Seismic Interpretation, Attributes

& AVO

1
 Seismic - How It Works?
Uses seismic waves to map the
subsurface by creating an artificial
explosion (seismic waves).

Travels downwards through the

rock layers
Source: S.Ilott

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 Seismic - How It Works?
The energy waves created by the explosions produce
“echoes” at boundaries between rock layers. These
“echoes” are recorded at the surface by hydrophones

Source: S.Ilott

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 Seismic - How It Works?
The echoes are then used to build a picture of
the subsurface.

Source: http://geology.com/stories/13/salt-domes/
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 Seismic - How It Works?

The data looks like geology

- can be used to build a
picture of the petroleum
play
Source: IPE

Source: IPE

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 Seismic Methods

Seismic methods
use seismic
waves to build a
picture of the
subsurface

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 Wave Propagation
Seismic waves can be created naturally (e.g. by
an earthquake) or they may intentionally
induced as part of an investigation.

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 Wave Propagation

There are four types of seismic wave:

1) P-wave
2) S-wave
3) Rayleigh
4) Love

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 Wave Propagation - Surface Waves

Rayleigh and Love waves are surface waves

that propagate roughly parallel to the Earth’s
surface

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 Wave Propagation - Surface Waves
Surface Waves
• Travel along the earths
surface
• Little significance in
hydrocarbon exploration

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 Wave Propagation - Body Waves

P-Waves and S-Waves are body waves because

they propagate directly through the Earth’s
interior.

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 Wave Propagation - P-Waves
The earth is incompressible, so the energy is
transferred quickly

Push-pull motion: force is applied in the direction

the wave is travelling

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 Wave Propagation - P-Waves
P-waves are referred to as primary waves as
they arrive at the detector quicker than S-waves.

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 Wave propagation – S-waves
S-waves are transverse waves
which mean the vibrations
are at right angles to the
direction of travel.

As the wave is transmitted

the rocks must move away
from the rocks next to it to
cause the shear.

This extra movement takes a Figure by S. Ilott

longer time and slows the

propagation of the S-waves.
© Heriot-Watt University 14
 Waves - Important Terms
The amplitude of a
wave is its maximum
disturbance from its
undisturbed position

The wavelength of a wave is the

distance between a point on one wave
and the same point on the next
The frequency of a wave is the
number of waves produced by a
source each second
Velocity is the speed at which the
waves move through the Earth.
The velocity and wavelength are
Frequency related by the frequency of the waves.
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 Waves - Important Terms

Frequency
Velocity is the speed at which the The relationship can be described as:
waves move through the Earth. Λ=V/F
The velocity and wavelength are
related by the frequency of the waves. Where:
λ= wavelength
V= velocity
F= frequency.
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Waves - Characteristics
Most induced seismic waves propagate
away from their source point with a
(nearly) spherical wavefront.

The reason non-spherically is actually

observed is that rock velocities are not
constant everywhere due to varying
physical properties of the rock.

The energy of the wavefront degrades as it

propagates through the rocks. This loss of
energy is called divergence.

Energy loss also occurs as heat is produced

as particle in the rocks change their
motion in a processes call absorption.

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Waves - Characteristics
Higher-frequency waves lose their
power over a given distance at a
greater rate than lower frequency
waves, through a process call
attenuation.

energy is also lost by a given

seismic wave as it is converted into
other wave types.

Together, these losses of energy

mean that waves eventually
attenuate completely.

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 Reflection Seismology
Reflection seismology (also called reflection
seismic or often just seismic) is the most
commonly used geophysical method.

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 Reflection Seismology
In this method, sonic (vibrational) energy is
deliberately propagated into the ground and
the approach is to detect the sonic energy that
is reflected back to the surface.

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 Reflection Seismology

The data is used to create an interpretation

of the subsurface.

http://www.nature.com/srep/2012/121213/srep00970/full/srep00970.html

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 Other Seismic Methods
The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of
seismic waves by rock layers, depending on the fact that
seismic waves have differing velocities in different types
of rock. The waves are refracted when they cross the
boundary between different types (or conditions) of rock.

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 Seismic Reflection

The character of the seismic event is governed by the acquisition

hardware, choices made whilst processing the data, geology
through which the waves pass, most importantly by the reservoir
lithology and fluids themselves.

An event on the seismic section or volume is formed by reflection

of a wave from the interface between two different geological
units. The magnitude of this event is controlled by the reflection
coefficient (R) at the interface and is a measure of the contrast in
elasticity between the two different rocks.

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 Seismic Reflection
The amount of energy reflected from each rock boundary is
dependent on the Acoustic Impedance (Z) contrast.

The acoustic impedance (Z) for a layer is defined as the product

of density (ρ) and p-wave velocity (v):
Z=ρv
The reflection coefficient (R) is the ratio of the amplitude of the
reflected ray (ar) to the amplitude of the indicent ray (ao).

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 Seismic Reflection

Acoustic
Layer 1 Impedance: Z=ρv

Layer 2

The reflection coefficient can be written in terms of the

acoustic impedance CONTRAST across a boundary.
�� − �� �� �� − �� ��
�= �=
�� + �� �� �� + �� ��
The amount of energy that is reflected is a function of the
magnitude of the impedance change across a boundary.
• A small change in impedance results in a small amount
of reflected energy; a large change in impedance
results in a larger amount of reflected energy
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 Seismic Reflection

Assuming a simple horizontal layered earth model – we

can calculate the reflection coefficient for each
interface/boundary.
• An increase in impedance results in a positive R
• A decrease in impedance results in a negative R

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 Seismic Reflection

We display the Reflection Coeffiecient as a pulses or a

wavelet on a log (seismic trace) by convolving the seismic
pulse with the reflected pulse (seismic processing).
Where:
• Positive R is plotted to the right of zero
• Negative R is plotted to the left of zero
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 Reflectivity Sequence in Two-Way Time
All seismic sections (or seismic lines) which display
the stacked and processed signals are shown in
time: Two-Way-Time (TWT) in seconds

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 Converting TWT to Depth
Two-Way Time (TWT) - the time (t ) required for the
seismic wave to travel from a source to some point
below the surface (interface between two layers) and
back up to a receiver. It is given by the formula:

Where d is the depth (m, distance) to the reflector

and V (m/s) is the wave velocity in the rock.

Where t is the two way time in seconds (1000ms = 1

sec). We ALWAYS operate with time (TWT) specified to
the nearest 1 msec (0.001 sec).
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 Converting TWT to Depth

Converting TWT to depth is not a simple

procedure, however, it is possible to give a
general idea of the depth to a horizon.

We can achieve this by rearranging the formula

to give depth to an interface:

Where t is the two way time in seconds

(1000ms = 1 sec)
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 Creation of Seismic Traces

Interval
TWT
Cumulative
TWT
Assuming a simple horizontal subsurface models – we can estimate the thickness
of multiple intervals by calculating the depth to each interval separately.

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Energy of Reflections

Reflection Coefficient

Plus, the loss of energy due

to spherical dispersion...
R12 = I2 – I1
I1 + I2
Multiple Layers
Synthetic Seismic Section

“Real” rock geometry and velocities

 Multiple Layers

Need a table like this...

...and the sign of the reflection

coefficients...

…to produce a synthetic trace like this at

key locations
Synthetic Seismic Section

Create a table
 Synthetic Seismic Section

Interval thickness (m) Interval velocity (m/sec) Interval transit time (sec) Interval TWT Total TWT
Point A 500 1800
600 2000
700 1700
200 1900

Point B 500 1900

600 2100
700 1750
200 1950
 Synthetic Seismic Section

Create synthetic traces (assume

linear variation from A to B)

Interval thickness (m) Interval velocity (m/sec) Interval transit time (sec) Interval TWT Total TWT
Point A 500 1800 0.278 0.556 0.556
600 2000 0.300 0.600 1.156
700 1700 0.412 0.824 1.979
200 1900 0.105 0.211 2.190

Point B 500 1900 0.263 0.526 0.526

600 2100 0.286 0.571 1.098
700 1750 0.400 0.800 1.898
200 1950 0.103 0.205 2.103
 Synthetic Seismic Section

Interval thickness (m) Interval velocity (m/sec) Interval transit time (sec) Interval TWT Total TWT
Point A 500 1800 0.278 0.556 0.556
600 2000 0.300 0.600 1.156
700 1700 0.412 0.824 1.979
200 1900 0.105 0.211 2.190

Point B 500 1900 0.263 0.526 0.526

600 2100 0.286 0.571 1.098
700 1750 0.400 0.800 1.898
200 1950 0.103 0.205 2.103
Exercise: Practice Doing It!

Create a synthetic seismic section

Create Table
Answer
 INTERPRETATION
Seismic interpretation in the seismic section help us to
understand the geological and depositional environment, and
structural evolution of the reservoir for characterization
purposes.
Seismic events are defined by laterally correlated peaks or
troughs that are followed and tracked through the data volume.
Abrupt disjoins in these seismic events mark the faults.
The following are sought:
• Entire geological interfaces
• Vertical discontinuities at these interfaces (faults),
• Changes of stratigraphy (due to lateral facies changes) or
unconformities,
• Features correlating with productivity
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 INTERPRETATION
Also of an interest for interpretation are fluid related details
such as:
• Flat spots, dim spots, and hence fluid contacts
• Gas chimneys where hydrocarbon gas has leaked through the
reservoir caprock
• Push downs – a depression in the event which is symptomatic
of gas in the resevoir
• Shadow zones – gas can attenuate the seismic waves, and this
will be observed just below the accumulation.
The importance of wells - at the early stages of exploration and
development, it may not be clear what the seismic events
mean – e.g. reservoir unit or a seal. If a well is near the seismic
line, its rock succession has been interpreted, and sonic data
from well log can be compared with the seismic data.
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 TUNING in INTERPRETATION
In very thin beds the reflectivity spikes at the top and
base are very close together in time.
Tuning is the interference effect between these seismic
reflections from these two closely spaced interfaces.
The tuning thickness is the bed thickness at which the
interference effects reinforce to maximal extent .
For Example, for a sandstone bed surrounded by shale
the reflection coefficients are equal but have an
opposite sign, and in the limit of zero bed thickness the
wavelets cancel to zero. Thus, as the bed thickness
varies the mean seismic amplitude increases then
decreases until it is observed to decrease with a linear
slope. 45
TUNING in INTERPRETATION

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Wedge Problem

The “wedge” is a way of seeing the

effects of variable (unknown) thickness
of the middle layer

Note how the seismic wavelets

interfere with each other, even when
the layer thickness is greater than the
wavelength of the sonic wave
 Frequency (Wavelength)

20 m thick intra- Note how higher frequency data resolves

reservoir shale layer shale top, and also reveals intra-sand
details

Vertical depth from Well A1 Synthetic traces Time (ms)

surface (m) 17 Hz Ricker 25 Hz Ricker 35 Hz Ricker

KP Transition

Piper Sand Unit

Mid-Shale Unit
Scott Sand Unit

Saltire Unit
AVO – AMPLITUDE VARIATION WITH OFFSET

Amplitude variation with offset (or AVO) is

important because it provides quantitative
evaluation of a potential prospect. In particular
it has the ability to discriminate lithology from
fluids in the evaluation of a bright spots.
Seismic reflection data is normally presented as
a stacked section.
Any variation in amplitude with offset is
normally “lost” in the processing.
 Amplitude versus Offset (AVO) and Anisotropy
AVO anomalies can be caused by the changes in Poisson’s
ratio in the rocks on either side of an interface.
Bright spot is referred to as a spot with a local increase of
amplitude associated with hydrocarbon accumulations.

Acoustic impedance is lower in the sands than in the

shales, as the pore space is filled with water.
As hydrocarbons are added to pore spaces, the velocity
and density of the sand decreases. The impedance
contrast at the top of the sand increases, making the
reflection stronger and more negative; thus, it becomes
"brighter."
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 AVO

AVO effects are recognised on the CMP

gathers.

AVO can be used to detect fluid changes

during production.

This is a specialised technique with its own

cost and benefits

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 AVO
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators (DHI)

A bright spot associated with a gas-water contact

should be flat
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 AVO
Production performance may be monitored
by detecting changes in DHI position

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 AVO

Dim Spots are caused by highly consolidated sands with a much greater
acoustic impedance than the overlying shale. The hydrocarbon reduces the
acoustic impedance and the reflection coefficient, thus it produces a "dim
spot."

Flat Spots represent a hydrocarbon contact seismic response where it is

apparently flat. Such contact may be between gas and oil, oil and water, or gas
and water. Flat spots may also be causedUniversity
© Heriot-Watt by low saturated gas in a reservoir.54
AVO

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 Phase Change Example
Phase change, also known as
polarity reversal, occurs when
the overlying reservoir has a
lower velocity of the reservoir
rock. This can occur when a
partially consolidated sand
becomes wet.

The top of the sand correlates

to a weak positive reflection
coefficient. As hydrocarbons
are added to the pore space the
velocity and density of the
sandstone decrease; which also
results in a decrease of the
acoustic impedance to the
point where it's slightly less
than the overlying shale.
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