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Physical Database Design Using Oracle 1st Edition
Donald K. Burleson Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Donald K. Burleson
ISBN(s): 9780849318177, 0203506235
Edition: 1
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Year: 2004
Language: english
 Physical
Database Design
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 Physical
Database Design
Using Oracle
Donald K. Burleson

AUERBACH PUBLICATIONS
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 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Burleson, Donald K.
Physical database design using Oracle / Donald K. Burleson.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-8493-1817-3 (alk. paper)
1. Oracle (Computer file) 2. Database design. 3. Relational databases. I. Title.

QA76.9.D26B875 2004
005.75′65--dc22
2004049442

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material
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Library of Congress Card Number 2004049442
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
 DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Jean Lavender, a real survivor and feisty lady,
whose courage has been an inspiration.

v
 CONTENTS

1 Introduction to Oracle Physical Design ..................................... 1

Preface...................................................................................................................................... 1
Relational Databases and Physical Design ........................................................................ 1
Systems Development and Physical Design ..................................................................... 2
Systems Analysis and Physical Database Design ............................................................. 4
The Structured Specification.................................................................................... 4
The Role of Functional Decomposition in Physical Database Design....................... 6
Introduction to Logical Database Design ......................................................................... 7
Unnormalized Form .................................................................................................. 9
Nested Tables ....................................................................................................................... 10
First Normal Form .................................................................................................. 11
Second Normal Form ............................................................................................. 12
Third Normal Form ................................................................................................ 13
E/R Modeling ...................................................................................................................... 13
Bridging between Logical and Physical Models ............................................................. 15
Activities of Oracle Physical Design .................................................................... 17
Physical Design Requirements Validation ....................................................................... 18
How to Identify a Poor Requirements Evaluation ............................................ 19
Functional Validation............................................................................................... 19
How to Spot a Poor Functional Analysis............................................................ 20
Evaluating the Worth of an Existing System ..................................................... 20
Locating Oracle Physical Design Flaws........................................................................... 23

2 Physical Entity Design for Oracle ............................................. 25

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 25
Data Relationships and Physical Design ......................................................................... 25
Redundancy and Physical Design.......................................................................... 26
The Dangers of Overnormalization..................................................................... 28
Denormalizing One-to-Many Data Relationships.............................................. 29
Denormalizing Many-to-Many Data Relationships............................................ 32
Recursive Data Relationships ................................................................................. 34

vii
viii
Physical Database Design Using Oracle

Massive Denormalization: Star Schema Design............................................................. 37

Object-Oriented Database Design.................................................................................... 38
Abstract Data Types ................................................................................................ 39
Designing Class Hierarchies............................................................................................... 41
Representing Class Hierarchies.............................................................................. 45
Materialized Views and Denormalization ....................................................................... 45
Automatic SQL Query Rewrite ............................................................................. 48
When Is SQL Query Rewrite Used? .................................................................... 49
Referential Integrity ............................................................................................................. 49
Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 53

3 Oracle Hardware Design ........................................................... 55

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 55
Planning the Server Environment .................................................................................... 57
Design for Oracle Server CPU.............................................................................. 57
Designing Task Load Balancing Mechanisms ......................................... 58
Design for Oracle Server RAM............................................................................. 59
Making Oracle Memory Nonswappable................................................... 60
Design for the Oracle Server Swap Disk ............................................................ 60
Designing the Network Infrastructure for Oracle......................................................... 62
Oracle Network Design...................................................................................................... 63
The tcp.nodelay parameter ............................................................................. 63
The automatic_ipc parameter ........................................................................ 64
The break_poll_skip parameter ................................................................... 64
The disable_oob parameter ............................................................................. 65
The SDU and TDU parameters............................................................................ 65
The queuesize Parameter in listener.ora.................................. 67
Connection Pooling and Network Performance ................................................ 67
ODBC and Network Performance ....................................................................... 68
Oracle Replication Design ...................................................................................... 69
Oracle Disk Design ............................................................................................................. 70
Conclusion............................................................................................................................. 70

4 Oracle Instance Design .............................................................. 73

Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 73
Reserving RAM for Database Connections ........................................................ 74
RAM Used by Oracle Connections........................................................... 75
Determining the Optimal PGA Size .................................................................... 76
A Script for Computing Total PGA RAM.......................................................... 77
SGA Parameter Components ............................................................................................ 79
Designing the Shared Pool................................................................................................. 80
Library Cache Usage Measurement ...................................................................... 81
Oracle Event Waits.............................................................................................................. 82
The Shared Pool Advisory Utility..................................................................................... 82
Designing the Data Buffers ............................................................................................... 87
Using v$db_cache_advice .............................................................................. 91
 Contents
ix

Design with the DBHR...................................................................................................... 92

Using Statspack for the DBHR ............................................................................. 94
Data Buffer Monitoring with Statspack ................................................... 94
Pinning Packages in the SGA............................................................................................ 97
Automatic Repinning of Packages........................................................................ 99
Designing Logon Triggers to Track User Activity ...................................................... 101
Designing a User Audit Table.............................................................................. 101
User Table Normalization .................................................................................... 102
Designing a Logon Trigger .................................................................................. 102
Designing the Logoff Trigger ............................................................................. 104
User Activity Reports ............................................................................................ 106
User Logon Detail Reports .................................................................................. 107
Designing Oracle Failover Options................................................................................ 109
Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 110

5 Oracle T ablespace Design ........................................................ 111

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 111
Sizing Oracle Data Blocks................................................................................................ 112
The Evolution of Oracle File Structures...................................................................... 113
Design for Oracle Segment Storage............................................................................... 114
Setting PCTFREE and PCTUSED......................................................................... 116
Free List Management for Oracle Objects........................................................ 117
Design to Control Oracle Row Chaining and Row Migration...................... 118
The Issue of PCTFREE ........................................................................................ 120
The Issue of PCTUSED ........................................................................................ 122
The Sparse Table Problem ................................................................................... 123
Automatic Segment Space Management ....................................................................... 124
Internal Freelist Management with ASSM ........................................................ 127
Potential Performance Issues with ASSM ......................................................... 130
Replication Design............................................................................................................. 132
Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 132

6 Oracle Table Design ................................................................. 135

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 135
Table Replication Design.................................................................................................. 135
Is the Transfer of Data Time Sensitive? ........................................................... 136
Is the Number of Tables Manageable?.............................................................. 136
Do All Your Replicated Tables Need to Be Updatable? ................................ 136
Does Your Database Change Constantly?......................................................... 136
Is the Number of Transactions Manageable?................................................... 137
Are You Replicating between Different Versions of Oracle
or Different OSs?................................................................................................... 137
Do Both Sites Require the Ability to Update the Same Tables? .................. 137
Does the Replicated Site Require the Ability to Replicate
to Another Site?...................................................................................................... 137
x
Physical Database Design Using Oracle

Oracle External Tables ..................................................................................................... 138

Defining an External Table .................................................................................. 138
Internals of External Tables ................................................................................ 143
Security for External Table Files......................................................................... 145
Limitations of Comma-Delimited Spreadsheet Files ...................................... 145
Design with Materialized Views...................................................................................... 147
Materialized Views and Snapshots .......................................................... 148
Prerequisites for Using Materialized Views....................................................... 148
Invoking SQL Query Rewrite .................................................................. 149
Refreshing Materialized Views ................................................................. 149
Manual Complete Refresh......................................................................... 150
Manual Fast (Incremental) Refresh ......................................................... 150
Automatic Fast Refresh of Materialized Views .................................... 150
Creating a Materialized View ............................................................................... 151
Tips for Using Materialized Views .......................................................... 151
Design for Partitioned Structures ................................................................................... 153
Oracle Object Structures.................................................................................................. 154
Data Model Extension Capabilities .................................................................... 155
Object Orientation and Oracle............................................................................ 156
Oracle Nested Tables ............................................................................................ 157
Performance of Oracle Object Extensions....................................................... 158
Design with ADTs ................................................................................................. 159
Nesting ADTs ......................................................................................................... 162
Design with Oracle OIDs .................................................................................... 163
Navigating with Pointers (OIDs) ........................................................................ 166
Design with VARRAY Tables ......................................................................................... 166
Advantages of Repeating Groups....................................................................... 168
Disadvantages of Repeating Groups.................................................................. 169
Determining When to Use Repeating Groups ................................................. 170
Repeating Groups and ADTs .............................................................................. 170
Repeating Groups of OIDs................................................................................. 171
Repeating Groups of Data Values...................................................................... 172
Pointing to Tables....................................................................................... 174
Using Nested Tables ......................................................................................................... 179
Understanding Multidimensional Pointers and Oracle ........................ 182
Reviewing the Implications of OIDs for Oracle Design ................... 184
Designing Aggregate Objects................................................................... 185
Designing with Oracle Methods.......................................................................... 187
Automatic Method Generation ................................................................ 192
Stored Procedures and Oracle Tables..................................................... 194
Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 196

7 Oracle Index Design ................................................................ 197

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 197
Index Design Basics .......................................................................................................... 198
The Oracle B-Tree Index...................................................................................... 198
Bitmapped Indexes................................................................................................. 199
 Contents
xi

Function-Based Indexes........................................................................................ 200

Index-Organized Tables ........................................................................................ 201
Evaluating Oracle Index Access Methods .................................................................... 202
Index Range Scan................................................................................................... 202
Fast Full-Index Scan .............................................................................................. 203
Designing High-Speed Index Access ............................................................................. 208
Speed Factors .......................................................................................................... 208
Parallel Option ............................................................................................ 208
Nologging Option .................................................................................. 209
Space and Structure Factors................................................................................. 209
Compress Option ....................................................................................... 209
Tablespace Block Size Option.................................................................. 210
Designing Indexes to Reduce Disk I/O............................................................ 211
Oracle Optimizer and Index Design.............................................................................. 213
Physical Row-Ordering and Index Design.................................................................... 215
Constraints and Index Design ............................................................................. 216
Using Multicolumn Indexes............................................................................................. 218
How Oracle Chooses Indexes......................................................................................... 219
Index Design for Star Schemas....................................................................................... 221
Indexing Alternatives to B-Tree Indexes....................................................................... 223
Bitmap Indexes ....................................................................................................... 223
Function-Based Indexes........................................................................................ 223
Reverse-Key Indexes and SQL Performance.................................................... 224
Index Usage for Queries with IN Conditions.................................................. 224
Design for Oracle Full-Index Scans............................................................................... 226
Oracle and Multiblock Reads............................................................................... 227
Basics of FBIs.................................................................................................................... 228
Indexing on a Column with NULL Values .................................................................... 229
Invoking the Full-Index Scan with a FBI ..................................................................... 230
An Important Oracle Enhancement................................................................... 231
How to Use Oracle9i Bitmap Join Indexes ................................................................. 231
How Bitmap Join Indexes Work..................................................................................... 231
Bitmap Join Indexes in Action ............................................................................ 233
Exclusions for Bitmap Join Indexes ................................................................... 234
Design for Automatic Histogram Creation .................................................................. 235
The method_opt=‘SKEWONLY’ dbms_stats Option .......................... 235
Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 236
Index .................................................................................................. 237
 PREFACE

The evolution of the Oracle ® database has led to a revolution of design

practices. As of Oracle Database 10g, the database physical structures have
become more complex than ever before and database designers face a
plethora of physical ways to implement the logical models.
The purpose of this book is to correlate the logical data model with
the physical implementation structures provided by Oracle Corporation.
Oracle Database 10g offers object-oriented data structures, pure relational
data structures as well as specialized data structures such as index-orga-
nized tables. Given so many choices, Oracle designers must understand
the appropriate use of each physical technology and how it maps to their
logical data models.
This book targets the practicing Oracle professional who already has
exposure to basic Oracle database administration. It is my hope that this
text provides you with the insights that you need to choose the appropriate
physical model for your mission-critical application.

Regards,

Donald K. Burleson

xiii
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Donald K. Burleson is one of the world’s top Oracle database experts

with more than 20 years of full-time database administration (DBA) expe-
rience. He specializes in creating database architectures for large online
databases and he has worked with some of the world’s most power ful
and complex systems.
A former adjunct professor, Don Burleson has written 32 books,
published more than 100 articles in national magazines, and served as
editor-in-chief of Oracle Internals and senior consulting editor for DBAzine
and series editor for Rampant TechPress. Don is a popular lecturer and
teacher and is a frequent speaker at OracleWorld and other international
database conferences.
As a leading corporate database consultant, Don has worked with
numerous Fortune 500 corporations creating robust database architectures
for mission-critical systems. Don is also a noted expert on E-commerce
systems and has been instrumental in the development of numer ous
Web-based systems that support thousands of concurrent users.
Don’s professional Web sites include www.dba- oracle.com and
www.remote-dba.net.
In addition to his services as a consultant, Don also is active in
charitable programs to aid visually impaired individuals. Don pioneered
a technique for delivering tiny pigmy horses as guide animals for the
blind and manages a nonpr ofit corporation called The Guide Horse
Foundation dedicated to providing free guide horses to the blind. The
Web site for The Guide Horse Foundation is www.guidehorse.org.
Don Burleson’s books include:

xv
xvi
Physical Database Design Using Oracle

Oracle Privacy Security Auditing — Includes Federal Law Compliance

with HIPAA, Sarbanes-Oxley & The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act GLB,
Rampant TechPress, 2003
Oracle Index Management Secrets — Top Oracle Experts Discuss Index
Management Techniques, Rampant TechPress, 2003
Oracle SQL Internals Handbook, Rampant TechPress, 2003
Oracle Space Management Handbook, Rampant TechPress, 2003
Advanced SQL Database Programmer Handbook, Rampant TechPress,
2003
The Data Warehouse eBusiness DBA Handbook, Rampant TechPress,
2003
Oracle9iAS Administration Handbook, Oracle Press, 2003
Creating a Self-Tuning Oracle Database — Automatic Oracle9i
Dynamic SGA Performance, Rampant TechPress, 2003
Conducting the Oracle Job Interview — IT Manager Guide for Oracle
Job Interviews with Oracle Interview Questions, Rampant TechPress,
2003
Oracle9i UNIX Administration Handbook, Oracle Press, 2002
Oracle9i High Performance Tuning with STATSPACK, Oracle Press,
2002
Oracle Internals — Tips, Tricks, and Techniques for DBAs, CRC Press,
2001
Oracle High Performance SQL Tuning, Oracle Press, 2001
Oracle High Performance Tuning with STATSPACK, Oracle Press, 2001
UNIX for Oracle DBAs Pocket Reference, O’Reilly & Associates, 2000
Oracle SAP Administration, O’Reilly & Associates, 1999
Inside the Database Object Model, CRC Press, 1998
High Performance Oracle Data Warehousing — All You Need to Master
Professional Database Development Using Oracle, Coriolis Publish-
ing, 1997
High Performance Oracle8 Tuning — Performance and Tuning Tech-
niques for Getting the Most from Your Oracle8 Database, Coriolis
Publishing, 1997
High Performance Oracle Database Applications — Performance and
Tuning Techniques for Getting the Most from Your Oracle Database,
Coriolis Publishing, 1996
Oracle Databases on the Web — Learn to Create Web Pages that Inter-
face with Database Engines, Coriolis Publishing, 1996
Managing Distributed Databases — Building Bridges between Database
Islands, John Wiley & Sons, 1995
Practical Application of Object-Oriented Techniques to Relational Data-
bases, John Wiley & Sons, 1994
 1
INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE
PHYSICAL DESIGN

PREFACE
Over the past 30 years, we’ve seen the evolution of a wide variety of
systems analysis and design methodologies. We’ve seen the methodologies
of Grady Booch, Ed Yourdon, Chris Gane and Trish Sarson, as well as
the emergence of standard systems development methodologies such as
joint application development and Unified Modeling Language (UML).
Regardless of the methodology, at some point in the systems imple-
mentation, the database designer must be able to convert a logical data
modeling for data into physical data structures. From a database point of
view, it is incidental whether you’re dealing with a commercial database
management system (DBMS), such as MySQL® or Oracle, or whether you’re
writing your own DBMS in a language such as C or C ++. The point is that
we must be able to take the logical data models and convert them into
physical implementations that will minimize disk input/output (I/O) and
provide the fastest possible throughput.
We need to be able to implement the DBMS in such fashion that
performance will be fast while preserving the logical data structures. This
book is dedicated to the premise that the database designer should be
able to take logical data models and convert them into a series of data
structures that allow for fast and easy, logical access to the data.

RELATIONAL DATABASES AND PHYSICAL DESIGN

Relational databases made the following improvements over hierarchical
and network databases:

1
2
Physical Database Design Using Oracle

Simplicity — the concept of tables with r ows and columns is

extremely simple and easy to understand. End users have a simple
data model. Complex network diagrams used with the hierarchical
and network databases are not used with a relational database.

Data independence — data independence is the ability to modify
data structures (in this case, tables) without affecting existing pro-
grams. Much of this is because tables are not hard-linked to one
another. Columns can be added to tables, tables can be added to
the database, and new data relationships can be added with little or
no restructuring of the tables. A relational database provides a much
higher degree of data independence than do hierarchical and network
databases.

Declarative data access — the Structured Query Language (SQL)
users specify what data they want, then the embedded SQL (a
procedural language) determines how to get the data. In relational
database access, the user tells the system the conditions for the
retrieval of data. The system then gets the data that meets the
selection conditions in the SQL statements. The database navigation
is hidden from the end user or programmer, unlike a Conference
on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Data Manipulation Lan-
guage (DML), where the programmer had to know the details of
the access path.

The most important point about SQL is that it provided programmers

and end users with a simple, easy way to add, change, and extract data
from a relational database. Any two tables could be joined together on
the fly at runtime using their primary or foreign keys. There are no pointers
or hard links from one table to another.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSICAL DESIGN

To understand all of the steps that occur during the physical database
design, let’s take a quick look at the overall phases of a database project:

1. Feasibility study — a feasibility study is a cost-benefit analysis for

a proposed system, quantifying all tangible costs and benefits for
the warehouse, as well as describing intangible costs and benefits.
Essentially, the goal of this study is to provide a go/no-go decision
about whether to proceed with the data warehouse project. Activ-
ities involve an analysis of technological and economical feasibility
with a focus on understanding all of the costs and benefi ts that
will accrue from the data warehouse.
 Introduction to Oracle Physical Design
3

User
Requirements
Data Dictionary
1. 3.

Analysis Implementation

E/R Model
Data
Dictionary
Finished
Data Flow System
Diagrams 2. Input/Output Design

Design
Process Logic
Specifications

Figure 1.1 The System Development Life Cycle

2. Systems analysis — systems analysis is a logical description of the

data sources for the warehouse, data extraction analysis, data cleans-
ing analysis, and data loading analysis. Unlike a traditional system,
the warehouse analysis is heavily data-centric and not concerned
with defining the system interfaces.
3. Logical design — the systems design phase is the physical imple-
mentation of the logical data model that was developed in the
systems analysis phase. This includes the design of the warehouse,
specifications for data extraction tools, data loading processes, and
warehouse access methods. In this phase, a working pr ototype
should be created for the end user.
4. Physical design — the system design phase is also where the logical
documentation is transformed into a physical structure. For database
design, this involves the creation of the entity/relation (E/R) model
and the determination of appropriate data storage techniques and
index usage. This phase is wher e a thorough understanding of
Oracle database architecture will pay off.
5. Implementation — the implementation phase is the phase in which
the warehouse is constructed and the software is written and tested.

As shown in Figure 1.1, the implementation phase normally consumes

as much effort as all of the other steps combined. Regardless of the
reasons, it remains true that the implementation phase is by far the most
time-consuming phase in the creation of any system.
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 Contagious vaginitis 545
Croupal vaginitis 545
Chronic vaginitis 546
Metritis 547
Septic metritis 547
Acute metritis 550
Chronic metritis 552
Epizootic abortion in cows 553
Salpingitis—Salpingo-ovaritis 555
Torsion of the uterus 556
Tumours of the uterus 559
Tumours of the ovary 559
Genital malformations 560
Imperforate vagina 560
Nympho-mania 562

V. DISEASES OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS 565

Physiological anomalies 567
Wounds or traumatic lesions 568
Chaps and cracks 568
Milk fistulæ 569
Inflammatory diseases 570
Congestion of the udder 570
Mammitis 571
Acute mammitis 573
Contagious mammitis in milch cows 580
Chronic mammitis 581
Gangrenous mammitis of milch ewes 583
Gangrenous mammitis in goats 584
Cysts of the udder 585
Tumours of the udder 585
Verrucous papillomata of the udder 586

VI. DISTURBANCE IN THE MILK SECRETION AND CHANGES

IN THE MILK 587
Microbic changes in milk. Lactic ferments 588
VII. MALE GENITAL ORGANS 594
Tumours of the testicle 594
Accessory glands of the genital apparatus 597

SECTION VIII.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN AND SUBCUTANEOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE.

I. ECZEMA 599
Acute eczema 599
Chronic eczema 600
Sebaceous or seborrhœic eczema 601
Eczema due to feeding with potato pulp 603
Impetigo in the pig 605
Acne in sheep 606
Fagopyrism (Buckwheat poisoning) 606

II. PHTHIRIASIS 608

Scabies—Scab—Mange 611
Scabies in sheep 611
Sarcoptic scabies 612
Psoroptic mange—Sheep scab 614
The tobacco-and-sulphur dip 626
Lime-and-sulphur dips 627
Arsenical dips 632
Carbolic dips 633
Chorioptic mange—Symbiotic mange—Foot scab 636
Mange in the ox 638
Sarcoptic mange 638
Psoroptic mange 639
Chorioptic mange 640
Mange in the goat 641
Sarcoptic mange 641
Chorioptic mange 642
Mange in the pig 642
Demodecic mange 643
Demodecic mange in the ox 644
 Demodecic mange in the goat 644
Demodecic mange in the pig 644
Non-psoroptic forms of acariasis 645
Hypodermosis in the ox (warbles) 646

III. RINGWORM 649

Ringworm in the sheep, goat, and pig 653

IV. WARTS IN OXEN 655

Urticaria in the pig 656
Scleroderma 657

V. SUBCUTANEOUS EMPHYSEMA 659

SECTION IX.
DISEASES OF THE EYES.
Foreign bodies 661
Conjunctivitis and keratitis 662
Verminous conjunctivitis 662
Verminous ophthalmia of the ox 663

SECTION X.
INFECTIOUS DISEASES.
Cow-pox—Vaccinia 665
Cow-pox and human variola—Preparation of
vaccine 669
Tetanus 670
Actinomycosis 672
Actinomycosis of the maxilla 673
Actinomycosis of the tongue 674
Actinomycosis of the pharynx, parotid glands and
neck 675
Tuberculosis 682
Tuberculosis of the respiratory apparatus 690
Tuberculosis of the serous membranes 694
Tuberculosis of lymphatic glands 696
Tuberculosis of the digestive tract 699
Tuberculosis of the genital organs 700
 Tuberculosis of bones and articulations 701
Tuberculosis of the brain 702
Tuberculosis of the skin 703
Acute tuberculosis—Tuberculous septicæmia 704
Swine fever—Verrucous endocarditis and pneumonia of
the pig 710
Swine fever 710
Verrucous endocarditis of the pig 713
Pneumonia of the pig 714
Hæmorrhagic septicæmia in cattle 716

SECTION XI.
OPERATIONS.

I. CONTROL OF ANIMALS 720

Control of oxen 720
Partial control 720
Control of the limbs 720
General control 722
Control by casting 723
Control of sheep and goats 725
Control of pigs 725
Anæsthesia 726

II. CIRCULATORY APPARATUS 727

Bleeding 727
Bleeding in sheep 727
Bleeding in the pig 728
Setons, rowels, plugs, or issues 728

III. APPARATUS OF LOCOMOTION 730

Surgical dressing for a claw 730
Amputation of the claw or of the two last phalanges 730

IV. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS 734

Ringing pigs 734
Œsophagus 734
 Passing the probang 735
Crushing foreign bodies in the œsophagus 735
Œsophagotomy 736
Sub-mucous dissection of the foreign body 736
Rumen 737
Puncture of the rumen 737
Gastrotomy 739
Laparotomy 740
Herniæ 741
Inguinal hernia in young pigs 741
Imperforate anus 742
Prolapsus and inversion of the rectum 743

V. RESPIRATORY APPARATUS 745

Trephining the facial sinuses 745
Trephining the horn core 745
Frontal sinus 745
Maxillary sinus 745
Tracheotomy 746

VI. GENITO-URINARY ORGANS 747

Urethrotomy in the ox 747
Ischial urethrotomy 747
Scrotal urethrotomy 748
Passage of the catheter and urethrotomy in the ram 749
Passage of the catheter in the cow 750
Castration 751
Castration of the bull and ram 751
Bistournage 751
Martelage 756
Castration by clams 756
Castration by torsion 757
Castration with the actual cautery 758
Castration by the elastic ligature 758
Castration of the ram 759
Castration of boars and young pigs 759
Castration of cryptorchids 760
 Female genital organs 760
Castration of the cow 761
Castration of the sow 765
Suture of the vulva 768
Trusses 769
Section of the sphincter of the teat 770
Dilatation of the orifice of the teat 770
Ablation of the mammæ 771
DISEASES OF CATTLE, SHEEP,
GOATS AND SWINE.
 SECTION I.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.

METHODS OF EXAMINATION.
Accidental and local diseases of the apparatus of locomotion are
matters of less urgency in the case of cattle than in that of the horse.
On the other hand, general affections, such as rheumatism and
osseous cachexia, demand a larger share of attention, and are of the
utmost importance.
As the accurate diagnosis of any disease demands careful and
systematic examination, the practitioner usually observes a certain
order in his investigations, as indicated below:—
(1.) Inspection, from the side, from the front and from behind,
reveals the existence of deformities of bones, limbs, muscles and
joints, articular displacements, and irregularities of conformation or
of gait.
By inspection of an animal as it walks various forms of lameness,
and their particular characteristics, are rendered visible.
(2.) Palpation and pressure will detect changes in local
sensibility, the softness or hardness of tissues, the existence of
superficial or deep fluctuation, œdematous swelling, and abnormal
growths like ring-bones and exostoses, as well as the exact character
of articular enlargements.
(3.) Percussion is of little value in examining the apparatus of
locomotion. Nevertheless, percussion of the claws, and of certain
bones of the limbs, or of flat bones, may afford valuable information
in cases of laminitis, ostitis, and periostitis. Percussion along the
longitudinal axes of the limb bones is also useful in diagnosing intra-
articular fractures, subacute arthritis, osteomyelitis, etc.
(4.) The gait. Lame animals should be made to move, in order to
assist both in discovering the cause, and in estimating the gravity of
the condition. Sometimes it is advisable to turn the animal loose, but
most frequently it is moved in hand, either in straight lines or in
circles.
Information so obtained should always be supplemented by local
manipulation and by passive movement, such as flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction and rotation of the joints.
A knowledge of the characteristics of normal movement in any
given joint, renders it comparatively easy to detect abnormality, such
as increased sensibility, articular crepitation or friction, and to
diagnose fractures with or without displacement, ruptures of tendons
or ligaments, etc.
 CHAPTER I.
DISEASES OF BONES.

The diseases affecting bony tissues may broadly be divided into

local and general. Local diseases like ostitis, periostitis, necrosis,
fracture, etc., are somewhat rare, and are less important in cattle
than such general diseases as rachitis and osseous cachexia.
Rachitis is a disease of young animals, and occurs during the
growing period. Osseous cachexia is a disease of adults.
Nevertheless, there is a relationship between these two morbid
conditions, for they frequently co-exist in one family. Moreover,
brood mares and cows suffering from osseous cachexia give birth to
foals and calves, which, if left with their mothers, almost inevitably
become rachitic.
The general characteristic common to both rachitis and osseous
cachexia consisting in diminution in the normal proportion of
mineral salts entering into the constitution of the bone, numerous
theories have been advanced to explain this irregularity in nutrition.
The theory of insufficiency is one of the oldest. It presupposes
that the young animals’ food contains insufficient mineral salts
necessary for building up the skeleton, hence rachitis; or again, that
the daily food of the adults does not afford sufficient mineral salts to
compensate for the normal transformation which is continually
going on within the organism, and for the direct losses which occur
through the medium of the urine, milk, etc.
This extremely simple theory appears perfectly logical, but
unfortunately does not fit in with all the observed facts. In reality,
rachitis attacks children whose supply of milk, from a chemical point
of view, leaves nothing to be desired. The same is true of animals,
particularly of young pigs. The so-called “acid theory” has therefore
been advanced to explain the points left obscure by its predecessor.
The acid theory. According to this theory, the food may contain
more than sufficient mineral material without, however, preventing
the development of rachitis or of osseous cachexia.
In animals suffering from digestive disturbance the alimentary
tract may become the seat of excessive fermentation or of changes in
secretion. There is thus produced an excess of lactic acid which
passes into the circulation and accumulates in the tissues, checking
the processes which end in ossification or, in the case of adults, even
leading to decalcification.
It seems fairly well established that experimental administration of
lactic acid to animals causes diminution in the quantity of calcium
salts contained in the bones (Siedamgrotsky, Hofmeister). On the
other hand however Arloing and Tripier failed to produce rachitis
experimentally.
Bouchard revived this theory in a somewhat modified form. He
considers that calcium salts are absorbed as carbonates and
chlorides and phosphoric acid as phospho-glyceric acid. The reaction
which these compounds undergo within the organism ends in the
formation of the phosphate of calcium necessary to ossification, but
this “phosphate of ossification” cannot be deposited if the organism
contains an excess of lactic acid.
Theory of inflammation. A third theory which until now has
received very little support is that called the theory of inflammation.
The general lesions which characterise rachitis are regarded as
resulting from primary attacks of ostitis and osteo-periostitis. The
cause of these forms of inflammation is not suggested.
To the above views may be added that more recently emitted by
Dr. Chaumier, according to which rachitis is of an infectious nature.
Unfortunately no proof of this has yet been adduced.

GENERAL DISEASES.

RACHITIS.

Rachitis is a disease of youth, and is common both to the human

species and to all domestic animals. It is characterised by
irregularities in development and by imperfect consolidation of the
bones. The boundary between rachitis and osseous cachexia is
difficult to define and in fact at the present moment the two diseases
can scarcely be defined with exactitude. Rachitis again is often
complicated with softening of the bones, disease of the limbs,
arrested development, etc., but it must not be forgotten that
although the irregularities in ossification and development of the
skeleton are the symptoms most striking to the eye, they do not
stand alone, and that from the point of view of development all the
tissues, including the muscles, are more or less affected and that
most of the physiological functions such as digestion and the
secretion of urine are deranged.
Etiology. One of the principal causes suggested is that of
heredity, and so far as human beings are concerned, one seldom fails
to discover the rachitic taint. Certainly the offspring of individuals
marked by any debilitating disease like alcoholism, tuberculosis,
syphilis, etc., are poorly equipped for their future development. Their
tissues lack the necessary qualities and, cæteris paribus, their
physiological functions are performed less perfectly than are those of
normal individuals.
It is difficult to apply such information to domestic animals,
because badly developed subjects are not used for reproduction and
the importance assigned to heredity can therefore scarcely be
sustained. The conditions of life, on the contrary, have an
unquestionable influence, and if rachitis is so frequent in young
animals living near towns, for example, it is undoubtedly due to that
want of air, light and liberty, which first affects the mother’s health
and later that of her offspring.
The same may be said of insufficient and improper food; for in this
connection quality is of even greater importance than quantity. Even
free feeding is insufficient if the fodder does not contain the material
necessary for sustaining and building up the developing frame, a
point which readily explains the occurrence of rachitis when young
animals receive a diet deficient in certain chemical constituents.
This occurs in young lambs and pigs where the mothers are given
too little variety or too small a quantity of food.
In calves and foals rachitis is rare but occurs when the mothers are
exhausted or cachectic or are debilitated by chronic wasting diseases
like tuberculosis or osseous cachexia. The milk is then no longer of
normal chemical constitution.
One fact appears to dominate the whole subject of the causation of
rachitis, viz., the failure to assimilate sufficient of the mineral salts
required in building up the skeleton. This failure to assimilate may
be caused by too meagre feeding, but even when the food is
sufficiently rich, some digestive disturbance may reduce the amount
absorbed below normal. This appears the only plausible explanation
unless we admit Dr. Chaumier’s theory that the disease is of an
infectious character.
Symptoms. The onset is absolutely insidious and the diagnosis of
rachitis is never made until nutrition has long been abnormal.
This disturbance of nutrition is revealed by irregularity and
abnormality in appetite, by difficulty in rising and moving about, and
by the animals lying down for long periods. The subjects are feeble,
sluggish and badly developed.
Next supervenes the second phase characterised by deformity of
bones. This is of two kinds—deformity in the neighbourhood of joints
(deformity or enlargement of the epiphyses) and deformity of the
diaphyses. The former results from irregularity in ossification of the
articular cartilages. The latter is followed by loss of rigidity in the
bones of the limbs which, under the influence of the body weight and
of muscular contraction, bend in different directions.
The bones appear of increased thickness principally towards the
articulations. The latter are deformed, and on palpation are found to
be surrounded by uneven and irregular growths.
The front limbs are distorted. In young pigs, lambs, and less
frequently in foals, calves and dogs, the jaws become deformed, and
mastication is rendered difficult.
The vertebral column may also be affected, and lordosis (bending
downwards of the back) or skoliosis (lateral bending of the back) is
somewhat frequent.
Cyphosis, or upward bending of the back, seldom occurs, and
when seen, sometimes results from disease other than rachitis.
General development is always interfered with and the young
creatures are generally dwarfed.
The digestive apparatus is disordered, the appetite is irregular and
sometimes depraved, while indigestion, gastritis, and enteritis are
not exceptional. Physiological and pathological research has shown
that the quantity of phosphoric acid eliminated in twenty-four hours
in a rachitic child is double the quantity passed by a healthy infant.
 The amount of urea in the
urine (which is a criterion of
nutrition, and usually varies in
proportion to the amount of
food ingested) is, on the
contrary, diminished even
when highly nitrogenous food
is given, thus suggesting
diminution in nutrition.
Lesions. The lesions are
represented by abnormal and
irregular thickening around
the interarticular cartilages.
The cartilage is thickened,
compressible, very spongy and
without regular ossification.
Diffused periostitis exists
principally towards the
extremities of the bone.
Beneath the periosteum the
surface of the bone appears
rough and softened. On
Fig. 1.—Rachitis in a young goat. section the medullary canals
are seen to be enlarged and
filled with marrow of a
gelatinous character. The Haversian canals are dilated, and the
entire tissue appears very vascular. Chemical analysis proves that the
mineral constituents of the bone, particularly the phosphates, have
diminished by one-half; the organic constituents on the other hand
are increased in a similar ratio, but the ossein is abnormal.
Ossification has, in a word, been incomplete.
Diagnosis. Diagnosis presents no difficulty except in the early
stages before deformity has occurred.
Rachitis can scarcely be mistaken for any other condition except
perhaps infectious rheumatism, but the rapid course of the disease in
the latter case, the persistence of fever and the swelling of the joint
cavities sufficiently differentiate the conditions provided care is
exercised.
 Prognosis. From an economic point of view the prognosis is very
grave for if the lesions are extensive there is nothing to be gained by
keeping the animal.
Treatment. Treatment differs very little, whether the animals are
still being suckled or have been weaned. In the former case it is
necessary to improve the quality and chemical constitution of the
mother’s milk by giving food, richer both in mineral salts and in
nitrogenous material.
Cooked grains, milk, and forage of good quality should be given
freely. When the mothers are exhausted and anæmic it is better to
feed the little animals artificially or to change them to a foster-
mother. Those already weaned should be given good rich milk, eggs,
boiled gruel, and drugs, such as the phospho-chlorate of lime, 1 to
1½ drachms per day (for a calf); lacto-phosphate of lime, 1 to 1½
drachms; bi-phosphate of lime, 1 drachm, or simply ordinary
phosphate of lime. Oil containing 1 per cent. of dissolved phosphorus
may be given in doses of 1 to 2½ drachms, according to the size of
the calves, but its use calls for much care, and it should only be given
for alternate periods of a fortnight. The glycerophosphates are not
very active. Beef meal in doses of 6 drachms to 1½ ounces and
chloride of ammonium in doses of 30 to 60 grains have also been
used advantageously. The above drugs, but particularly the bi-
phosphate of lime and chloride of ammonium, stimulate nutrition
and diminish the quantity of phosphoric acid eliminated.

OSSEOUS CACHEXIA.

“Osseous cachexia” is a general disease which develops slowly and

progressively, producing its most marked effects on the bony tissues.
It has received a great many different names, such as osteoporosis,
osteoclastia, osteomalacia, fragilitas ossium, enzootic ostitis, bone
softening, etc., but none of these appears so appropriate as the term
osseous cachexia, suggested by Cantiget.
All the above-mentioned names are applicable to some phase of
the disease, but none to the disease in its complete development.
Thus the name “osteoporosis,” accepted by German authors, is quite
applicable to the phase of rarefying ostitis seen at the
commencement, but this condition occurs in other diseases. The
expressions “osteoclastia” and “fragilitas ossium” suggest the fragility
of the bones and the commonness of fracture. The term
“osteomalacia” is warranted during the period of bone softening. The
term “gout,” though in practice confusing, has been held to be
justified by the frequent appearance of synovitis and arthritis; while
that of “enzootic ostitis” indicates the appearance of the disease in all
the stables in one district, without however pointing to its nature. It
is possible that under certain circumstances the train of symptoms
might be incomplete, and then the terms above indicated would be
quite inappropriate. “Osseous cachexia,” on the other hand, is very
comprehensive, and appears to cover the entire development of the
disease, for which reason it here receives preference.
Law defines the disease as “a softening and fragility of the bones of
adult animals, in connection with solution and removal of the earthy
salts.” He describes it as an enzootic disease of mature animals—
mainly cows—in which the decalcifying process proceeds most
actively in the walls of the Haversian canals and cancelli of the
affected bones. In consequence of the removal of the earthy salts the
bones become soft and more or less fragile.
The disease has been observed in England, Scotland, United
States, France, Belgium, and Jutland, and generally in districts with
low-lying damp pastures. It attacks cows which are heavy milkers.
Susceptibility appears to increase with advancing age.
History. Having been described by Vegetius, the disease was
again observed about 1650 in Norway where it was treated by the
administration of crushed bones. It is fairly frequent in some parts of
Germany and Belgium. In France it was studied in 1825 by Roux, and
in 1846 by Dupont, but Zundel in 1870 was the first who gave a good
description of it, founded partly on the authority of German authors
and partly on observations made by himself in the Valley of the
Lower Rhine. Since that time it has successively been reported in the
Yonne by Thierry, in the Nièvre by Vernant, in the Aube by Collard
and Henriot (1893), in the Indre by Cantiget, as well as in La Vendée
by Tapon in 1893. In that and the succeeding year Moussu also saw
numerous cases in the districts of Indre-et-Loire, Loire-et-Cher,
Berry, Sologne, and in some parts of Beauce.
 Symptoms. The first symptoms are difficult to detect and
interpret, especially at the commencement of an outbreak and in
parts where the disease is rare they may lead to confusion and errors
in diagnosis. On the other hand, in regions where the disease is
common the practitioner will be able to form his diagnosis from the
appearance of the first signs.
To render clear the mode in which the symptoms develop we may
divide the progress of the disease into four phases, though this
grouping is somewhat arbitrary.
1. The initial phase is not well marked, and is announced by
digestive disturbance and by wasting. The former of these symptoms
may be referred to some other cause, but consists in irregularity,
diminution and sometimes perversion of the appetite. These earlier
signs are soon followed by loss of spirits, and some interference with
movement, but the symptoms only become of importance or attain
their full development when the animals remain lying for a long
period in the stable.
 Fig. 2.—Horse suffering from osseous cachexia.

2. The second phase is characterised by more precise signs,

which become almost pathognomonic. Difficulty in rising is added to
the already existing tendency to remain lying, and to the interference
with movement.
When lying down the patient no longer responds to the trifling
stimulus, which a healthy animal needs to cause it to rise. It remains
languid and apparently lazy, though in reality it experiences pain and
difficulty on attempting to get up. The least muscular effort when
lying down often causes it to moan, as do efforts to change its
position or to walk. Even when standing still, it may appear to be in
pain, and patients often assume a position similar to that of a horse
suffering from laminitis.
At the end of this second phase, swellings appear, due to synovitis
or arthritis of the extremities, synovitis of the sesamoid or navicular
sheaths or to inter-phalangeal arthritis or arthritis of the fetlock
joint. Weakness becomes marked, and the appetite is very irregular.
Secretion of milk diminishes or ceases and abortion is not
uncommon.
3. The third phase is characterised by fractures, and it is this
peculiarity of the disease which has procured for it the names of
fragilitas ossium, and osteoclastia. These fractures may affect any
portion of the skeleton. Animals so suffering sometimes break a leg
whilst trotting or the pelvis in simply jumping over a ditch; a
collision with a fixed object like the jamb of the stable door, or a fall
on the ground, may result in the fracture of one or several ribs.

Fig. 3.—Pig suffering from osseous cachexia (fourth stage).

Such shocks would be of no importance to a healthy animal, but to

one suffering from osseous cachexia, any violence, or even the
slightest muscular effort may be followed by fracture of the gravest
character, involving even the vertebral column. In cows the pelvis,
femur, and tibia are most frequently injured.
In horses, particularly in riding horses, fractures are commonest in
the region of the forearm, cannon bone, and anterior phalanges. So
extremely fragile are the bones at this stage that the horse
represented herewith broke twelve ribs at one time by simply falling
on its side. It is interesting to note that such fractures are never
accompanied by any extensive bleeding. They have little tendency to
repair, no real callus formation occurs, and on post-mortem
examination one often finds the ends unconnected by temporary
callus, worn, and rounded by reciprocal friction.
At this stage but under other circumstances, the animals show
great reluctance to rise, remaining down for twelve to twenty-four
hours without shifting their position. If forced to get up, they stand
as though fixed in one position, the respiration and circulation
become rapid, and they soon grow tired and fall.
4. The fourth phase, or period of osteomalacia, i.e. softening of
the bones, is also the last. It is rarely seen in large animals like horses
and oxen, because accidents so often accompany the preceding
stages and necessitate slaughter; but it is common in goats and pigs.
In this phase the bones become elastic, soft and depressible,
yielding to the pressure of the operator’s fingers.
The flat bones are particularly liable to
this change, which is common to
domesticated animals. The bones of the
head are the first to suffer; later those of the
pelvis. The lower jaw becomes swollen,
particularly about the centre of the
branches which may attain three, four, or
five times, their normal thickness.
The depression in the submaxillary space
disappears. The upper jaw undergoes
similar changes, becoming deformed and
thickened until the cavities of the sinuses
and the hollow appearance of the palate are
lost, while the face is so changed that it
cannot be recognised as that of a horse,
goat, etc.
The molar teeth are almost buried, their
tables alone being visible at the bottom of a
depression, the edges of which rise above
the neighbouring parts (pig).
Mastication is clearly impossible, the
jaws appear paralysed, the muscles
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