Polynomials

An algebraic expression of the form

p(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 +....+ a1x1 + a0x0, where
(i) an ≠ 0
(ii) a0, a1, a2, ...an are real numbers
(iii) power of x is a non negative integer, is called a polynomial.
Where an, an–1, an–2, are coefficients of xn, xn–1............. x0 respectively and
anxn, an–1xn–1, an–2xn–2,...a0x0 are terms of the polynomial. Here the term anxn is called the
leading term and its coefficient an is the leading coefficient.

For e.g.: p(u) = u3 – 3u2 + 2u – 4 is a polynomial in variable u.

u3, –3u2, 2u and –4 are known as terms of polynomial and , –3 and 2 are their
respective coefficients.

🟋 All algebraic expressions are not polynomials.

Types of polynomials : Generally we divide the polynomials in three categories.

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 Polynomials classified by number of distinct variables
Number of distinct
Name Example
variables
1 Univariate x+9
2 Bivariate x+y+9
3 Trivariate x+y+z+9
Generally, a polynomial in more than one variable is called a multivariate polynomial.
A second major way of classifying polynomials is by their degree.

🟋 Recall that the degree of a term is the sum of the

exponents on variables, and that the degree of a

polynomial is the largest degree of any one term.
e.g. Polynomial = x2y3 + x7y3 + x2y2
here, degrees of term x2y3, x7y3, x2y2 are 5, 10, 4
respectively.
Degree of given polynomial = 10
Polynomials classified by degree
Degree Name Example

–∞ Zero 0

(non-zero)
0 1
Constant
1 Linear x+1
2 Quadratic x2 + 1
3 Cubic x3 + 2
Usually, a polynomial of degree n, for n greater than 3, is called a polynomial of degree n,
although the phrases quartic polynomial and quantic polynomial are sometimes used for
degree 4 and 5 respectively.
Polynomials classified by number of non-zero terms
Number of Name Example

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 non-zero terms

0 Zero polynomial 0

1 Monomial x2
2 Binomial x2 + 1
3 Trinomial x2 + x + 1
If a polynomial has only one variable, then the terms are usually written either from
highest degree to lowest degree ("descending powers") or from lowest degree to highest
degree ("ascending powers").
Value of a polynomial
If p(x) is a polynomial in variable x and a is any real number, then the value obtained by
replacing x by a in p(x) is called value of p(x) at x = a and is denoted by p(a).
For example : Find the value of p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 at x = –2
⇒ p(–2) = (–2)3 – 6(–2)2 + 11(–2) – 6 = –8 – 24 – 22 – 6

⇒ p(–2) = – 60
Zero of a polynomial : A real number a is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0.
For example : Consider
p(x) = x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
p(1) = (1)3 – 6(1)2 + 11(1) – 6 = 1 – 6 + 11 – 6 = 0
p(2) = (2)3 – 6(2)2 + 11(2) – 6 = 8 – 24 + 22 – 6 = 0
p(3) = (3)3 – 6(3)2 + 11(3) – 6 = 27 – 54 + 33 – 6 = 0
Thus, 1,2 and 3 are called the zeros of polynomial p(x).
Geometrical meaning of the zeros of a polynomial
Geometrically the zeros of a polynomials f(x) are the x-co-ordinates of the points where
the graph y = f(x) intersects x-axis. To understand it, we will see the geometrical
representations of linear and quadratic polynomials.
Geometrical representation of the zero of a linear polynomial y = ax + b

The graph of y = ax + b intersects the x-axis at only one point A.

Therefore, we conclude that the linear polynomial ax + b has one and only one zero.
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 Geometrical representation of the zero of a quadratic polynomial
y = ax2 + bx + c
Consider the following cases
Case-I : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A'. (see figure)

The x-coordinates of A and A' are two zeros of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c
Case-II : Here, the graph touches the x-axis at exactly one point (see fig). So, the two
points A and A' of Case-I coincide here to become one point A.
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this
case.

Case-III : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the
x-axis (see fig. ). So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point. So, the quadratic polynomial ax2
+ bx +c has no zero in this case.

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So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two distinct
zeros or one zero, or no zero. This also means that a polynomial of degree 2 has at most
two zeros.

🟋 In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the

x-axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n

zeros.

The graphical representation of y = ax2 + bx + c is shown in the given figure. Does it

have
(i) any solution (ii) zero(s)

Explanation
(i) It has infinite solutions because there are infinite points which satisfy the equation
y = ax2 + bx + c.
(ii) It has no zero because there is no real x for which y gets zero or graphically there is
no point of intersection of x-axis and the curve.

Look at the graphs given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x), where p(x) is a
polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeros of p(x).

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 Explanation
(i) The number of zeros is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeros is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeros is 3 as the graph intersects the x-axis at three point only.
(iv) The number of zeros is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(v) The number of zeros is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(vi) The number of zeros is 4 as the graph intersects the x-axis at four point only.
Relationship between the zeros and coefficients of a polynomial
For a linear polynomial ax + b, (a ≠ 0), we have,

zero of a linear polynomial =

For a quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c (a ≠ 0), with α and β as it's zeros, (x – α) and

(x – β) are the factors of ax2 + bx + c.

Therefore, ax2 + bx + c = K(x – α) (x – β),

(where K is a constant to balance the equation of the coefficient of x2 i.e. a ≠ 1.)

= K x2 – K (α + β) x + Kαβ

comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get

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a = K, b = – K (α + β) and c = K αβ

This gives

Sum of zeros = α + β =

Product of zeros = αβ =

If α 𝑎𝑛𝑑 β are the zeros of a quadratic polynomial f(x).

Then polynomial f(x) is given by
f(x) = K{x2 – (a + b)x + ab}
or f(x) = K{x2 – (sum of the zeros) x + product of the zeros}
where K is a constant.

🟋 If a polynomial has no real zero, it does not mean that it has no solution.

Find the zeros of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x +

12 and verify the relation between the zeros and its
coefficients.
Solution
We have,
f(x) = x2 + 7x + 12 = x2 + 4x + 3x + 12

⇒ f(x) = x(x + 4) + 3 (x + 4)

⇒ f(x) = (x + 4) (x + 3)

The zeros of f(x) are given by f(x) = 0

⇒ x2 + 7x + 12 = 0

⇒ (x + 4) (x + 3) = 0

⇒ x + 4 = 0 or x + 3 = 0

⇒ x = – 4 or x = – 3

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 Thus, the zeros of f(x) = x2 + 7x + 12 are α = –4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 β = – 3

Now, sum of the zeros = α + β = (–4) + (–3) = – 7 and – = =–

7

∴ Sum of the zeros = –

Product of the zeros = αβ = (–4) × (–3) = 12 and,

∴ Product of the zeros =

Find the zeros of the quadratic polynomial f(x) = abx2 + (b2 + ac) x + bc and verify
the relationship between the zeros and its coefficients.
Solution
f(x) = abx2 + (b2 + ac) x + bc = abx2 + b2x + acx + bc
= bx (ax + b) + c (ax + b) = (ax + b) (bx + c)
So, the value of f(x) is zero when ax + b = 0 or bx + c = 0,

i.e. x = or x =

Therefore, and are the zeros of f(x).

Now, sum of zeros

= =

= =

Product of zeros = =

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Find a quadratic polynomial whose zeros are 5 and – 2 respectively.
Solution

Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and it's zeros be α and β

we have, α + β = 5 + (–2) = 3

αβ = 5 (– 2) = – 10
We know that a quadratic polynomial when the sum and product of its zeros is given by
f(x) = K [x2 – (sum of zeros) x + product of zeros]
where K is a constant so, f(x) = K {x2 – 3x – 10}

Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product
of its zeros respectively:

(i) , –1 (ii)
Solution
We know that a quadratic polynomial when the sum and product of its zeros are given by
f(x) = k {x2 – (Sum of the zeros) x + Product of the zeros}, where k is a constant.

(i) Required quadratic polynomial f(x) is given by

(ii) Required quadratic polynomial f(x) is given by

1. Find the zeros of the following quadratic polynomial and verify the relation between
the zeros and it's coefficients.

2x2 + x+

2. Find a quadratic polynomial with zeros

3. If a quadratic polynomial is factorizable into two distinct real linear factors then
write the number of zeros of quadratic polynomial.
Division Algorithm for polynomials

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 If f(x) is a polynomial and g(x) is a non-zero polynomial, then there exist two polynomials
q(x) and r(x) such that f(x) = g(x) × q(x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or degree r(x) < degree
g(x). In other words,
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Remark : If r(x) = 0 , then polynomial g(x) is a factor of polynomial f(x).

Check whether the polynomial m2 – 4 is a factor of the polynomial m4 + 9m3 – 36m

–16, by dividing the second polynomial by the first polynomial.
Explanation
We have

Since the remainder is zero, therefore, the polynomial m2 – 4 is a factor of the polynomial
m4 + 9m3 – 36m – 16.

Find all the zeros of 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2, if you know that two of its zeros are

2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 – 2.

Explanation

Let p(x) = 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 be the given polynomial.

Since two zeros are and –

so, and are both factors of the given polynomial p(x).

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Also, = (x2 – 2) is a factor of the polynomial p(x). Now, we divide the

given polynomial by x2 – 2.

By division algorithm, we have

2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 = (x2 – 2) (2x2 – 3x + 1)

⇒ 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 = (2x2 – 2x – x + 1)

⇒ 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 = {2x(x – 1) – (x – 1)}

⇒ 2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 = (x – 1)(2x – 1)

When p(x) = 0, x = ,– , 1,

Hence, all the zeros of the polynomial

2x4 – 3x3 – 3x2 + 6x – 2 are ,– , 1 and

Divide the polynomial 2x2 + 3x + 1 by the polynomial x + 2 and verify the division
algorithm.
Solution

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 We have

x+2
2x2 + 3x + 1
2x – 1
2x2 + 4x
–
–x + 1
–
–x – 2
+
+
3
Clearly, quotient = 2x – 1 and remainder = 3
Also, (x + 2) (2x – 1) + 3
= 2x2 + 4x – x – 2 + 3
= 2x2 + 3x + 1
i.e., 2x2 + 3x + 1 = (x + 2) (2x–1) + 3.
Thus, Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder.

1.

2. x2 – 10x + 23
3. Two

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1. Can x2 – 1 be the quotient on division of x6 + 2x3 + x – 1 by a polynomial in x of
degree 5?
2. If on division of a polynomial p(x) by a polynomial g(x), the degree of quotient is
zero, what is the relation between the degrees of p(x) and g(x)?
3. If on division of a non-zero polynomial p(x) by a polynomial g(x) the remainder is
zero, what is the relation between the degrees of p(x) and g(x)?
4. Can the quadratic polynomial x2 + kx + k have equal zeros for some odd integer k >
1?
Symmetric functions of the zeros

Let α, β be the zeros of a quadratic polynomial, then the expression of the form α + β;

(α2 + β2); αβ are called the symmetric functions of the zeros. By symmetric function we

mean that the function remains invariant (unaltered) in values when the roots are

changed cyclically. In other words, an expression involving α and β which remains

unchanged by interchanging α and β is called a symmetric function of α and β.

Some useful relations involving α and β are :-

(i) α2 + β2 = (α + β)2 – 2αβ

(ii) (α – β)2 = (α + β)2 – 4αβ

(iii) α2 – β2 = (α + β) (α – β) = (α + β)

(iv) α3 + β3 = (α + β)3 – 3αβ (α + β)

(v) α3 – β3 = (α – β)3 + 3αβ (α – β)

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 🟋 (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab

🟋 (a – b)2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab

🟋 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2

🟋 (a – b)3 = a3 – b3 – 3a2b + 3ab2

If α and β are the zeros of the quadratic polynomial f(x) = ax2 + bx + c then calculate

(i) α2 + β2 (ii)

Solution

Since α and β are the zeros of the quadratic polynomial

f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

∴ α+β= and αβ =

(i) We have,

α2 + β2 = (α + β)2 – 2αβ

⇒ α2 + β2 =

(ii) We have,

= =

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If α and β are the zeros of the quadratic polynomial p(s) = 3s2 – 6s + 4, find the

value of
Solution
Since α and β are the zeros of the polynomial p(s) = 3s2 – 6s + 4.

∴ α+β= = 2 and αβ =

We have =

= =

If α and β are the roots (zeros) of the polynomial f(x) = x2 – 3x + k such that α − β =
1, find the value of k.
Solution
Since α and β are the roots (zeros) of the polynomial f(x) = x2 – 3x + k.

∴ α+β= = 3 and αβ = k.

We have α – β = 1 ⇒ (α – β)2 = (1)2

⇒ α2 – 2αβ + β2 = 1

⇒ (α2 + β2) – 2αβ = 1

⇒ {(α + β)2 – 2αβ} – 2αβ = 1

⇒ (α + β)2 – 4αβ = 1

⇒ (3)2 – 4 × k = 1

⇒ 9 – 4k = 1

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 ⇒ 4k = 8

⇒ k=2
Hence, the value of k is 2.

If α, β are the zeros of the polynomial f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + k satisfying the relation

α2 + β2 + αβ = , then find the value of k for this to be possible.

Solution
Since α and β are the zeros of the polynomial f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + k .

∴ α+β= and αβ =

Now, α2 + β2 + αβ =

⇒ (α2 + β2 + 2αβ) – αβ =

⇒ (α + β)2 – αβ =

⇒ [∴ α + β = – and αβ = ]

⇒ – = –1

⇒ k=2

1. No 2. deg p(x) = deg g(x)

3. deg g(x) ≤ deg p(x) 4. No

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1. If α and β are the two zeros of the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x + 7, find a quadratic

polynomial whose zeros are and .

2. If α and β be two zeros of the quadratic polynomial x2 + ax + b, evaluate

(i) (ii)

3. If the sum of the squares of zeros of the polynomial 6x2 + x + k is , find the value
of k.

1. 7x2 – 3x + 1 2. (i)

(ii)
3. k=–2

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