoria ruled the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for
more than 63 years. The period of her reign, from 1837 to 1901, became known as the
Victorian Age. During the Victorian Age Britain became the largest empire that had ever
existed. At its height, the British Empire covered about one-fifth of the Earth’s land mass
and Victoria ruled a quarter of the world’s population. There were also great changes and
developments within Britain in science and technology, culture, and daily life. This age
witnessed the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
● Modern Age: The modern period in English literature begins with the 20th century and
continues till 1965. The period saw an abrupt break away from the old ways of interacting
with the world. In all the previous periods experimentation and individualism were highly
discouraged but with the onset of the modern period, both these things became virtues. There
were many cultural shocks with the beginning of modernism. The blow of the modern age
was World War 1 and 2. These wars began in the year 1914 and lasted till 1919 and 1939 to
1945 respectively.
English literary modernism developed in the early twentieth century out of a general sense
of disillusionment with Victorian era attitudes of certainty, conservatism, and belief in the
idea of objective truth. Thomas Hardy, WB Yeats, GB Shaw, Henry James, etc are some of
the noteworthy writers of the Modern Age. Ulysses, The Waste Land, A Passage to India are
some of the important literary works of this era.

● Post-Modern Period: Postmodernism was a reaction against modernism. While

modernism was based on idealism and reason, postmodernism was born of scepticism
and a suspicion of reason. It challenged the notion that there are universal certainties or
truths. Postmodern art drew on philosophy of the mid to late twentieth century, and
advocated that individual experience and interpretation of our experience was more
concrete than abstract principles. While the modernists championed clarity and
simplicity; postmodernism embraced complex and often contradictory layers of meaning.
George Orwell, TS Elliot, William Golding, etc are some of the noteworthy authors. Lord of the
Flies, Nineteen Eighty Four, Waiting for Godot, etc, are some of the well-known literary works of
this age.

● Answer in about a page each.

a. Define the Old English Period.
b. Explain the Victorian Era.

● Answer in about two pages each.

a. Exemplify the Modern Era with its literary examples.
b. Differentiate between the Modern & the Post-Modern Period.
Unit II
Poetry

3. The Friar
 Excerpt from the “The Canterbury Tales” -
Geoffery Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer born between the years 1340-1345—died October 25, 1400, in London was an
outstanding English poet before Shakespeare and “The first finder of our language.” The Canterbury
Tales is said to be one of the greatest poetic works in English. He also contributed importantly in the
second half of the 14th century to the management of public affairs as a courtier, diplomat, and civil
servant. In that career he was trusted and aided by three successive kings—Edward III, Richard II,
and Henry IV. But it is his avocation—the writing of poetry—for which he is remembered.

Perhaps, the chief characteristics of Chaucer’s works are the variety in subject matter, genre, tone,
and style and in the complexities presented concerning the human pursuit of a sensible existence.
Yet his writings also consistently reflect an all-pervasive humour combined with serious and tolerant
consideration of important philosophical questions. From his writings Chaucer emerges as a poet of
love, both earthly and divine, whose presentations range from lustful cuckoldry to spiritual union
with God. Thereby, they regularly lead the reader to speculation about man’s relation both to his
fellows and to his Maker, while simultaneously providing delightfully entertaining views of the
frailties and follies, as well as the nobility, of mankind.
The Canterbury Tales a collection of 24 satirical stories describing 32 characters by Geoffrey
Chaucer, written in the late 14th century, is a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their
journey to the shrine of Thomas Beckett in Canterbury Cathedral. This structure allows for a diverse
range of stories, showcasing various genres such as romance, comedy, and moral allegory.
Set in medieval England the characters, drawn from different classes and occupations, offer a cross-
section of medieval society, allowing Chaucer to satirize and comment on the moral and social
conditions of the period. The use of Middle English captures the linguistic nuances of the time.

Through the irony of The Friar, named Hubert, Chaucer reveals that the seven deadly sins of the
Church live and breed by the people who are to be examples. The Friar takes money in payment for
forgiveness and pays for dowries only because he can also take the virginity of women. The Friar
uses his lips to help his cause when begging for money and when associating with the upper class.
In essence, he does everything but what a friar is to do: live in poverty among and for his people.
The fact that the Friar is still a well-liked and revered man shows the acceptance by the citizens and
their willingness to play the illusionary game.
The Friar commends the Wife of Bath for her tale, and then says, in line with his promise between
the Wife’s Prologue and Tale, that he will tell a tale about a summoner. He does not wish to offend
the Summoner who travels with them, but insists that summoners are known for fornication and
lewd behaviour. The Summoner, on the surface at least, does not take offense, but does indicate that
he will “quit” the Friar in turn. The job of a summoner, to which the Friar objects, is to issue
summons from the church against sinners who, under penalty of excommunication, pay indulgences
for their sins to the church, a sum which illicit summoners often pocket. The Host quiets the
argument down, and the Friar’s Tale begins.

The Friar's Prologue

This worthy lymytour, this noble Frere,

He made alwey a maner louryng chiere

Upon the Somonour, but for honestee

No vileyns word as yet to hym spak he.

But atte laste he seyde unto the wyf,

“Dame," quod he, "God yeve yow right good lyf!

Ye han heer touched, also moot I thee,

In scole-matere greet difficultee.

Ye han seyd muche thyng right wel, I seye;

But, dame, heere as we ryde by the weye,

Us nedeth nat to speken but of game,

And lete auctoritees, on Goddes name,
To prechyng and to scoles of clergye.

But if it lyke to this compaignye,

I wol yow of a somonour telle a game.
Pardee, ye may wel knowe by the name
That of a somonour may no good be sayd;
I praye that noon of you be yvele apayd.

A somonour is a rennere up and doun

With mandementz for fornicacioun,
And is ybet at every townes ende."

Oure Hoost tho spak, "A, sire, ye sholde be hende

And curteys, as a man of youre estaat;
In compaignye we wol have no debaat.
Telleth youre tale, and lat the Somonour be."

"Nay," quod the Somonour, "lat hym seye to me

What so hym list; whan it comth to my lot,
By God, I shal hym quiten every grot.
I shal hym tellen which a greet honour
It is to be a flaterynge lymytour,
And of many another manere cryme
Which nedeth nat rehercen at this tyme;
And his office I shal hym telle, ywis."

Oure Hoost answerde, "Pees, namoore of this!"

And after this he seyde unto the Frere,
"Tel forth youre tale, leeve maister deere."

(Paraphrase)

This worthy licensed beggar, this noble Friar

He always made a kind of scowling face

At the Summoner, but for propriety

No churlish word as yet to him spoke he.

But at the last he said unto the Wife:

"My lady," said he, "God give you a right good life!

You have here touched, as I may prosper,

On academic problems of great difficulty.
You have said many things right well, I say;

But, my lady, here as we ride by the way,

We need not speak of anything but pleasant matters,

And leave authoritative texts, in God's name,

To preaching and to the universities.

But if it pleases this company,

I will tell you an amusing tale about a summoner.

By God, you can easily tell by the name

That no good may be said of a summoner;

I pray that none of you be displeased.

A summoner is a runner up and down

With summonses for fornication,

And is beaten (and driven away) at every town's end."

Our Host then spoke, "Ah, sir, you should be polite
And courteous, as (befits) a man of your rank;

In this company we will have no arguments.

Tell your tale, and leave the Summoner alone."

"Nay," said the Summoner, "let him say to me

Whatever he pleases; when it comes to my turn,

By God, I shall pay him back every groat (fourpence).

I shall tell him what a great honour

It is to be a flattering licensed beggar,

And of many another sort of crime

Which need not be told at this time;

And how he does his job I shall tell him, indeed."

Our Host answered, "Quiet, no more of this!"
 And after this he said unto the Friar,
"Tell forth your tale, beloved master dear."

____________________________

I. Annotate the following.

1. I wol yow of a somonour telle a game.

Pardee, ye may wel knowe by the name

That of a somonour may no good be sayd;

I praye that noon of you be yvele apayd.

A somonour is a rennere up and doun

With mandementz for fornicacioun,
And is ybet at every townes ende."

2. Our Host then spoke, "Ah, sir, you should be polite

And courteous, as (befits) a man of your rank;

In this company we will have no arguments.

Tell your tale, and leave the Summoner alone."

II. Answer each question in about a page:

1. Who does the Friar represent?
2. What insulting remark about summoners is made by the Friar in his prologue?
3. In what way might a sinner in the tale have the charges of the summoner dismissed?
4. “I shall tell him what a great honour, It is to be a flattering licensed beggar,” Who is referred to
as the licensed beggar? Elaborate.
5. What role does the host play in the prologue?
III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1. What is the theme of this Prologue?

2. What genres are combined in “The Friar’s Prologue”?
3. How does Chaucer bring out the Satire about the Friar?
4. How does the pilgrim Summoner respond to the insult?
5. Describe the role of the Friar in the Canterbury Tales.

Reference:
 “The Canterbury Tales: The Friar’s Prologue and Tale,” Cliffnotes, 2016,
www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/c/the-canterbury-tales/summary-and-analysis/the-friars-
prologue-and-tale
 “The Friar’s Tale.” Wikimedia Foundation, 6 May 2019,
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Friar%27s_Tale
 https://chaucer.fas.harvard.edu/pages/friars-prologueand-tale
 https://friedrichs.arts.ubc.ca/files/2019/08/Chaucer-Canterbury-Tales-Prologue.pdf

4. The Sunne Rising

Jhon Donne
John Donne (1572-1631) was born a Catholic, gained notoriety for sacrilegious verse, and later in
life became an Anglican priest. Though some of his poems defended libertinism and casual sex, he
destroyed his first career by falling in love, and stayed with the woman he married until her death.
His poems picked up a reputation for a bizarre intellectualism—one reason they're now called
metaphysical—but some of them are the most deeply felt poems of romantic love in the language.
One such poem is "The Sunne Rising."

In "The Sunne Rising," though, Donne and Anne feel right at home: there's no chance either of them
will go anywhere, because their love has placed them where they belong, and everything else must
reorient itself around them.

He is known as the founder of the Metaphysical Poets. As a Metaphysical poet he is known for the
ability to startle the reader and coax new perspectives through paradoxical images, subtle argument,
inventive syntax, and imagery from art, philosophy, and religion using an extended metaphor known
as a conceit. This technique is grounded in the idea of a "microcosm," a popular Renaissance belief
that the human body was a small-scale model of the whole universe. In the case of "The Sun Rising,"
the small space is not a single body but rather the lovers' bed. The speaker claims that "to warm the
world" is the same thing as "warming us," transforming himself into a kind of king of the world and
the centre of the universe. In fact, love in the poem is so grand that the universe itself exists within
the relationship between the two lovers. The speaker uses extended metaphor not only to compare
his bed to an empire but also to annex (that is, to take in) all of the world's empires into his own bed.
In so doing, he the expansive world into the space of his bedroom.

The Sunne Rising

Busy old fool, unruly Sun,

Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains, call on us?
Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run?
Saucy pedantic wretch, go chide
Late school-boys and sour prentices,
Go tell court-huntsmen that the king will ride,
Call country ants to harvest offices;
Love, all alike, no season knows nor clime,
Nor hours, days, months, which are the rags of time.
 Thy beams so reverend, and strong
Why shouldst thou think?
I could eclipse and cloud them with a wink,
But that I would not lose her sight so long.
If her eyes have not blinded thine,
Look, and to-morrow late tell me,
Whether both th' Indias of spice and mine
Be where thou left'st them, or lie here with me.
Ask for those kings whom thou saw'st yesterday,
And thou shalt hear, "All here in one bed lay."

She's all states, and all princes I;

Nothing else is;
Princes do but play us; compared to this,
All honour's mimic, all wealth alchemy.
Thou, Sun, art half as happy as we,
In that the world's contracted thus;
Thine age asks ease, and since thy duties be
To warm the world, that's done in warming us.
Shine here to us, and thou art everywhere;
This bed thy center is, these walls thy sphere.

Summary

Lying in bed with his lover, the speaker chides the rising sun, calling it a “busy old fool,” and asking
why it must bother them through windows and curtains. Love is not subject to season or to time, he
says, and he admonishes the sun—the “Saucy pedantic wretch”—to go and bother late schoolboys
and sour apprentices, to tell the court-huntsmen that the King will ride, and to call the country ants
to their harvesting.

Why should the sun think that his beams are strong? The speaker says that he could eclipse them
simply by closing his eyes, except that he does not want to lose sight of his beloved for even an
instant. He asks the sun—if the sun’s eyes have not been blinded by his lover’s eyes—to tell him by
late tomorrow whether the treasures of India are in the same place they occupied yesterday or if they
 are now in bed with the speaker. He says that if the sun asks about the kings he shined on yesterday,
he will learn that they all lie in bed with the speaker.

The speaker explains this claim by saying that his beloved is like every country in the world, and he
is like every king; nothing else is real. Princes simply play at having countries; compared to what he
has, all honour is mimicry and all wealth is alchemy. The sun, the speaker says, is half as happy as
he and his lover are, for the fact that the world is contracted into their bed makes the sun’s job much
easier—in its old age, it desires ease, and now all it has to do is shine on their bed and it shines on
the whole world. “This bed thy centre is,” the speaker tells the sun, “These walls, thy sphere.”

I. Annotate the following.

1) Busy old fool, unruly sun,

Why dost thou thus,
Through windows, and through curtains call on us?
Must to thy motions lovers' seasons run?

2) Thy beams so reverend, and strong

Why shouldst thou think?
I could eclipse and cloud them with a wink,
But that I would not lose her sight so long.

II. Answer each question in about a page.

1) How does the speaker of the poem treat the sun?

2) Why does the speaker call the sun busy, old and unruly?

3) Describe Donne’s imagery in the poem.

4) How has Donne expressed a combination of fantasy with genuine passion in the poem?

5) How has John Donne made an attempt to escape the reality of social regulations about love?

6) Draw a comparison on the speakers’ attitude towards the sun in the beginning and end of the
poem.
III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1) The poem is best read as a complex of tension between thought and feeling rather than as
something that conveys a ‘message’. Elucidate

2) Donne’s love poetry has been influenced by two diverse traditions. Express your views.

3)This poem can be described as “A Valediction” and can be regarded as one of the notable
contributions to philosophical poems. Explain

4) Interpret Donne’s work as a Metaphysical Poem.

Reference

 Corns, Thomas N. A History of Seventeenth-century English Literature. Malden, MA:

Blackwell, 2007. Print.
 Eliot. T.S. “The Metaphysical Poets”. Vincent B. Leitch Ed. The Norton Anthology of
Theory and Criticism.1098-1105. Print.
 Guibbory, Achsah. Ed. The Cambridge Companion to John Donne. Cambridge: Cambridge
UP, 2006. Print.
 5. Paradise Lost (Book 1)
John Milton
John Milton was a poet and scholar living in England in the 1600’s. He was born on Bread Street,
in London, in 1809. Milton’s father was a composer, and his mother was a scrivener (someone who
read and wrote letters for the illiterate for a small fee), so it’s safe to say that John grew up in an
artistic and literate household. His father had been persecuted by his grandfather for embracing
Protestantism, which no doubt led to many of John Milton’s religious and philosophical views.
Milton indeed grew up with a private tutor and later attended St Paul’s School in London, where he
learned Latin and Greek. Later, Milton would write essays and poetry in English, Latin, and Italian,
thanks to this classical education. He then went on to Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he studied
all the way to a Master of Arts degree. He also served as an Anglican Priest. After school, Milton
spent a good deal of time writing and traveling Europe. Because of great political upheaval in his
lifetime, Milton was inspired to write about justice and loss. He was even an outlaw himself for a
time, when his political and philosophical view went against those in power. Milton was a big fan
of something call Monism, which is the belief that there is no difference between body and soul,
physical and spiritual. We are a whole person, the philosophy says, and angels are just like us, only
they are more spiritual while we are more bodily. Milton was also a proponent of freedom of choice,
self-determination, and freedom of the press. Many of his poems and writings highlight those ideas.

Paradise Lost opens with Satan and his fellow fallen angels waking up in Hell. They’ve recently
fallen there after defeat in Heaven. They gather together and build a fortress, a council they call
Pandemonium. Inside the council, they plan how they can fight back and defeat God. Some want to
escape Hell and demand a rematch, but others are afraid to fight God again, knowing they will only
lose and be punished more. Satan ends up deciding to use cunning and deceit to win against God.
Rumour has it God has created a New World, with Man as a new creation there. If they can cause
ruin in this new race of beings, they’ll deliver a massive blow to God’s plans.

Satan volunteers to escape Hell and investigate God’s new creation. At the gates of Hell, he meets
Sin and Death. He discovers that Sin is his daughter/bride, and Death is their child. Satan promises
to return and allow Sin and Death to roam free on Earth. He escapes out into Chaos and, after talking
to Chaos himself, finds his way to the World, which hangs from Heaven by a golden chain. Satan
enters the World and starts looking for Man.

Meanwhile, in Heaven, God knows what Satan is doing and planning. He knows that Adam and Eve
will fall prey to Satan’s tricks and eat of the Forbidden Fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. This will
 cause great problems for Mankind, so God asks for a volunteer—someone willing to intervene in
man’s behalf and help fix the problems Satan is about to cause. God’s own Son volunteers, and all
of Heaven rejoices at this.

We jump back down to Earth. We see Adam and Eve through Satan’s eyes. They work together in
the garden and then they go back home and make love. God send angels down to the garden to find
Satan. Satan is forced to flee the scene. God sends Raphael to talk to Adam and warn him of Satan’s
plans. He tells Adam about the war in Heaven, how Satan lost and was thrown down to Hell. Adam
shares his first memories after being created. Raphael ends off by warning Adam about Satan.

Satan returns after being gone from the garden for about a week. He takes the form of a serpent and
looks for Eve, who has decided to work apart from Adam today. Satan convinces her to eat the fruit.
She does, and then she brings some of the forbidden fruit to Adam. He eats as well, and they make
love right there on the ground.

After the sin in Paradise, Satan returns to Hell to celebrate. Sin and Death are let loose on Earth.
When Satan gets back to Pandemonium, he and his followers are temporarily turned to snakes as
punishment. Back on Earth, Adam and Eve are forced to leave Paradise because they have eaten the
fruit. Before leaving, though, Adam is given a vision of the future, in which he sees all the suffering
his mistakes will cause. On the other hand, he also sees that salvation will come through God’s Son,
who will take the form of a man named Jesus.

Paradise Lost

OF Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit

Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast

Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man

Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,

Sing Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top

Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire

That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed,

In the Beginning how the Heav'ns and Earth

Rose out of Chaos: or if Sion Hill

Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flow'd

Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence

Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song,

That with no middle flight intends to soar

Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues

Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime.

And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer

Before all Temples th' upright heart and pure,

Instruct me, for Thou know'st; Thou from the first

Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread

Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss

And mad'st it pregnant: What in me is dark

Illumin, what is low raise and support;

That to the highth of this great Argument

I may assert Eternal Providence,

And justifie the wayes of God to men.

Paraphrase

Of the first disobedience of Man, and the fruit

Of the forbidden tree, the taste of which

Brought Death and sorrow into the world

And barred us from Paradise, until a greater Man

Led us back to the Heavenly lands,

 Sing, sacred Inspiration, you who on the secret mountain

Of Oreb, or in the Sinai Desert, inspired

The Shepherd who first taught the chosen people

How in the beginning Heaven and Earth

Was created from disorder. Or if Sion Hill,

Is your chosen spot, or Siloa’s stream which flowed

Swiftly past God’s messenger; from there

I call you to help me as I sing my ambitious song,

Which I don’t intend to take the easy way

Above the mountain of inspiration, while it tries

Things never yet seen in either prose or poetry.

And chiefly, Spirit, which values

More than temples the pure and honest heart,

Guide me, for you have the wisdom; from the start

You were there, and with your great wings spread out

Sat like a dove, perched over the great gorge

And bred life from it: shine a light

Into the darkness inside me, lift up what is low,

So that I can do justice to this great subject

And show the actions of God,

And explain the ways of God to men.

I. Annotate the following.

1) OF Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit

Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
2) Instruct me, for Thou know'st; Thou from the first
Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread
Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss
And mad'st it pregnant: What in me is dark
Illumin, what is low raise and support;
That to the highth of this great Argument
I may assert Eternal Providence,
And justifie the wayes of God to men.

II. Answer each question in about a page.

1) Why is Satan cast out of heaven?

2) Whom does Milton call upon at the beginning of his epic?

3) What is Adam’s and Eve’s role in the poem?

4) What does John Milton say that heaven and Earth was created for disorder?

III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1) Discuss the first disobedience of Man, and the fruit of the forbidden tree.

2) The poem begins after Satan and the other rebel angels have been defeated and banished
to Hell. Comment

3) What is Milton's purpose in writing this poem?

Reference:

 An educational documentary film on Paradise Lost

 A BBC Documentary: “Milton’s Heaven and Hell”

 Overly Sarcastic Productions video summary

 A New Yorker article on the “enduring relevance of John Milton”

 BBC podcast on John Milton from the In our Time series.

 6. A Poison Tree
William Blake
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker.
Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of
the poetry and visual art of the Romantic Age.

Blake's work is characterized by its imaginative power, its spiritual vision, and its radical politics.
He was a visionary who believed that art could transform society and bring about a new age of
freedom and equality. His poetry and paintings are full of rich symbolism and complex ideas, and
they continue to be studied and interpreted by scholars and artists today.

The poem ‘A Poison Tree’ is one of the most wonderful and appreciated works of William Blake. It
was published in the year 1794 in his collection of Songs of Experience, which talks about various
emotions of humans. ‘A Poison Tree’ forces you to look deep down inside your own self.

A Poison Tree is a short and deceptively simple poem about repressing anger and
the consequences of doing so. The speaker tells of how they fail to communicate their wrath to
their foe and how this continues to grow until it develops into poisonous hatred.

The speaker describes how when they were angry with a friend, they talked to their friend about the
issue which helped them to overcome their anger. However, the speaker was unable to do the same
with an enemy and this leads to developing resentment and an even stronger degree of hatred.
An extended metaphor of a tree growing in the speaker's garden demonstrates how the anger
continues to grow. In the lines 'And I water'd it in fears' and 'And I sunned it with smiles' the speaker
actively cultivates the tree/anger.

Eventually the anger blossoms into a poisoned fruit, the enemy eats the fruit and dies and the speaker
seems to be glad of this. However, there is also a sense that they see the destructiveness of what has
occurred. As the first lines acknowledge, we can easily overcome our anger if we communicate it
properly.

A Poison Tree
I was angry with my friend;
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.

And I waterd it in fears,

Night & morning with my tears:
And I sunned it with smiles,
And with soft deceitful wiles.

And it grew both day and night.

Till it bore an apple bright.
And my foe beheld it shine,
And he knew that it was mine.

And into my garden stole,

When the night had veild the pole;
In the morning glad I see;
My foe outstretched beneath the tree.

The speaker recounts being mad at a friend. The speaker told their friend about this anger, which

subsequently went away. By contrast, when the speaker was angry with an enemy, the speaker kept

quiet. Their anger then increased.

The speaker cultivated this anger as if it were something planted in a garden, metaphorically

nourishing it with fears and tears, both day and night. The speaker's smiles and other gentle

deceptions used to hide the anger, in fact only fed the anger further.

The anger grew constantly until it became a tree, which bore a bright apple. The speaker's enemy

saw this apple shining and knew it belonged to the speaker.

 The enemy snuck into the speaker's garden during the dead of night. The next morning, the speaker

is happy to see this enemy lying dead beneath the tree.

I. Annotate the following.

1) I was angry with my friend;
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
I was angry with my foe:
I told it not, my wrath did grow.

2) And I waterd it in fears,

Night & morning with my tears:

II. Answer each question in about a page.

1) Whom does ‘I’ refer to in the first line of the poem?
2) What does the apple symbolize on the poem?
3) In “A Poison Tree,” how did the poet feed his anger?
4) What does the speaker mean when he says he “Sunned it with smiles”?
5) How did the poet react when he saw his foe outstretched beneath the tree?

III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1) How does the poem describe the wrath between the speaker and another person, who we only
know as his “foe”?
2) Describe how the poets anger kept growing with his friend.
3) What happened to the poet’s foe eventually and how did he react to this?
4) In the poem has the speakers act of revenge justified. Elaborate
5) Analyse the moral lessons in the end of the poem.

Reference:

 Songs of Innocence and Experience (copy Y), plate 49, William Blake (British, London
1757–1827 London), printed ca. 1825
 7. Ode to Duty
William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) was a prominent English Romantic poet known for his lyrical
poetry and deep connection to nature. Wordsworth’s mother died when he was eight—this
experience shapes much of his later work. Wordsworth attended Hawkshead Grammar School,
where his love of poetry was firmly established and, it is believed, where he made his first attempts
at verse. While he was at Hawkshead, Wordsworth’s father died leaving him and his four siblings
orphans. After Hawkshead, Wordsworth studied at St. John’s College in Cambridge and, before his
final semester, he set out on a walking tour of Europe—an experience that influenced both his poetry
and his political sensibilities. While touring Europe, Wordsworth came into contact with the French
Revolution. This experience, as well as a subsequent period living in France, brought about
Wordsworth’s interest and sympathy for the life, troubles, and speech of the “common man.”

Wordsworth's influence on the Romantic movement and his innovative use of language and imagery
have secured his place as one of the most significant poets in English literature. His impact on poetry
and the portrayal of nature continues to resonate with readers and scholars to this day.

An Ode is a lyric poem that is serious in subject, elevated in style and elaborate in its arrangement
of stanzas. Originally, odes were written in praise of persons or of events. English Odes have a
great importance, although at present they are rarely written.

John Keats is famous for his great odes. The popular poem 'Ode to Duty' was composed by William
Wordsworth in 1805. It was published in his 'Poems in Two Volumes' in 1807. In this poem the poet
personifies duty as a goddess. He got inspiration to compose this ode from Gray's 'Ode to
Adversity' in which he personifies 'Adversity'. According to the poet duty is the most important part
in the life of human beings. He personifies duty as the strict daughter of God. This poem is in the
form of ode. An ode in which somebody is addressed. Like this, the duty is addressed in the poem
'Ode to Duty'.

The poet compares duty to the light that shows the right path to human beings. It guides human
beings to do the right things in life. It helps a man in removing mental conflicts and also help to
overcome fears in his life. The poet says that there are also some people who do not require the help
of duty to do the right things in their life. They do them naturally as their inner voice guide them to
 do it. They are happy persons. They are men of noble characters. If sometimes they fail to
perform their duty well then duty helps them to choose the right path.

The poet says that it will be very nice when people will perform their duty according to their inner
voice and will feel satisfied to do them. As inner voice never can be wrong. They will be happy to do
so. But when they feel any confusion in their life then they want the help of duty. The poet expresses
his feelings that when he was young, he liked the freedom and did their works according to his
comfort. He was a lover of his freedom. He always selected the easy path to go. Because the way of
duty is not so easy. But now he decides to follow the right path of duty.

The poet chooses the right path to follow not because of his mental conflicts but he knows the
importance of the right of duty. The poet now wants to live a happy and peaceful life. Duty is a strict
daughter of God's voice.

Ode to Duty
Stern Daughter of the Voice of God!
O Duty! if that name thou love
Who art a light to guide, a rod
To check the erring, and reprove;
Thou, who art victory and law
When empty terrors overawe;
From vain temptations dost set free;
And calm'st the weary strife of frail humanity!

There are who ask not if thine eye

Be on them; who, in love and truth,
Where no misgiving is, rely
Upon the genial sense of youth:
Glad Hearts! without reproach or blot;
Who do thy work, and know it not:
Oh! if through confidence misplaced
They fail, thy saving arms, dread Power! around them cast.
Serene will be our days and bright,
And happy will our nature be,
When love is an unerring light,
And joy its own security.
And they a blissful course may hold
Even now, who, not unwisely bold,
Live in the spirit of this creed;
Yet seek thy firm support, according to their need.

I, loving freedom, and untried;

No sport of every random gust,
Yet being to myself a guide,
Too blindly have reposed my trust:
And oft, when in my heart was heard
Thy timely mandate, I deferred
The task, in smoother walks to stray;
But thee I now would serve more strictly, if I may.

Through no disturbance of my soul,

Or strong compunction in me wrought,
I supplicate for thy control;
But in the quietness of thought:
Me this unchartered freedom tires;
I feel the weight of chance-desires:
My hopes no more must change their name,
I long for a repose that ever is the same.

Stern Lawgiver! yet thou dost wear

The Godhead's most benignant grace;
Nor know we anything so fair
As is the smile upon thy face:
Flowers laugh before thee on their beds
And fragrance in thy footing treads;
Thou dost preserve the stars from wrong;
And the most ancient heavens, through Thee, are fresh and strong.

To humbler functions, awful Power!

I call thee: I myself commend
Unto thy guidance from this hour;
Oh, let my weakness have an end!
Give unto me, made lowly wise,
The spirit of self-sacrifice;
The confidence of reason give;
And in the light of truth thy Bondman let me live!

Summary
According to the poet, duty is always hard to perform but she has very kind expressions. She has
always a divine smile on her face. Like human beings, the objects of nature also perform their duty.
As flowers bloom in the garden and spread their fragrance all around because it is their duty to spread
fragrance all around. As all the planets move in their direction always performing their duty to the
universe.

Here Wordsworth invokes the duty to help him to perform his works well as she is powerful. The
poet says that his works are not very sublime in nature. He requests duty to guide him always to
follow the right path. He further says that he wants to be under the guidance of duty. He prays again
Duty to give enough mental power to sacrifice himself for the good of others. He says that he needs
enough courage for it. After being kind, he has become now more and more intelligent to perform
his duties well for the sake of others. The poet prays her to give him the power of self-confidence to
pass his life truthfully.
Thus, the poem 'Ode to Duty' has a universal appeal. It teaches the importance of duty in the
development of human personality. It contains the poet's personal and confessional elements. Thus,
the poem reflects the development of the poet's mind. It has both novelty and sublimity in its
theme. Its conception of duty makes it more splendour forever. The ode has seven stanzas of eight
lines each. The meter is iambic tetrameter of first seven lines of each stanza but the eighth line is in
iambic hexameter. The rhyming scheme of each stanza is different.

I. Annotate the following.

1) Stern Daughter of the Voice of God!
O Duty! if that name thou love
Who art a light to guide, a rod
To check the erring, and reprove;

2) To humbler functions, awful Power!

I call thee: I myself commend
Unto thy guidance from this hour;
Oh, let my weakness have an end!

II. Answer each question in about a page.

1) In the poem why is duty called the stern daughter of the Voice of God.
2) How does the adjective ‘stern ‘fit the character of the daughter in the poem?
3)Who is referred to as “Stern Lawgiver” in sixth stanza?
4) What is the theme of the poem "Ode to Duty" by William Wordsworth

III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1) Wordsworth personifies duty as a stern yet benevolent force. Elucidate
2) How does the poem teach the importance of duty in the development of human personality?
3) According to Wordsworth what does duty do to a man? Elucidate.
4) How does the poet invoke the power of duty in the poem?

Reference:
 https://www.scribd.com/document/516170956/Ode-to-Duty-by-William-
 Wordsworth#:~:text=The%20poem%20depicts%20Duty%20as,following%20its%20guida
nce%20going%20forward.
 8. Sailing to Byzantium
William Butler Yeats

William Butler Yeats, (born June 13, 1865, Sandymount, Dublin, Ire.—died Jan. 28, 1939,
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France), Irish poet, dramatist, and prose writer. The son of a well-known
painter, Yeats early developed an interest in mysticism and visionary traditions as well as in Irish
folklore, and both interests would continue to be sources of poetic imagery for him. His early
volumes include the poetry volume The Wanderings of Oisin (1889) and the essay collection The
Celtic Twilight (1893).

In 1889 he fell in love with Maud Gonne, a brilliant, beautiful Irish patriot who inspired his
involvement in Irish nationalism but did not reciprocate his feelings. With Lady Augusta Gregory
and others, he founded the theatre that became the Abbey Theatre; throughout his life he would
remain one of its directors.

‘Sailing to Byzantium’ by W.B. Yeats tells the story of a man who is travelling to a new country,
Byzantium, a spiritual resort to him. Byzantium was an ancient Greek colony later named
Constantinople, which is situated where Istanbul, Turkey, now stands. While the speaker does take
an actual journey to Byzantium, the reader can interpret this journey as a metaphorical one, perhaps
representing the journey of the artist. In the poem, the speaker feels the country in which he resides
is no place for the old, it is only welcoming to the young and promising. The speaker thus decides
to travel to Byzantium, and later, to eternity, where age is not an issue, and he will be able to
transcend his physical life.

Sailing to Byzantium

That is no country for old men. The young

In one another's arms, birds in the trees,
—Those dying generations—at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.
An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.

O sages standing in God's holy fire

As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume my heart away; sick with desire
And fastened to a dying animal
It knows not what it is; and gather me
Into the artifice of eternity.

Once out of nature I shall never take

My bodily form from any natural thing,
But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.
Summary

The speaker in ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ wishes to sail and go to an imaginary world (or country),
Byzantium. There the artist, almost impersonal, manages to reflect this vision of a whole people.
This country had a culture so integrated as to produce art that could have the impact of a single
 image. The world that the poet wants to leave to sail to Byzantium is transfixed by the “sensual
music” of its singing birds which is represented by decaying multitudinous bodies – fish, flesh, foul.
These “dying generations” of the world’s birds sing songs to the body, songs which distract all
people from the contemplation of “monuments of unageing intellect.” Those alone can justify an old
man’s existence and cannot be produced in modern chaotic times.

The poem is broken into four stanzas, each containing eight lines. There is a set rhyme scheme
throughout the poem of abababcc. Yeats wrote the poem in iambic pentameter, and there is a rhyming
couplet at the end of each stanza. Besides, the poet’s journey to Byzantium is also an elevating step
towards eternity. The sing-song-like structure makes the mood of the poem optimistic, though the
poet touches on the negatives of worldly life.

Yeats presents several themes in this poem. First of all, ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ presents the theme of
spirituality. Here, the poet refers to a different kind of spirituality that does not centre on the concept
of asceticism. The speaker is more concerned with the study of artworks that elevates the intellectual
capacity of the soul. Thereafter, one can find themes of old age vs youth, culture, art, and eternity.
This poem deals with the contrast between old age and youth. Youth, according to the poet, is a time
of enjoyment of worldly pleasures. While old age is all about how one utilizes one’s wisdom for the
betterment of the soul. Moreover, the poet talks about the dying culture of his time. Lastly, Yeats
also talks about the role of classical art and its magnificence that can last for eternity.

I. Annotate the following.

1) An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,

2) O sages standing in God's holy fire

As in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And be the singing-masters of my soul.

II. Answer each question in about a page.

1) Where does the poet want to sail and why?
2) How is the theme of spirituality presented in the poem?
3) What image does the word “tattered” create in the second stanza?
4) What request does Yeats make to the sages standing in God’s holy fire?
5) How does the first stanza of Sailing to Byzantium criticize modern life?

III. Answer each question in about two pages.

1) Discuss the spiritual journey towards perfection and immorality in poem.
2) Explain the meaning and significance of “Byzantium” in the poem.
3) Critically analyse the poem Sailing to Byzantium.

Reference:
 https://owlcation.com/humanities/Analysis-of-Poem-Sailing-To-Byzantium-by-WBYeats

 Nicholas Drake, Penguin Critical Studies: The Poetry of W. B. Yeats (London: Penguin
Books, 1991)

 Norman Jeffares, A Commentary on the Collected Poems of W. B. Yeats (London:

MacMillan, 1968)
 Unit III
Prose & Podcast
 9. A Room of One’s Own

Virginia Woolf
● ⁠Text (primary)
https://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200791h.html
https://archive.org/details/woolf_aroom/page/n17/mode/2up

● Background/Introduction to the specific text & Critical Summary

The dramatic setting of A Room of One's Own is that Woolf has been invited to lecture on the topic
of Women and Fiction. She advances the thesis that "a woman must have money and a room of her
own if she is to write fiction." Her essay is constructed as a partly-fictionalised narrative of the
thinking that led her to adopt this thesis. She dramatizes that mental process in the character of an
imaginary narrator ("call me Mary Beton, Mary Seton, Mary Carmichael or by any name you
please—it is not a matter of any importance") who is in her same position, wrestling with the same
topic.

The narrator begins her investigation at Oxbridge College, where she reflects on the different
educational experiences available to men and women as well as on more material differences in their
lives. She then spends a day in the British Library perusing the scholarship on women, all of which
has been written by men and all of which has been written in anger. Turning to history, she finds so
little data about the everyday lives of women that she decides to reconstruct their existence
imaginatively. The figure of Judith Shakespeare is generated as an example of the tragic fate a highly
intelligent woman would have met with under those circumstances. In light of this background, she
considers the achievements of the major women novelists of the nineteenth century and reflects on
the importance of tradition to an aspiring writer. A survey of the current state of literature follows,
conducted through a reading of the first novel of one of the narrator's contemporaries. Woolf closes
the essay with an exhortation to her audience of women to take up the tradition that has been so
hardly bequeathed to them, and to increase the endowment for their own daughters.

● Q ⁠ uestions for annotations based on the text (5 marks)

a. “Certainly, as I strolled round the court, the foundation of gold and silver seemed deep
enough; the pavement laid solidly over the wild grasses.”
b. “Yet it is clear that could she have freed her mind from hate and fear and not heaped it with
bitterness and resentment, the fire was hot within her.”

● Answer in about a page each.

a. Why can’t the narrator enter the library at Oxbridge?
b. Why does Woolf put so much importance on money?
● Answer in about two pages each.
a. Why does Woolf create a fictional persona to walk her audience through her thoughts on
women & fiction?
b. What happens to Judith Shakespeare?
 10. British Podcast - The Witch Trials of JK Rowling (Part 1)

● ⁠Text (primary)
a. https://podscripts.co/podcasts/the-witch-trials-of-jk-rowling/chapter-1-plotted-
in-darkness
b. https://www.therowlinglibrary.com/2023/02/21/j-k-rowling-on-the-witch-trials-of-j-
k-rowling-episode-1/

● Background/Introduction to the specific text

The Witch Trials of JK Rowling is an audio documentary that examines some of the most
contentious conflicts of our time through the life and career of the world’s most successful author.
In conversation with host Megan Phelps - Roper, Rowling speaks with unprecedented candor and
depth about the controversies surrounding her- from book bans to debates on gender and sex. The
series also examines the forces propelling this moment in history, through interviews, with
Rowling’s supporters and critics, journalists, historians, clinicians and more.
There are 7 Chapters to this audio documentary viz.
Chapter 1: Plotted in Darkness
Chapter 2: Burn the Witch
Chapter 3: A New Pyre
Chapter 4: TERF Wars
Chapter 5: The Tweets
Chapter 6: Natalie & Noah
Chapter 7: What If You are Wrong?
As part of the syllabus, we will be dealing with the first chapter, Plotted in Darkness.

● ⁠Critical summary
The first episode, Plotted in Darkness, explores the dark place that was Rowling’s life as a young
woman. It opens with Rowling being asked why she thinks stories about magic are so appealing.
She reflects that magic provides agency. It is a secret power, seductive to those who lack control
over their lives. Children in particular have little agency, she observes.

Rowling speaks from personal experience. Power over one’s destiny is a thread that weaves in
complicated ways through her life story. In her own voice, she describes her life in her late twenties.
We hear of the death of her mother, her abusive marriage, the poverty and insecurity she experienced
as a single parent on welfare, and her struggles with mental health. And yet all the while she was
working, plotting out and writing the manuscript that would one day be her ticket to financial
security and popular acclaim. Rowling’s abusive and controlling husband, we learn, literally held
the pages of the Harry Potter manuscript hostage to control her and prevent her from fleeing his
violence.

● ⁠Questions for annotations based the text (5 mark)

a. “Magic gives a person agency they wouldn’t otherwise have”
b. “Our stories aren’t static”

● ⁠Answer in about a page each.

a. Give a background setting of the audio documentary, The Witch Trials of JK
Rowling.
b. Describe Rowling’s childhood.

● ⁠Answer in about two pages each.

a. Critically comment about the critics of JK Rowling.
b. Exemplify Rowling’s hardships in life.

● Suggested/further reading list

https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/2023/03/06/witch-trials-jk-rowling-podcast-
hesse-column/
 Unit IV

Novel & Short Story

 11. GREAT EXPECTATIONS
Charles Dickens

The Victorian Era: Brief Introduction

The Victorian era is named after Queen Victoria, who ruled the UK from 1837 to 1901. As such, it
began as soon as she became queen on June 20, 1837, and ended with her death on January 22, 1901.

Victorian literature is English literature during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901).
The 19th century is considered by some the Golden Age of English Literature, especially for British
novels. In the Victorian era, the novel became the leading literary genre in English. English writing
from this era reflects the major transformations in most aspects of English life, from scientific,
economic, and technological advances to changes in class structures and the role of religion in
society. The number of new novels published each year increased from 100 at the start of the period
to 1000 by the end of it. Famous novelists from this period include Charles Dickens, William Make
peace Thackeray, three Brontë sisters, Elizabeth Gaskell, George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), Thomas
Hardy, and Rudyard Kipling.

Charles John Huffam Dickens born February 7, 1812, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England—died
June 9, 1870, Gad’s Hill, near Chatham, Kent) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer
and social critic. His father was a navy clerk and spent his early childhood in Kent, the setting for
Pip's village in Great Expectations. When Dickens was ten, the family moved to London and his
father was thrown in debtors' prison. Dickens left school and worked in a boot-blacking warehouse
to help support his household. He later returned to school but left at fifteen to work as a law clerk, a
court reporter, and a political journalist before devoting himself to writing full-time. He created some
of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of
the Victorian era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime and, by the 20th
century, critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are
widely read today. His many volumes include works such as A Christmas Carol, David
Copperfield, Bleak House, A Tale of Two Cities, Great Expectations, and Our Mutual Friend.

Great Expectations is the thirteenth novel by Charles Dickens and his penultimate completed
novel. The novel is a Bildungsroman and chronicles the coming of age of the orphan Pip while
also addressing such issues as social class and human worth. It is Dickens' second novel, after David
Copperfield, to be fully narrated in the first person. The novel was first published as a serial in
Dickens's weekly periodical All the Year Round, from 1 December 1860 to August 1861. In October
1861, Chapman & Hall published the novel in three volumes.
Historical Context of Great Expectations

The technological innovations that gave rise to the Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and
early nineteenth century introduced the first capitalist economy, opening social and financial
opportunities to people who had never had the chance to gain status or wealth under the rigid
hereditary class hierarchy of the past. These opportunities enabled people born into lower classes to
raise their standing in society by making money and acquiring education. The new opportunities in
turn inspired ambitions that had not been possible in pre-Industrial Revolution England, where one's
life path was determined strictly by birth. Great Expectations explores both the dream and the
realization of such ambitions, both what is gained and what is lost, and showcases lives from all
classes of nineteenth-century British society.

Plot Overview:

Pip, a young orphan living with his sister and her husband in the marshes of Kent, sits in a cemetery
one evening looking at his parents’ tombstones. Suddenly, an escaped convict springs up from
behind a tombstone, grabs Pip, and orders him to bring him food and a file for his leg irons. Pip
obeys, but the fearsome convict is soon captured anyway. The convict protects Pip by claiming to
have stolen the items himself.

One day Pip is taken by his Uncle Pumblechook to play at Satis House, the home of the wealthy
dowager Miss Havisham, who is extremely eccentric: she wears an old wedding dress everywhere
she goes and keeps all the clocks in her house stopped at the same time. During his visit, he meets a
beautiful young girl named Estella, who treats him coldly and contemptuously. Nevertheless, he
falls in love with her and dreams of becoming a wealthy gentleman so that he might be worthy of
her. He even hopes that Miss Havisham intends to make him a gentleman and marry him to Estella,
but his hopes are dashed when, after months of regular visits to Satis House, Miss Havisham tells
him that she will help him fill out the papers necessary for him to become a common labourer in his
family’s business. With Miss Havisham’s guidance, Pip is apprenticed to his brother-in-law, Joe,
who is the village blacksmith. Pip works in the forge unhappily, struggling to better his education
with the help of the plain, kind Biddy and encountering Joe’s malicious day labourer, Orlick. One
night, after an altercation with Orlick, Pip’s sister, known as Mrs. Joe, is viciously attacked and
becomes a mute invalid. From her signals, Pip deduces that Orlick was responsible for the attack.
One day a lawyer named Jaggers appears with strange news: a secret benefactor has given Pip a
large fortune, and Pip must come to London immediately to begin his education as a gentleman. Pip
happily assumes that his previous hopes have come true—that Miss Havisham is his secret
benefactor and that the old woman intends for him to marry Estella.

In London, Pip befriends a young gentleman named Herbert Pocket and Jaggers’s law clerk,
Wemmick. He expresses disdain for his former friends and loved ones, especially Joe, but he
continues to pine after Estella. He furthers his education by studying with the tutor Matthew Pocket,
Herbert’s father. Herbert himself helps Pip learn how to act like a gentleman. When Pip turns twenty-
one and begins to receive an income from his fortune, he will secretly help Herbert buy his way into
the business he has chosen for himself. But for now, Herbert and Pip lead a fairly undisciplined life
in London, enjoying themselves and running up debts. Orlick reappears in Pip’s life, employed as
Miss Havisham’s porter, but is promptly fired by Jaggers after Pip reveals Orlick’s unsavoury past.
Mrs. Joe dies, and Pip goes home for the funeral, feeling tremendous grief and remorse. Several
years go by, until one night a familiar figure barges into Pip’s room—the convict, Magwitch, who
stuns Pip by announcing that he, not Miss Havisham, is the source of Pip’s fortune. He tells Pip that
he was so moved by Pip’s boyhood kindness that he dedicated his life to making Pip a gentleman,
and he made a fortune in Australia for that very purpose. Pip is appalled, but he feels morally bound
to help Magwitch escape London, as the convict is pursued both by the police and by Compeyson,
his former partner in crime. A complicated mystery begins to fall into place when Pip discovers that
Compeyson was the man who abandoned Miss Havisham at the altar and that Estella is Magwitch’s
daughter. Miss Havisham has raised her to break men’s hearts, as revenge for the pain her own
broken heart caused her. Pip was merely a boy for the young Estella to practice on; Miss Havisham
delighted in Estella’s ability to toy with his affections.

As the weeks pass, Pip sees the good in Magwitch and begins to care for him deeply. Before
Magwitch’s escape attempt, Estella marries an upper-class lout named Bentley Drummle. Pip makes
a visit to Satis House, where Miss Havisham begs his forgiveness for the way she has treated him in
the past, and he forgives her. Later that day, when she bends over the fireplace, her clothing catches
fire and she goes up in flames. She survives but becomes an invalid. In her final days, she will
continue to repent for her misdeeds and to plead for Pip’s forgiveness. The time comes for Pip and
his friends to spirit Magwitch away from London. Just before the escape attempt, Pip is called to a
shadowy meeting in the marshes, where he encounters the vengeful, evil Orlick.
Orlick is on the verge of killing Pip when Herbert arrives with a group of friends and saves Pip’s
life. Pip and Herbert hurry back to effect Magwitch’s escape. They try to sneak Magwitch down the
river on a rowboat, but they are discovered by the police, who Compeyson tipped off. Magwitch and
Compeyson fight in the river, and Compeyson is drowned. Magwitch is sentenced to death, and Pip
loses his fortune. Magwitch feels that his sentence is God’s forgiveness and dies at peace. Pip falls
ill and Joe comes to London to care for him, and they are reconciled. Joe gives him the news from
home: Orlick, after robbing Pumblechook, is now in jail; Miss Havisham has died and left most of
her fortune to the Pockets; Biddy has taught Joe how to read and write. After Joe leaves, Pip decides
to rush home after him and marry Biddy, but when he arrives there, he discovers that she and Joe
have already married. Pip decides to go abroad with Herbert to work in the mercantile trade.
Returning many years later, he encounters Estella in the ruined garden at Satis House. Drummle, her
husband, treated her badly, but he is now dead. Pip finds that Estella’s coldness and cruelty have
been replaced by a sad kindness, and the two leave the garden hand in hand, Pip believing that they
will never part again.

I. Answer each question in about a page.

1.Discuss the character of Miss Havisham.

2.Compare Pip’s ambitions and trajectories with those of Herbert Pocket’s.

3.How are the female characters portrayed in ‘Great Expectations'?

4.What are the three conditions Mr. Jaggers attaches to Pip’s inheritance?

5.What do the prisons in ‘Great Expectations' signify?

6.How does social class affect Pip's friendships in ‘Great Expectations'?

II. Answer each question in about two pages.

1.Critically Analyse ‘Great Expectations' as a critique of Victorian society.

2. Discuss the symbolism of the character Estella in Great Expectations. How does she represent
the ideals of Victorian society and the destructive power of unattainable love?
3. ‘Great Expectations' is a coming-of-age tale with strong moral lessons about wealth and nobility,
guilt and criminality, conscience and self-deception Elucidate.

4. Pip’s penitence and his family’s forgiveness enable Pip’s redemption. Conversely, Compeyson’s
lack of remorse and Miss Havisham’s inability to forgive him keep Satis House frozen in time and
darkness. Elaborate.

5. Comment on the Key concepts and moral lessons in ‘Great Expectations' and their relevance to
modern life.

6. Great Expectations explores the consequences of ambition, the complexities of identity, and the
importance of personal integrity. Elucidate.

7. Comment on the themes of guilt and redemption in in ‘Great Expectations'.

8.Comment on the significance of the title ‘Great Expectations'. In what ways does Pip have great
expectations?

9. Explore the theme of social class in Great Expectations. How does Dickens depict the
relationship between social status and personal identity?

10. Explore the significance of the setting in Great Expectations. How does the marshes, the
London cityscape, and Satis House contribute to the atmosphere and overall meaning of the novel?

Further Reading:

1. http://charlesdickenspage.com/illustrations-great_expectations.html
2. John Forster, The Life of Charles Dickens, Forgotten Books, 2009.
3. P.A.W. Collins, Dickens and Crime, London: Palgrave, 1995.
4. Hobsbaum, Philip. A Reader's Guide to Charles Dickens. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux,
1973. (Features a discerning chapter on Great Expectations and includes a comprehensive
bibliography of critical studies on the novel.)
 12. THE DEAD
James Joyce

About the author:

James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet
and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of
the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. Joyce's novel Ulysses (1922) is a
landmark in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in a variety of literary styles,
particularly stream of consciousness. Other well-known works are the short-story
collection Dubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916)
and Finnegans Wake (1939). His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, letters, and
occasional journalism.

Short Summary:

In “The Dead,” from James Joyce’s Dubliners, Gabriel and Gretta Conroy attend a party hosted by
Gabriel's aunts. As the evening progresses, Gabriel engages in conversations, delivers a speech on
Irish hospitality, and reflects on his interactions. The night takes a poignant turn when Gretta
reminisces about a former love, leading Gabriel to profound realizations about life and human
connections.

I. Answer each question in about a page.

1. Describe Gabriel Conroy's relationships with women in ‘The Dead'.

2. What role does music play in the story?
3. What causes Gabriel's discomfort, agitation, and insecurity in ‘The Dead'?
4. Who are the three graces Gabriel refers to in ‘The Dead'?
5. Snow appears as a motif throughout ‘The Dead.’ What does the snow symbolize?
6. By the end of the story, Gabriel feels as though he hardly knows his wife. In what ways is
Gretta’s secret foreshadowed in the narrative?

II. Answer each question in about two pages.

1. Explain the significance of the title ‘The Dead'.
2. Bring out the significance of Gabriel's speech at the end of the story.
3. Analyse the character of Gabriel Conroy in "The Dead". What are his strengths and
weaknesses, and how does he change throughout the story?
4. Discuss the theme of identity in "The Dead". How do the characters' perceptions of
themselves and others relate to their sense of identity?
 5. Examine the relationship between Gabriel and Gretta Conroy. What tensions and conflicts
exist between them, and how do they reveal their characters?
6. Discuss the significance of the party setting in "The Dead". How does it reflect the
characters' social status, relationships, and values?
7. Analyse the character of Michael Furey. What role does he play in the story, and what does
he represent?

Further Reading

 Bowen, Zack (1974). Musical Allusions in the Works of James Joyce: Early Poetry Through
Ulysses. Albany: SUNY Press, pp. 11–13, 18–23. ISBN 0-87395-248-0

 Maddox, Brenda (1988). Nora – A biography of Nora Joyce, 1988.

 O'Dowd, Peadar, "James Joyce's 'The Dead' and its Galway Connections" in Journal of the Galway
Archaeological and Historical Society, Volume 51, 1999, pp. 189–193.
 Unit V

Drama, One- Act Play & Short Film

 13. THE TEMPEST

William Shakespeare

About the playwright

William Shakespeare (23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor.
He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent
dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "the Bard").
His extant works, including collaborations, consist of some 39 plays, 154 sonnets, three
long narrative poems and a few other verses. His plays have been translated into every major living
language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare remains
arguably the most influential writer in the English language, and his works continue to be studied
and reinterpreted.

Plot Overview

The Tempest is a five act play by William Shakespeare, probably written in 1610–1611, and
thought to be one of the last plays that he wrote alone. It is a play about magic, betrayal, love and
forgiveness. It is set on an island somewhere near Italy where Prospero, the one-time Duke of Milan,
and his beautiful daughter, Miranda, live with an airy spirit called Ariel and a savage monster figure
called Caliban. Prospero is a powerful magician who creates a storm, or tempest, that sets the scene
for the play. In the events that follow we see a plot to murder the King of Naples, a drunken scheme
to kill Prospero and a romance between Miranda and the King’s son, Ferdinand. In the end everyone
is forgiven and they all set sail for home.

Summary

A ship carrying Alonso King of Naples, his son Ferdinand, Antonio, and other nobles, is wrecked in
a storm created by the spirit Ariel, under the magic art of Prospero. Prospero’s daughter Miranda,
afraid for the voyagers, is told they are safe. He explains to her that he is the rightful Duke of Milan,
usurped by Antonio, and that they had arrived on their island many years before after being sent out
to sea by some of those whom he now has in his power.

As Miranda sleeps, Ariel reports that the lords are on the island as he had commanded, with
Ferdinand separated from the others. Caliban, a savage inhabitant of the island who is also controlled
by Prospero, expresses his hostility to Prospero, but is forced to do his bidding. Prospero gets Ariel
to lead Ferdinand across the island so that he meets Miranda, and they fall in love. To test his worth,
Prospero makes Ferdinand carry out menial tasks.

Alonso and the lords begin their search for Ferdinand, though they fear him drowned. Antonio
persuades Alonso’s brother Sebastian to kill the king and claim his throne, but Ariel intervenes and
stops them. Caliban encounters Alonso’s jester Trinculo and butler Stephano, whom he decides to
serve with the aim of persuading them to kill Prospero. They get drunk, and Prospero sends Ariel to
confuse and play tricks on them.

A magical banquet is placed before the lords. As they prepare to eat, Alonso, Sebastian, and Antonio
are fiercely reprimanded for their past deeds by Ariel. Alonso runs off, followed by the others.
Prospero brings Iris, Juno, and Ceres into a ceremony celebrating Ferdinand and Miranda’s
betrothal. He has Ariel and other spirits chase Caliban, Stephano, and Trinculo away through the
marshes, to foil their plot against him. He then vows to give up his magical powers once he has
achieved his ends, and to free Ariel, who has been begging for liberty.

Ariel leads the lords to Prospero, and they stand in a trance before him. He rouses them, and they
beg forgiveness, which Prospero grants, and he is restored to his dukedom. Ferdinand and Miranda
are revealed to them. Ariel leads in the sailors from their ship, and then Caliban, Trinculo, and
Stephano. Caliban regrets his service to Stephano and Trinculo, and promises to behave. Prospero
sets Ariel free, and finally asks the audience for his own release, through their applause.

I. Answer each question in about a page.

1.Compare and contrast the characters of Ariel and Caliban.

2.How does Prospero manipulate Alonso and his company?

3.Who is Ariel and why does he work for Prospero?

4.Why does Caliban hate Prospero and Miranda?

5.What happens to Caliban at the end of the play?

6.How does Caliban describe the island?

7.What tasks does Ariel perform for Prospero?

8.What happens to Ariel at the end of the play?

9.Analyse Prospero’s treatment of Ferdinand.

10.Characterize the interaction that takes place at the end of Prospero’s conversation with Ariel.

II. Answer each question in about two pages.

1.Comment on the theme of freedom in the play.

2.How is the theme of usurpation carried out in the play?

3.Nature and society are frequently contrasted in ‘The Tempest', and they occasionally conflict.
Trace this theme throughout the course of the play.

4.Why must Prospero relinquish his powers at the end of the play?

5.Analyse the character of Prospero in ‘The Tempest'. What are his motivations, strengths, and
weaknesses, and how does he change throughout the play?

6. Discuss the theme of power in "The Tempest". How do the characters exercise power, and what
are the consequences of their actions?

7. Explore the symbolism of the island in "The Tempest". What does it represent, and how does it
relate to the characters and their experiences?

8. Examine the relationship between Prospero and Caliban. What tensions and conflicts exist
between them, and how do they reveal their characters?

9. Discuss the theme of forgiveness in "The Tempest". How do the characters confront their past
mistakes, and what insights does the play offer on the nature of forgiveness?

10. Consider the play an allegory of European colonization,

Further Reading

1. Bloom, Harold, ed. Caliban. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1992.
2. Auden, W. H. “The Sea and the Mirror.” In For the Time Being. London: Faber and Faber,
1945.
3. Breight, Curt. “‘Treason doth never prosper’: The Tempest and the Discourse of
Treason.” Shakespeare Quarterly 41 (1990): 1–28.
4. Murphy, Patrick M., ed. The Tempest: Critical Essays. New York: Garland, 2000.
5. Palmer, D., ed. Shakespeare: The Tempest: A Casebook. Nashville: Aurora
Publishers, 1970.
 14. WAITING FOR GODOT

Samuel Beckett

About the Playwright

Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) was an Irish novelist, playwright, poet, and theatre director. He
is widely regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of the 20th century. He was
born in Dublin, Ireland, to a Protestant family. Studied French, Italian, and English at Trinity College
in Dublin. He started writing in the 1930s, initially focusing on poetry and fiction.

Beckett's experiences during World War II, including his involvement in the French
Resistance, had a profound impact on his writing. He is best known for his absurdist plays,
particularly "Waiting for Godot" (1953) and "Endgame" (1958), which explore the human condition,
existentialism, and the absurdity of life. He wrote several novels, including "Murphy" (1938), "Watt"
(1953), and "How It Is" (1964), which showcase his unique blend of dark humour, philosophical
introspection, and experimental prose. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1969.
Beckett's writing continues to inspire and influence artists, writers, and thinkers around the world.

Waiting for Godot" is a play by Samuel Beckett, first performed in 1953. It's a classic of absurdist
theatre, exploring themes of existentialism, uncertainty, and the human condition.

Plot Overview

Waiting for Godot" is a two - act tragicomedy play that follows two characters, Vladimir and
Estragon, who wait endlessly for someone named Godot. The play ends with Vladimir and Estragon
deciding to leave but not moving, stuck in an infinite loop of waiting for Godot who never arrives.

Plot Summary

Vladimir and Estragon wait at the side of a road, near a tree, agreeing that there is "nothing to be
done." Estragon struggles to take off one of his boots. Vladimir asks if Estragon has ever read the
Bible. Estragon says all he remembers are some coloured maps of the holy land. Vladimir tells
Estragon about the two thieves crucified along with Jesus. One of the gospels says that one of the
thieves was saved, but Vladimir wonders if this is true. Estragon wants to leave, but Vladimir
reminds him that they have to wait here for Godot. Estragon and Vladimir debate whether they are
in the right place and whether it is the right day for Godot to come. Estragon falls asleep and Vladimir
immediately wakes him, saying he was lonely without him. Estragon starts to describe his dream,
but Vladimir angrily stops him and tells him to keep his nightmares to himself.
Vladimir wonders what he and Estragon should do, and Estragon says they should continue to wait.
While waiting, Estragon suggests they hang themselves on the tree. The two disagree over who
should hang himself first, though, and Vladimir concludes that they should just wait for Godot.
Estragon asks what Vladimir asked Godot for and Vladimir says that he made a vague sort of prayer.
Estragon is hungry, and Vladimir offers him a carrot. All he can find in his pockets, though, are
turnips. Finally, he finds a carrot and gives it to Estragon. Estragon asks if they are "tied" to Godot
and Vladimir says that they are. The two are interrupted by a loud scream off-stage.

Pozzo and Lucky enter. Pozzo drives Lucky forward with a whip like a pack animal, with a rope tied
around his neck. Lucky is forced to carry Pozzo's things. Estragon asks if this is Godot, but then
Pozzo introduces himself. He jerks the rope that is around Lucky's neck and calls him "pig." Lucky
brings him his stool and some food. Pozzo eats some chicken and Estragon begs him for the leftover
bones. Pozzo gives him the bones. Vladimir is outraged at Pozzo's horrible treatment of Lucky and
wants to leave. Pozzo tells him to stay, though, in case Godot should show up. Estragon asks why
Lucky doesn't put down his bags. Pozzo says that Lucky has the right to put them down and be
comfortable, so he must be carrying them because he wants to. He says that Lucky is trying to
impress Pozzo so he won't get rid of him, because Pozzo has plenty of slaves. Pozzo says he plans
to sell Lucky at a fair. Lucky begins to cry and Pozzo gives Estragon a handkerchief to bring to him.
Estragon approaches Lucky and Lucky kicks him violently in the shin.

Pozzo then begins to cry, saying that he "can't bear it." Vladimir scolds Lucky for making his master
cry. Pozzo collects himself and looks for his pipe, which he has misplaced. He makes a speech about
night and twilight, then asks if there's anything he can do for Estragon and Vladimir, since they have
been nice to him. He offers to make Lucky dance, recite, sing, or think for their entertainment. Lucky
dances and his hat fall off. Pozzo says that Lucky needs his hat to think, so Vladimir places it back
on Lucky's head and Lucky launches into a long, rambling monologue. Pozzo prepares to leave and
says goodbye to Vladimir and Estragon, but doesn't move.

Pozzo and Lucky eventually leave, and Estragon wants to leave as well, but Vladimir tells him they
need to stay and wait for Godot. A boy comes onstage, bearing a message from Godot. He says
Godot will not come today, but will come the next day. He tells Vladimir that he works for Godot,
minding his goats, and says that Godot is a good master. The boy leaves and Estragon and Vladimir
are ready to leave for the night. They say they are going to leave, but stay still. The first act ends.

The second act begins the next day, in the same location and at the same time. Vladimir enters and
sings. Estragon enters and tells Vladimir that he was beaten the previous night for no reason.
Vladimir and Estragon embrace, happy to see each other again, and Estragon asks what they should
do. Vladimir tells him they should wait for Godot. Vladimir mentions Pozzo and Lucky, and
Estragon doesn't remember who these people are. He also doesn't recognize the place where they are
waiting from the day before. Vladimir says that he and Estragon picked grapes for the same man a
long time ago in "the Macon country," but Estragon doesn't remember this, either.

After a long silence, Vladimir asks Estragon to talk about anything to fill the silence, but the two
struggle to find something to talk about. Vladimir asks if Estragon really doesn't remember Lucky
and Pozzo. Estragon remembers someone kicking him and remembers the chicken bones he got from
Pozzo. Vladimir offers Estragon a radish or turnip, because he has no carrots. Estragon falls asleep
but then wakes up startled. He begins to tell Vladimir about his dream but Vladimir interrupts him
and tells him not to describe the dream. Estragon wants to leave, but Vladimir reminds him that they
have to stay and wait for Godot. Vladimir notices Lucky's hat lying on the ground and tries it on. He
and Estragon trade their hats and Lucky's hat back and forth, trying different ones on. Vladimir
wants to "play at Pozzo and Lucky," and he and Estragon pretend to be the two characters.

Estragon leaves the stage for a moment and then returns and says that "they" are coming. He and
Vladimir hold lookouts at either end of the stage. After insulting each other, they make up and
embrace. Pozzo and Lucky enter. Pozzo is now blind, following closely behind Lucky. Lucky stops
when he sees Vladimir and Estragon, and Pozzo bumps into him. They both fall to the ground and
Pozzo cannot get up. Vladimir and Estragon consider trying to get something out of Pozzo for
helping him up. Pozzo cries out for help and offers money in return for any assistance. Vladimir
decides to help Pozzo up but falls over himself in the process. Estragon tries to help Vladimir up,
but falls down in the process. None of the characters are able to get up for a while, but Estragon
suddenly suggests that he and Vladimir try to stand up and they are able to get up easily.

Estragon again wants to leave, but Vladimir tells him to keep waiting. He suggests they help Pozzo
to get up in the meantime. They stand Pozzo up, and he asks who they are, not remembering either
of them from the previous day. Pozzo asks what time it is and Estragon thinks it's morning, while
Vladimir is sure that it's evening. Vladimir asks when Pozzo went blind, and Pozzo says that "the
blind have no notion of time." He asks Estragon to check on Lucky. Estragon goes over to Lucky
and kicks him repeatedly. Pozzo shouts, "Up pig!" and yanks on Lucky's rope. The two leave the
stage, as Estragon falls asleep. Vladimir wakes Estragon, saying he was lonely.

Just like the day before, a boy enters with a message from Godot, that he will not come this day but
will certainly come the next. Vladimir asks the boy what Godot does and the boy says Godot does
nothing. Vladimir asks the boy to tell Godot that he saw Vladimir. The boy leaves. Estragon wants
to go far away, but Vladimir says they can't go far, as they have to come back here tomorrow and
wait for Godot. Estragon suggests they hang themselves on the tree using his belt, but when they
test the belt's strength by pulling on either end, it breaks. Vladimir and Estragon prepare to leave for
the night. They say they are going to leave, but neither moves.

I. Answer each question in about a page.

1. Who are the two main characters in the play? Who are they waiting for?

2.What is the significance of Pozzo and Lucky's characters?

3.Why do Vladimir and Estragon wait for Godot? What is the outcome of their waiting?

4. What is the significance of the road, tree, and evening in ‘Waiting for Godot.’

5.Comment on the theme of oppression and cruelty in the play.

II. Answer each question in about two pages.

1.Analyse the unifies of time and space in ‘Waiting for Godot'.

2. Discuss the theme of existentialism in ‘Waiting for Godot.’ How do Vladimir and Estragon's
experiences reflect the principles of existentialist philosophy?

3. Analyse the character of Godot. What does he represent, and why does he never arrive?

4. Discuss the play's use of absurdity and humour. How do these elements contribute to the overall
meaning of the play?

5. Analyse the symbolism of the tree in the play. What does it represent, and how does it relate to
the characters' experiences?

6. Discuss the theme of hope and despair in ‘Waiting for Godot'. How do the characters'
experiences reflect the human condition in this regard?

7.Examine the play's ending. What does the final scene reveal about the characters and the play's
themes?

8. Discuss the relevance of "Waiting for Godot" to modern society.

Further Reading

1. Critical analyses:

- "The Theatre of the Absurd" by Martin Esslin (book)

- "Beckett: A Biography" by Deirdre Bair (book)

- "Waiting for Godot: A Critical Study" by Harold Bloom (book)

2.Historical and cultural context:

- "The Cambridge Companion to Samuel Beckett" edited by John Pilling (book)

- "Beckett and the Irish Question" by Sean Kennedy (book)

3. Performance and adaptation:

- "Waiting for Godot" (film adaptation, 1961)

Reference

1. "The Waiting Game: Beckett's 'Waiting for Godot' and the Theatre of the Absurd" by Ruby Cohn

2. "The Existentialist Dimensions of Beckett's 'Waiting for Godot'" by Christopher Inne.

 15. AN IRISH GOODBYE

An Irish Good-bye is an award-winning Northern Ireland Film that has won best British short at
the Baftas in London. It is a 2023 Irish short comedy film with a runtime of 23 minutes written,
directed, and produced by Tom Berkeley and Ross White. The film stars James Martin, Seamus
O'Hara, Paddy Jenkins, and Michelle Fairley.

Settings

Set on a rural farm in Northern Ireland, it was shot on location in Londonderry, Templepatrick and
Saintfield.

Awards won

 Academy Award: The film won the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film at the
2023 Academy Awards.
 BAFTA Award: It also won the BAFTA Award for Best Short Film at the 2023 British
Academy Film Awards.
 British Short Film Awards: The film won Best Short Film at the British Short Film Awards.
 Irish Film and Television Awards: It won Best Live Action Short Film at the 20th Irish Film
and Television Awards in 2023.
 Oscar Award for best short film.
 Other Awards: The film has also won several other awards at various film festivals,
including the Grand Jury Prize for Best Live Action Short at the Edmonton International
Film Festival, the European Audience Award for Best Drama Short at the Leuven
International Film Festival, and the Jury Prize for Best Comedy Short at the Indy Shorts
Int'l Film Festival.

Plot Overview

"An Irish Goodbye" is a heartwarming short film about two estranged brothers, Turlough and
Lorcan, who are reunited after their mother's passing. The film explores their complex relationship,
shared memories, and the power of forgiveness.

Synopsis

Turlough, a rugged and introverted farmer, returns to his childhood home in rural Northern Ireland
for his mother's funeral. He's met with a mix of emotions, including guilt, anger, and nostalgia. His
younger brother, Lorcan, a charming but troubled soul, has been tasked with managing the family
farm.

As they navigate their mother's passing, the brothers confront their troubled past, including a bitter
feud that drove them apart. Through a series of poignant and humorous moments, they begin to
reconnect, sharing stories, memories, and laughter.

As they work together to prepare the farm for sale, they discover a series of letters and mementos
left behind by their mother. These revelations force them to confront their differences and reconcile
their relationship.

Ultimately, "An Irish Goodbye" is a powerful exploration of brotherly love, forgiveness, and the
complexities of family relationships. The film's stunning Irish landscapes, coupled with its authentic
characters and dialogue, make for a moving and unforgettable cinematic experience.

I. Answer each question in about a page.

1. Where is the film set?

2. What is the plot of the film?

3. What is the relationship between the two brothers?

4. What awards has the film won?

5. Who plays the two brothers in the film?

6. What is the tone of the film?

7. How long is the film?

8. What is the significance of the title "An Irish Goodbye"?

9. What themes does the film explore?

10. Who directed the film?

II. Answer each question in about two pages.

1. Explore the theme of brotherly love in "An Irish Goodbye". How do the two main characters,
Turlough and Lorcan, reconcile their differences?

2. Examine the role of grief and loss in the film.

3.Consider the symbolism of the letters and mementos left behind by the brothers' mother. What do
these objects represent, and how do they impact the narrative?

4.Discuss the film's exploration of forgiveness and reconciliation.

5. Comment on the significance of the title ‘An Irish Goodbye'.

Links:

1. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-64650039

2. https://www.floodlightpictures.co.uk/projects/anirishgoodbye
 Unit VI

Facets of Language
 16. INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS
Language
Language is a system of spoken or written symbols through which human beings express
themselves as members of a social group and participants in its culture. Communication, identity
expression, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release are all purposes of language.
Humans use language to express their thoughts and feelings through a system of sounds, words, and
patterns. As a result, language is a means of expressing thoughts through speaking sounds. Language
is the most powerful, practical, and long-lasting way of communication. Any language can be useful
in learning because it allows you to communicate and comprehend a subject.
Language is a tool for exchanging information. It's a way for us to communicate our thoughts,
ideas, feelings, and emotions to others. Language, on the other hand, is not the only medium of
communication. Our thoughts and ideas can also be communicated by signs, gestures, and facial
expressions. Language differs from signs and gestures in that it makes use of voice sounds. These
syllables have meaning. It's not easy to define a language. Various linguists attempted to define
language in various ways. However, a detailed examination of the definitions reveals that each of
them is deficient in some way. These definitions will elicit a slew of inquiries. The following are
some of the most widely accepted definitions of language provided by linguistics experts:
Definition of Language
Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language scholar, stated: "Language is the expression of
ideas by means of speech-sounds combined into words. Words are combined into sentences, this
combination answering to that of ideas into thoughts".
American linguists Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager formulated the following
definition: "A Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
cooperates".
According to Sapir, "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating
ideas, emotions, and desires through a system of voluntarily produced sounds".

Noam Chomsky: "Noam Chomsky says the language is the inherent capability of the native
speakers to understand and form grammatical sentences. A language is a set of (finite or infinite)
sentences, each finite length and constructed out of a finite set of elements".

Characteristics of Language:
1. Language is spoken, sung, and sounded
Language is a system for organizing sounds, vocal symbols, and messages. Although speech comes
before writing, there are some languages around the world that do not have writing systems but are
nonetheless considered languages since they are spoken. Although singing and music are vocal
sounds, they are not languages

2. Language is a tool for exchanging information

Non-linguistic symbols such as signals of various kinds, traffic lights, road signs, and flags can also
be used to communicate, although language is the most effective way of self-expression. Human
beings use language to communicate their thoughts, wants, emotions, feelings, happiness, and grief.
They also use language to retain knowledge, transmit messages, and transfer knowledge and
experience from one person to another, from one location to another, and from one generation to
another. It is a language that connects the present, past, and future. Animals have a communication
system as well, but it is limited to a small set of messages, such as hunger, fear, and rage. Humans,
on the other hand, have the ability to transmit an unlimited number of messages to one another.

3. Language is a phenomenon of social interaction

Human beings communicate with one another using language. Language is both a social and a
cultural institution. Language is a tool for sustaining and building culture as well as for establishing
human relationships. The evolution of language began with the birth of the human being. From the
moment he is born, man recognizes the importance of language. It is worth noting that if a language
is not utilized in any civilization, it will die out, however if it is used in society, it will live.

4. Language is traditional and non-intuitive

Every language is a product of both evolution and tradition. Every generation passes this tradition
on to the next. Languages, like all other human institutions, change and perish, flourish and expand.
Nobody inherits a language; man acquires it, and he is born with the aptitude to do so.

5. Language is arbitrary
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic relationship between the meanings of
words and the ideas they communicate (except in the case of hieroglyphics where a picture of an
object may represent the object). A female adult human being is not termed a woman in English,
aurat in Urdu, Zen in Persian, or Femine in French for no reason. The choice of these nouns in the
languages indicated above is completely coincidental, a historical coincidence. It's similar to
christening a newborn infant, who might be named John or James. However, once a child is given a
name simply at random, that name stays connected with the child for the rest of his life and becomes
a significant, established norm. A comparable scenario exists in the case of language. The choice of
a word to indicate a specific thing or idea is totally random, yet once a word is chosen for a specific
referent, it stays that way.

6. Language is a symbolic medium

Language consists of various sound symbols and their graphological counterparts that are employed
to denote some objects, occurrences or meaning. These symbols are arbitrarily chosen and
conventionally accepted and employed. Words in a language are not mere signs or figures, but
symbols of meaning. The intelligibility of a language depends on a correct interpretation of these
symbols.

7. Language is a human construct with a complex structure

Humans have a complex structure of language that animals cannot adapt. Because of the complexity
of human language and their physical limitations, animals are unable to learn it. Animals do not have
the same type of brain that humans do, and their articulatory organs are likewise highly different.
Furthermore, no animal communication system makes use of the quality of features, i.e.,
contemporaneous sound and meaning systems. Animal language is closed-ended whereas human
language is open-ended, extendable, and modifiable.

8. Language is a collection of systems

Language isn't a haphazard, disorganized, or chaotic jumble of sounds. All languages have their
system of arrangements. To produce meaningful units or words, sounds are organized in a set or
established, systematic manner. Similarly, words are ordered in a specific method in order to form
meaningful sentences. There are two levels of operation in these systems: phonological and
syntactical. At the phonological level, for example, a language's sounds only emerge in specific
combinations. For example, there are no words that begin with the letters bz–, lr–, or zl–. Words,
too, combine to form sentences according to the language's conventions (i.e., grammatical or
structural rules). The line "The hunter shot the tiger with a gun" is okay, but "the tiger shot a gun
with hunter the" is not, because the word order in the latter sentence violates accepted language
rules. As a result of its operation at the two levels outlined above, language is referred to as a system
of arrangement.
 The important social purpose of a language is used for linguistic communication. A language
can be used in two ways for the purposes of communications. It can be spoken or written. Between
the two, the medium of speech is more important than the medium of writing. This is because speech
comes first in history of any language community and in the history of any individual community.
Further, the speech as a medium of communication is used much more than the medium of writing
and in addition the written language is only an attempt to represent the sounds used in spoken
language. Moreover, modern technology has contributed tremendously to the importance of speech.

Phonetics
Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone meaning 'sound, voice') is the study of the sounds of
human speech. It is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), and their
production, audition and perception, while phonology, which emerged from it, studies sound
systems and abstract sound units (such as phonemes and distinctive features). Phonetics deals with
the sounds themselves rather than the contexts in which they are used in languages. Discussions of
meaning (semantics) do not enter at this level of linguistic analysis.
Phonetics has three main branches:
 Articulatory phonetics, concerned with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue,
vocal tract and folds and other speech organs in producing speech.
 Acoustic phonetics, concerned with the properties of the sound waves and how they are
received by the inner ear.
 Auditory phonetics, concerned with speech perception, principally how the brain forms
perceptual representations of the input it receives.

There are over a hundred different phones recognised as distinctive by the International Phonetic
Association (IPA) and transcribed in their International Phonetic Alphabet.

Phonology
Phonology is concerned with how a particular language organises its sounds into distinctive units
(called phonemes), how the phonemes are combined into syllables. and how the prosodic features
of length, stress and pitch are organised into patterns.
Exercises:

1. Define Language.
2. Explain the characteristics of Language.
3. According to Chomsky, what is Language?
4. What distinguishes human language from other languages? Explain
5. Describe why Language is arbitrary.
6. Language is a tool for exchanging information. Explain?
7. Why is spoken communication used much more than written communication?
8. Define Phonetics.
9. Explain the three branches of Phonetics.
10. What is phonology?

17. SPEECH MECHANISM

Speech mechanism is a function which starts in the brain, moves through the biological processes
of respiration, phonation and articulation to produce sounds. These sounds are received and
perceived through biological and neurological processes. The lungs are the primary organs
involved in the respiratory stage, the larynx is involved in the phonation stage and the organs in
the mouth are involved in the articulatory stage.

Overview of Speech Mechanism

The speech mechanism is a complex and intricate process that enables us to produce and
comprehend speech. The speech mechanism involves a coordinated effort of speech subsystems
working together seamlessly. Speech mechanism is done by the combined effort of the
articulatory, phonetory and respiratory system.
The Organs of Speech

In order to understand speech mechanism, one needs to identify the organs used to produce
speech. It is interesting to note that each of these organs has a unique life-function to perform.
Their presence in the human body is not for speech production but for other primary bodily
functions. In addition to primary physiological functions, these organs participate in the
production of speech. The organs of speech can be classified according to their position and
function.

 The respiratory organs consist of: The Lungs and trachea. The lungs compress air and push
it up the trachea.
 The phonatory organs consist of the Larynx: The larynx contains two membrane- like
structures called vocal cords or vocal folds. The vocal folds can come together or move apart.
 The articulatory organs consist of: lips, teeth, roof of mouth, tongue, oral and nasal cavities
The Respiratory System

Speech begins with respiration, where the lungs provide the necessary airflow. The
diaphragm and intercostal muscles play a crucial role in controlling the breath, facilitating the
production of speech sounds. The respiratory system consists of pair of lungs, the muscles of
chest and Trachea (Wind Pipe). We need a continuous flow of air which is initiated by lungs.
When we Inhale (air comes in) and when we exhale (air goes out). Air comes through the lungs
via Trachea.

The Phonatory System

The Phonatory System consists of the larynx and the vocal cords. The larynx is situated in
the upper part of the trachea. Inside the larynx are two small structures which look like lips.
These are called vocal cords. The space between the two vocal cords is called glottis.

 Voiceless Sounds: During normal breathing, the vocal cords move far away from each
other and therefore the glottis is wide open. Sounds produced with the wide-open glottis
are called voiceless sounds.
 Voiced Sounds: When we articulate certain speech sounds, the vocal cords are drawn
close to each other. When the air from the lungs passes through them. The air makes them
vibrate. Speech sounds during the articulation of which the vocal cords vibrate are called
voiced sounds.
The Articulatory System
We speak by moving parts of our vocal tract. These include the lips, teeth, mouth, tongue
and larynx. The larynx or voice box is the basis for all the sounds we produce. It modifies the
airflow to produce different frequencies of sound. By changing the shape of the vocal tract and
airflow, we are able to produce all the phonemes of spoken language. There are two basic
categories of sound that can be classified in terms of the way in which the flow of air through
the vocal tract is modified. Phonemes that are produced without any obstruction to the flow of
air are called vowels. Phonemes that are produced with some kind of modification to the airflow
are called consonants. Phonemes that are somewhere in between these two categories are called
semivowels and are usually classified alongside consonants as they behave similar to the
consonants.
The articulatory system consists of the following speech organs:

(A) The Pharynx: It is the soft area at the top of the throat where the passage to the nose and
mouth connects with the throat.

(B) The Roof of the Mouth: It comprises of three parts: Alveolar Ridge, the Hard Palate and
the Soft Palate

 Alveolar Ridge: It is also called teeth ridge. The hard surface just behind the
upper front teeth is called the alveolar ridge.

 The Hard Palate: It is lying just at the back of Alveolar Ridge.

 The Soft Palate: It lies beyond the hard palate with uvula at its end. It is also called Velum.
It is very important part of the roof of the mouth. It can be raised or lowered. If it is
raised, the nasal passage is closed and the air escapes through the oral cavity. The sounds
produced in this way are called Oral Sounds. But when the soft palate is lowered the oral
passage is closed and the air passes through the nasal cavity. The sound when produced
are called Nasal Sounds. But if the soft palate is lowered but the oral passage is not
completely blocked, The air passes through both oral and nasal cavities. The sound
produced in this way is called Nasalised Sounds. There is no nasalised sound in English.
 (C) The Tongue: The Tongue is the most important speech organ. It can take different shapes as
it is very flexible. The tongue can be divided into four parts:

 The Tip: It is the pointed and extreme part of the tongue. It lies behind the lower teeth.
 The Blade: The part of the tongue lying against the Teeth Ridge.
 The Front: The part which is opposite the hard palate is called the front of the teeth.
 The Back: The part opposite the soft palate is called the back of the tongue.
(D) The Lips: Lips are fleshy structure. They can be given a variety of shapes. They can take
many positions like Spread, Neutral, Open and Rounded.

Active and Passive Articulators: The lower lip and the tongue are called active articulators.
Because they can move. The upper teeth and the root of the mouth are the Passive Articulators,
because they don’t move to make contact with other articulators.

Exercises:

1. What is Speech Mechanism?

2. What are the three primary systems involved in speech mechanism?
3. Explain the Organs of Speech with a diagram.
4. Differentiate the active and the passive articulators.
5. Explain the voiced and the voiceless sounds.
6. Describe the articulatory system.
7. Elaborate the three parts in the roof of the mouth.
8. How many parts a tongue can be divided into? Name them.
9. Why is respiratory system an important part in the speech mechanism?
10. Explain the Speech mechanism in detail with a diagram of the organs of speech.

18. CLASSIFICATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS

We categorise sounds in phonetics based on how they're produced as well as their acoustic
qualities. Sonority is the main acoustic quality that we're interested in. The amount of acoustic
energy in a sound is referred to as sonority. A simple example is that a loud sound is more
sonorous, while a quiet sound is less. However, sonority is more than just volume. Sonorous
 sounds are those made with a lot of airflow from the lungs and vibrating vocal folds. Sonority is
reduced in sounds with less airflow or no voicing from the vocal folds. Vowels contain a lot of
acoustic energy: they're sonorous. We create vowels with the vocal tract very open and usually
with our vocal folds vibrating, thus vowels have a lot of acoustic energy.

Vowels

Vowels are open sounds because they involve no obstruction to the flow of air from the lungs
as it passes up through the windpipe (trachea), through the voice box (larynx) and out of the
mouth. Other than positioning the tongue, jaws and lips there is nothing to obstruct the airflow.
All vowels are produced with the vocal folds vibrating and are said to be voiced sounds.

Diphthongs: Diphthongs are gliding monosyllabic speech sounds with a combination of two
vowels that starts at the articulatory position for one vowel and moves toward the position of
another. Examples – /ei/ as in eight, /ai/ as in pride, / iə/ as in ear.

Vowels are commonly described according to the following characteristics:

 The position of the tongue that is involved in the articulation: front, central or back.
 The tongue's position in height relative to the palate: high, mid or low.
 The shape of the lips: rounded or unrounded (spread).
 The length or duration of vocalization: long or short.

Articulation of Vowels

The technique of articulation for vowel sounds is "less exact than for consonant sounds" (Finch,
1999), owing to the fact that consonants restrict a lot more than vowels.

Position of the tongue: The vowel sounds made with tongue in a more forward or front position
are called front vowels. The vowel sounds made with tongue in a more backward or back position
are called back vowels. The vowel sounds made with tongue in a more central or centre position
are called central vowels.

Height of the tongue: "This differentiates sounds based on the height of the portion of the tongue
closest to the palate. Vowels are regarded as close when the tongue is high in the mouth, and as
open when it is low. Half-close and half-open are two further reference positions" (Finch, 1999).
Consider the vowel sound /i / (found in words like "fleece," "sea," and "machine"). The body of
the tongue is elevated against the hard palate when making this vowel sound. The tongue is low
in the oral cavity when the vowel sound is / (as in 'lot,' 'odd,' or 'wash').

Lips in a certain position: "Vowels are made by squeezing the lips together in a rounded or
spread position. There are different degrees of rounding, but it's common to categorise vowels
as either rounded or spread" (Finch, 1999). Consider the vowel sounds /i/ and / once again. When
pronouncing the vowel sound in the word 'fleece,' notice how the lips are parted wide. However,
when you say 'wash,' your lips are rounded, almost as if you're about to whistle.

Long and Short Vowels: In English pronunciation, the difference between short and long
vowels is primarily in the duration—the length of time the vowel sound is held—and the position
of the mouth and tongue when producing the sound. Short vowels are typically quicker and are
made with the mouth and tongue in a more relaxed position. They are found in words like "cat"
"bed", "fish", "top" and "cut". Long vowels, on the other hand are held longer. The mouth is
often more tensed and the tongue is positioned higher. Long vowels can be represented by a
single letter or a combination of letters like in "make", "scene", "bike", "note", and "cute".
S. No Short Vowels IPA Symbol Word examples

1 i Fit, fifth, rich, trick

2 e Went, intend, send, letter

3 æ Cat, hand, nap, flat, have.

4 ʌ Fun, love, money, London, come.

5 ʊ Put, look, should, cook, book, look.

6 ɒ Rob, top, watch, squat, sausage.

7 ə Alive, again, mother

Long Vowels IPA Symbol Word examples

8 i: Need, beat, team.

9 ɜ: Nurse, heard, third, turn.

10 ɔ: Talk, law, yawn, jaw.

11 u: Boot, lose, gloomy, fruit, chew.

12 ɑ: Fast, car, hard, bath

Diphthong Vowels IPA Symbol Word examples

13 ɪə Near, ear, clear, tear, beer, fear
14 eə Hair, there, care, stairs, pear
15 uə Poor, sure, cure, tour
16 eɪ Face, space, rain, case, eight
17 ɔɪ Joy, employ, toy, coil, oyster.
18 aɪ My, sight, pride, kind, flight
19 əʊ No, don’t, stones, alone, hole
20 aʊ Mouth, house, brown, cow, out

Exercises:

1. What is a vowel sound?

2. Explain Diphthongs with suitable examples.
 3. List the characteristics of vowel sounds.
4. Describe the front, central and back vowels with examples.
5. Differentiate the long and the short vowels.
6. Explain the classification of vowel sounds with the vowel chart.
7. Discuss in detail the articulation of the vowel sounds.
8. State the difference between the Position and the Height of the tongue in the articulation
of the vowel sounds.
9. Outline the significance of the position of the lips in the production of vowel sounds.
10. Enlist the long and short vowels with examples.

19. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANT SOUNDS

Consonants

A consonant has been defined as a speech sound where the air stream from the lungs is
either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air
escapes with audible friction.

Classification of consonant sounds:

Consonant sounds can be classified on the basis of

 Manner of Articulation
 Place of Articulation
 Voice of Articulation
Manner of Articulation

Manner of articulation is, in part therefore, concerned with the degree of stricture in
the vocal tract, which refers to how close the articulators get when a sound is formed. For
example, the articulators may touch and form a firm seal, or approach each other with a
small gap for air to escape. According to the manner of articulation, consonants can be
classified as follows:

Plosives: "Sounds in which the airstream is temporarily blocked by the closure of two
speech organs and then released in a burst" (Finch, 1999). The production of plosives
involves a complete obstruction in the airflow by the active and passive articulators. And
the release of the compressed air in the form of explosion. Examples- /p/ as in puff, /b/ as
in bus, /t/ as in tin, /d/ as in dusk, /k/ as in keep, /g/ as in gap.

Fricatives: "Sounds in which the airstream is narrowed by the articulation of two speech
organs, generating friction as it passes through" (Finch, 1999). A fricative is produced with
a stricture of close approximation. The gap between the active articulator and passive
articulator is so narrow that the air passes through them with friction or a ‘hissing’ sound,
hence the term ‘fricative’. The soft palate remains in raised position. Examples - /f/ as in
fit, /v/ as in van, /ө/ as in thrust, /ð/ as in this, /s/ as in sit, /z/ as in zip, /ʃ/ as in shut, /ʒ/ as
in measure, /h/ as in hat.

Affricates: "Sounds in which the airstream is stopped, as with a plosive, and then slowly
and partially with friction released" (Finch, 1999). In English, there are two affricate
phonemes: /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. During the production of these affricates there is a complete closure
stage and hold stage. But in case of release stage, the release of articulators is not sudden
but slow. When the articulators separate slowly, due to the narrow gap between them, the
air releases with friction. Thus, the term affricates which denotes that the closure is that of
plosives but release is that of fricatives. Examples – /tʃ/ as in chin, /dʒ/ as in jam.

Flap or Trill: When the tip of an active speech organ that is the tongue or uvula is tapped
once against a surface within the mouth, a flap sound is produced. For instance, the /r/
sound as in run, rain in English is a flap. But when the tip of the active articulation is tapped
more than once in articulation, the resulting sound is trill.

Nasal: A nasal is produced when there is a complete oral closure at some point in the oral
cavity. The closure can be at the lip region (bilabial), at the alveolar region (alveolar), or
when the back of tongue touches the soft palate or velum (velar). The air is trapped behind
one of these regions. At the same time, the nasal cavity remains open as the soft palate is
in the lowered position. Thus, the air passes through the nasal cavity only, hence the term
nasals for the sounds produced in this manner. Examples – /m/ as in mat, /n/ as in net, /ŋ/
as in ring.

Lateral: A lateral sound is produced when the oral cavity is blocked at the alveolar ridge
as the tip and blade of the tongue makes contact with alveolar ridge. But the sides of the
tongue are lowered which causes the air to pass through freely. The soft palate remains in
raised position thereby blocking the nasal passage of air. It is to be remembered that the
closure here is partial closure as it is only the central portion of the oral cavity that is
obstructed while the air flows out freely through one or both sides of the tongue. Example
– /l/ as in leaf.

Approximants/Semi-vowels: Approximants are when two articulators come close

together but not quite close enough to create air turbulence. The resulting sound is more
like a fast vowel than anything else. For example, the /w/ “wet” and /j/ – “yes”.

Place of Articulation

When we describe consonant production and place of articulation in phonetics, we think

about the place in the vocal tract where there is maximum constriction to airflow. By ‘place
of articulation’ is meant the place in the vocal tract where there is the most constriction of
airflow when a particular consonant is produced. It is important to remember that the place
of articulation is normally named after the passive articulator involved in the pronunciation
of a particular consonant. The following are the classification of the consonants based on
the place of consonants:
S. No Classification Definition Examples Figure
1 Bilabial The place of Sounds such as
articulation of /p/ in pie, and
bilabial sounds is /b/ in bus, /m/
two lips. For the in man and /w/
bilabial sounds the in wet.
lips come together in
the production of
these sounds.

2 Labio-dental In the production of Sound /f/ in

these sounds, the lower fish, /v/ in van.
lip is raised towards the
upper front teeth.

3 Dental These sounds are Sounds /ө/ in

produced by touching gothic, and /ð/
the upper front teeth with in this.
the tip of tongue.

4 Alveolar These sounds are Sounds /t/ in

produced by raising the teen, and /d/ in
tip of tongue towards the disc, /s/ in sit,
teeth ridge behind the /z/ in zoo, /n/ in
upper front teeth (which net, /l/ in lap
is called the alveolar and /r/ in rat.
ridge).
5 Post-Alveolar These sounds are Sounds /ʃ/ in
produced by raising the shut, /ʒ/ in
blade of tongue towards pleasure, /tʃ/ as
the part of the roof of in chin and
mouth that lies just /dʒ// in jam.
behind the alveolar
ridge.

6 Palatal These sounds are Sounds /j/ in

produced by raising the yes, yet.
front part of the tongue
towards the hard palate
(which is the hard part of
the roof of mouth).

7 Velar The velar sound is Sounds /g/in

produced by raising the girl, /k/ in cool,
back of tongue towards and /ŋ/ in ring.
the soft palate (which is
the soft part of the roof of
mouth that lies behind
the hard palate)
.
8 Glottal A glottal sound is Sounds /h/ in
produced at the glottis. hind, hat.
 Voice of Articulation

In the consonants there are two voices of articulation namely voiceless and voiced. A
voiceless sound in phonetics refers to a consonant produced without vibration of the vocal
folds. It is created by constricting or obstructing airflow within the vocal tract, resulting in
sound with less resonance. Examples of voiceless consonants in English include /p/, /t/, and
/k/. Voiced consonants are consonant sounds that are made by vibrating the vocal cords.
Example /b/ as in 'bed' /d/ as in 'dip' /g/ as in 'good' /ð/ as in 'the'.

Classification of Consonant Phonemes

Manner of Voiced / Place of Articulation
Articulation Voiceless Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosives Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d g
Fricatives Voiceless f ө s ʃ
Voiced v ð z ʒ h
Affricates Voiceless tʃ
Voiced dʒ
Nasals Voiceless
Voiced m n ŋ
Lateral Voiceless
Voiced l
Approximants Voiceless
Voiced w j
Flap/ Trill Voiceless
Voiced r

Exercises:

1. Define Consonants and give examples.

2. What are the three classifications of consonants?
3. Explain the Manner of Articulation with examples.
 4. Describe the Place of Articulation for the consonant sounds.
5. Differentiate Voiced and Voiceless Consonants with example.
6. Discuss the broad classification of consonant sounds.
7. Name the nasal sounds with examples.
8. What is a fricative? Give examples.
9. Explain the place of articulation – Labiodental with examples.
10. How many affricates are there in consonant chart? Give examples.

20. . PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION

The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) is a system of phonetic notation used

to represent the different sounds of languages. It allows us to transcribe words in languages and
pronounce them correctly, no matter the language. It was created in 1888 by Paul Passy, a
French linguist. When we teach English as a foreign language we are concerned with the
sounds, or phonemes, which make up the English language.

Phoneme: Phonemes are usually written in slashes to distinguish them from phones. It
is the mental representation of a specific word. This means it is the mental image we store in
our brains of the specific word and is associated with the sound of the word. A phoneme is
defined as: “the smallest unit that discerns meaning between sounds in any given language,
like in the example, puff, /pʌf/.

While there are hundreds of phonetic sounds in the IPA, in English there are 44 basic phonetic
sounds.

 Vowel sounds - 12
 Diphthongs - 08
 Consonant sounds 24

Monophthongs Diphthongs

Vowel i: ɪ ʊ u: ɪə eɪ

e ə ɜ: ɔ: ʊə ɔɪ əʊ
 æ ʌ ɑ: ɒ eə aɪ aʊ

Consonant p b t d tʃ dʒ k g
Pairs
f v ө ð s z ʃ ʒ

Single m n ŋ h l r w j
Consonants

Exercises:

1. What is a Phoneme?
2. Give the abbreviation of IPA.
3. List out the vowels and the consonants according to the IPA chart.
4. Transcribe the following words:
 E.g - cat - /kæt/
 room
 back
 doll
 cow
 boy
 ring
 hear
 poor
 boil
 thick
5. Write the ordinary words for the below given transcribed words:
 E.g. - Chair /tʃeə/
 / wɪŋ/
 / brɪ́ʤ/
 / kræb/
 / ruːd/
 / skɪl/
  / ʃaʊt/
 / seɪl/
 / nɪə/
 / bə́ː(r)d/
 / plʌɡ/

Works Cited

 LanguageDefinition -
https://www.scribd.com/document/523059062/Characteristic-of-Language
 Chomsky. Noam. Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton. p.13.)"
 Sapir. E. An Introduction to the Study of Speech, New York: Harcourt, Brace &
World 1921: 3-23.
 Balasubramanian. T. A Textbook of English Phonetics for Indian Students, New
Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd, 2003.
 https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/engp13/chapter/mechanism-of-speech-production/
 https://baslpcourse.com/overview-of-speech-production-and-speech-mechanism/
 https://opentextbc.ca/psyclanguage/chapter/the-articulatory-system/
 https://icspeech.com/vowel-sounds.html
 McMahon, April. 2001.An Introduction to English Phonology. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
 Finch, 1999. How to Study Linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
 Ladefoged, Peter, and Keith Johnson. A Course in Phonetics. United Kingdom:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011 Anne Knight, Rachael. Phonetics: A Course
book. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
 Finch, 1999. How to Study Linguistics. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
 Sethi, J., and P.V. Dhamija. A Course in Phonetics and Spoken English. New Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2006.
 Question Paper Pattern - Semester – I – Optional English
First Semester BA Degree Examination
1BA Optional English – 1
Paper Code:
Paper Title: British Literature & Facets of Language

Time: 3 hrs Max. Marks: 80

Instructions:
1. Read all the instructions carefully and write the answers.
2. Write the question numbers correctly.
Section A
I. Answer any 1 out of 2 in 2 pages: (1x10=10)
1. Defining Literature
II. Answer any 1 out of 3 in a page each: (1x5=5)
1. Key Concepts
Section B
III. Annotate any 3 out of 5 in a page each: (3x5=15)
1. Poetry
IV. Answer any 1 out of 2 in 2 pages: (1x10=10)
1. Prose and Podcast
Section C
V. Answer any 1 out of 2 in 2 pages: (1x10=10)
1. Novel and Short Stories
VI. Answer any 3 out of 5 in a page each: (3x5=15)
1. Drama, One-Act Play & Short Films
Section D
VII. Answer any 2 out of 4 in a page each: (2x5=10)
1. Facets of Language
2. Transcribe any 5 out of 8 (1x5=5)
(For Blind Students Only)
1. Answer any 3 out of 4 in a page each: (3x5=15)
1. Facets of Language