NATURE OF READING (GROUP 1)

Bond and Tinker (1967) define reading as “a complex process which involves the recognition of the printed or written
symbols which serve as the result of meaning built up through the reader’s past experience

Anderson (1985) defines reading as “a process in which information from the text and knowledge possessed by the
reader get together to produce meaning.”

Major Components of READING

1. Recognizing and analyzing words often referred as decoding.

2. Understanding words and ideas often called comprehension.

3 MODELS OF READING
1. Bottom-Up Model by Gaugh - emphasizes the material read and is often described as text driven material. The
model focuses on the reader’s recognition or analysis of the words or decoding.
2. Top Down Model- Emphasizes the reader and is often described as concept-driven. Proponents of the model believe
that the reader is more important to the process of reading than the material being read
3. Interactive Model- Emphasizes both the reader and the material being read.

GENERALIZATIONS OF READING
 Reading is a constructive process- The written material is interpreted differently by different readers according to
the store of knowledge that each reader brings to the reading of the text.
 Reading must be fluent- To be skilled reader, a person must be able to identify and pronounce the words(decode)
quickly and accurately.
 Reading must be strategic - Skilled reader reads for different purposes and alters or manipulates his reading-
thinking skills according to the purpose of the material being read.
 Reading requires motivation- Teacher provides a proper setting and effective instruction to motivate pupils to
read. Management Skill, High Expectations, Proper Grouping, Quality Direct Instruction, Warm, nonthreatening
environment
 Reading is a continous development skill-Reading is a skill that continues to improve through practice.The
process begins with a person’s earliest exposure to text and a literate culture and continues throughout life.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT READING

A. Physiological Factors- refer to the physical processes involved in reading

Some technical terms related to how reading takes place:

1. Fixation - is made when the eyes stop. Good readers have fewer fixations than poor readers.
2. Interfixation movements- are caused by the eyes which move from one stopping point to another.
3. Return sweeps- refer to the quick swinging back of the eyes from the next line.
4. Regressions- are backward or right-to-left movements made in a reverse direction.
5. Span of recognition or perception span - is the number of words taken every time the eyes stop.
6. Duration of fixation- is the length of time the eyes pause.

B. Intellectual Factors- The innate capacity to learn, intelligence, and mental maturity affect reading performance.
C. Psychological Factors- Feelings about self and about others affect reading performance.
D. Linguistic Factors- To read well, the reader must understand sound-symbol relationships,intonation,stress,rythym,
and pause.
E. Sociological Factors- Reading is a social process affected by attitudes,loyalties,conflicts,and prejudices.

Reading as a Developmental Task

- refers to a comprehensive reading program which consists of several periods or stages that usually coincide with the
individual’s stages of growth,as follows:

1. Reading readiness- refers to the period when the child is getting ready to read.
2. Beginning reading- is the stage at which the child starts to recognize certain symbols,words,phrases and sentences
that stand for ideas.
3. Period of rapid growth- is the stage at which most children have mastered the techniques of reading such as basic
sight vocabulary,use of pictures,action and configuration clues
4. Period of Refinement- This period is characterized by wide reading where learners are ready to interpret selections
more intensively.

LEARNING PRINCIPLES AND READING PROCESS

Reading is a process that must be learned.
The laws of learning and the facts concerning such topics as motivation, reinforcement, practice, interference, transfer
and conditioning apply to learning to read

(GROUP 2) 15 principles of learning (Hilgard, Thorpe, and Allen)

Principle no. 1 -In deciding who should learn what, the capacities of the learner are very important. Brighter people
can learn things less bright ones cannot learn; in general, older children can learn more readily than younger ones; the
decline of ability with age, in the adult years, depends upon what it is that is being learned. In teaching reading, the
developmental stage at which the child is in should be considered.

Principle no. 2- A motivated learner acquires what he learns more readily than one who is not motivated. Learning
proceeds most effectively and tends to be most permanent when the learner is motivated, that is, when he has a stake,
as it were, in the activity being undertaken.

PRINCIPLE NO. 3- Motivation that is too intense may be accompanied by distracting emotional states, so that
excessive motivation may be less effective than moderate motivation for learning some kinds of tasks, especially those
involving difficult discriminations. What kind of motivation should we use? Pleasurable to the learners.

PRINCIPLE NO. 4- Learning under control of reward is usually preferable to learning under the control of
punishment. Correspondingly, learning motivated by success is preferable to learning motivated by failure.

PRINICIPLE NO. 5- Learning under intrinsic motivations is preferable to learning under extrinsic motivation.
Interest to learn should come from within the child.

PRINCIPLE NO. 6- Tolerance for failure is best taught through providing a backlog of success that compensates for
experienced failure. There should be more instances of success that the child should experience so that future failures
will not have a negative impact on him. The assurance that he will do better and succeed next time will make failure
easier to accept.

PRINCIPLE NO. 7- Individuals need practice in setting realistic goals for themselves, goals neither so low as to
elicit little effort nor so high as to foreordain failure. The teacher oftentimes should involve the pupils in deciding
what they prefer to do and how much they can do that they can determine what they can successfully do in the long
run.

PRINCIPLE NO. 8- The personal history of the individual, for example, his reactionto authority, may hamper or
enhance his ability to learn from given teacher. A pupil who, in the past, has had a sad experience with a certain
teacher will have a hampered learning than one who has never encountered such an experience.

Principle no. 9- Active participation by a learner is preferable to passive reception when learning. The pupil should be
personally involved in his own learning.

Principle no. 10- Meaningful material and meaningful tasks are learned more readily than nonsense materials and
more readily than tasks not understood by the learner.

PRINCIPLE NO. 11- There is no substitute for repetitive practice in the over learning of skills. Drill and practice are
necessary for more permanent learning. Repetitive practice in reading makes the pupils more proficient in doing it.

PRINCIPLE NO. 12- Information about the nature of a good performance, knowledge of his own mistakes, and
knowledge of successful results, aid learning. Letting the pupils know their reading performance will be good
motivation to improve more

PRINICIPLE NO. 13- Transfer to new tasks will be better, if, in learning the learnercan discover relationships for
himself’ and if he has experience during learning of applying the principles within a variety of tasks. When the pupil
truly learns a reading skill, he will have no difficulty applying or using that skill in other learning contexts.
PRINCIPLE NO. 14- Spaced or distributed recalls are advantageous in fixing material that is to be long retained. This
is why review is part of every lesson. Before a new lesson is started, the teacher conducts a review of the past lesson
to make connections and associations with the new lesson.

PRINCIPLE NO. 15 -Learning is encouraged when it takes place under conditions that enhance the personality
adjustment of the learner. Conducting learning activities that cater to the different personalities of the learners will
prove more fruitful and encouraging to them.

Teaching Emergent Literacy

Theories on Readiness by Charles Fries
Stage 1. The Transfer Stage -The period during which the child learns a new set of signals – the visual symbols that
stands for auditory symbols (the oral language) he knows. Before transfer takes place, the child shall have already
learned to speak and understand, through listening; a language.

Stage 2. The Productive Stage - The child’s reading becomes fluent and automatic that he no longer pays conscious
attention to shapes and patterns of the letters on a page.

Stage 3. The Vivid Imaginative Realization of Vicarious Experience (VIRVE) - The reading process becomes
automatic that reading is used equally with, or even more than live language in the acquiring, and developing of
experience.

Reading Readiness
According to Cox, views of how children become literate have changed over the years.
These studies concluded that children needed to reach the Mental age of 6 ½ years before they could learn to read.
Prerequisites included a range of skills, from knowing letter names to being able to walk on a balance beam.
Children’s writing was virtually ignored, as it was assumed that children had to be able to read before they could
write.
This readiness view was not challenged until the 1960s and the 1970s when studies of children who were early natural
readers and writers showed that literate behavior does not begin at a particular age but emerges continually.

Emergent Literacy
Clay stated that literacy development begins with children’s first experiences with print in the home and continues
through preschool and the first few years of formal schooling.

Sulzby defines emergent literacy as the reading and writing behaviors of young children that precede and develop into
conventional literacy.

Cox compares the basic principles governing the reading readiness perspective and the emergent literacy perspective
as follows:

Reacting to these statements, it can be said that this emergent literacy

perspective may hold true to children whose first language (the
language used in the home and in social context) is the same as the
language of instruction in school.
The second principle of the emergent literacy perspective which says
that “young children have been actively engaged in functional reading
and writing experiences in real-life settings before coming to school”
will only be true for children whose medium of instruction in school
is the same as their language at home and the social milieu.
Indicators of Readiness- Gray has listed indicator to gauge the child’s readiness to read.
1. General mental ability
2. Background of previous experiences
3. Range of speaking vocabulary
4. Accuracy of pronunciation and related speech habits
5. Ability to express oneself clearly to others
6. Habit of observing details and forming associations with things seen or heard.
7. Ability to perceive likeness and differences
8. Ability to recognize relationships
9. Ability to keep in mind a series of events or other times
10. Ability to think clearly and in sequence
11. Ability to make choices and decisions
12. Good health
13. A well nourished body
14.Freedom from fatigue
15. Visual efficiency and discrimination
16. Auditory efficiency anddiscrimination
17.E motional balance
18. Social adjustment and feeling of security
19. Ability to focus on specific learning activities
20. Ability to follow directions
21. Ability to work effectively in a group
22. Interest in pictures and the meaning of written printed symbols
23. A desire to learn to read

SKILLS OF THE EMERGENT READER

1. LEFT-T0-RIGHT PROGRESSION- Reading which starts from the left of the page going to the right.
2. VISUAL DISCRIMINATION-It is the ability to differentiate differences in size, shape, color and etc.
3. AUDITORY DISCRIMINATION- It is the ability to differentiate different sessions in sounds that they hear such as
animal sounds, sounds off the front musical instruments, sounds of different means of transportation, sounds that
people produce, and other sounds that the children may hear in their surroundings.
4. SOUNDS AND LETTER NAMES-
Children should master the phoneme-grapheme (sound-letter) relationships.
Vowels: a, e, i, o, u
Consonants:
a. Ascending letters : b, d, h, k, l, t
b. Descending letters : g, j, p q, y
c. One-space letters: c, m, n, r, s, v, e, x, z
d. Special letter : f

5. SOUND BLENDING- consonant blends (gr, fl, tr, sh, etc.)

6. consonant cluster ( thr, str, spr, etc.) The alphabet is taught in jumbled order first and later in alphabetical order.
7. COMPREHENSION SKILLS AND EMERGENT READER- comprehension lessons of the emergent learners may
start with skills in classifying pictures that are similar, shapes that are similar or different, colors that are the same and
that are different. The skill in sequencing pictures may also be taught which picture should come first, then the next,
which picture should come last? Another skill is grouping pictures under one main heading.

OTHER COMPREHENSION SKILLS:

Noting details
Sequencing ideas
Organizing ideas
Classifying ideas
Summarizing and other critical thinking skills

UNIT III: TEACHING BEGINNING READING

Teaching the Alphabet- The alphabet is best taught only after all the sounds have been mastered. It is first presented in
jumbled order to ascertain that the children are really able to associate the sound (phoneme) and the graphic shape.
Then the letters are presented in alphabetical order.
Suggested ways in Teaching Alphabet
 Teach children the names of letters first.
 Teach upper-case letter first then lower-case.
 Teach letter shapes and sounds together.
 Point out similarities and differences between letters.

4 things to do to be successful in teaching the alphabet and strengthen letter recognition skills in your learner:
1. Implement lots of engaging and hands-on alphabet activities
2. Create a literacy rich environment
3. Engage in the activities with your learner and teach them names and sounds together
4. Read! Hands-on engagement with books will help the learner make sense of their learning.

Teaching Word Recognition- Word Recognition refers to the ability to identify, read and analyze the meaning
attached to the word. It is the basic foundation skill in reading upon which learning of advanced reading skills
depends.

For mastery, the alphabet us taught with songs such as the alphabet song or rhymes and jingles. Children should be
made to sound each letter as letter cards presented. They should be drilled on what comes before a letter and what
comes after. Using letter cards, the children may be asked to arrange the letters in alphabetical order, identifying the
sound of each letter names. Matching uppercase and lowercase letters will be a good learning activity.

Word recognition is a twofold process that includes:

The recognition of printed symbols by some method so that the word can be pronounced
The attachment to or association of meaning with the word after it has been properly announced.
Teaching word recognition skills using the word families will be much easier for the teachers. This can be done after
all the sounds of the alphabet have been mastered.

Five main categories of word analysis or word attack skills:

1. Configuration clues - Give the overall characteristics of how a word looks.
Length of the word(ascenders and descenders)

2. Configuration clues
Lower case letters, One-space letters, Double letters, Overall word form

3. Context clues- Come from the meaning of the word as it is used in the sentence (semantic clue) or from guessing
what is coming next according to the way a reader often uses oral language. (syntactic clue)

4. Phonetic analysis- Also called phonics, is the study of sound-symbol or phoneme-grapheme relationships as they
apply to the teaching of reading, usually used in the beginning reading.This includes the understanding and
application of: Phonetic principles that govern the articulation of consonants in English. Phonetic principles that
govern the articulation of vowel sounds.

5. Syllable Generalization
6. Stress rules

Other principles that govern articulation of consonant clusters; blends or digraphs and vowel digraphs
EXAMPLE:
1. When two or more consonants appear in success in a word, they are referred to as consonant cluster.
( paraghraph )
2. When the consonant cluster is sounded as one, it is called a consonant digraph.( think )

Structural Analysis
Analysis of larger meaning-bearing parts of words such as root words, suffixes, prefixes, word endings, apostrophe
(for possession), compound words, and contractions.

Structural analysis is often referred to as morphology, a study of morphemes or the meaning-bearing units of
language.

Reading Phrases and Sentences

 The word and the service words are joined to form phrases and sentences. Use pictures and actual situations or
actions to develop meaning.

Teaching Comprehension Skills to the Beginning Reader

Comprehension lessons of the beginning readers may start with simple stories.

Skill: Getting the Main Idea

Skill: Inferring Meanings
Skill: Identifying Words That Describe

UNIT IV: TEACHING BASIC COMPREHENSION SKILLS

WHAT IS READING COMPREHENSION?

Reading Comprehension
is the ability to read text, process it and understand its meaning. An individual's ability to comprehend text is
influenced by their traits and skills, one of which is the ability to make inferences.

Recognition of the word is not the ultimate goal in reading.Without comprehension, reading is mere verbalism. In
beginning reading, the printed word is associated with the spoken word until the child can make the same physical,
emotional, and mental responses to the written word that he previously made to the spoken word.

A basic word recognition skill is the ability to associate the sound (spoken word) with the visual stimulus (the written
word).
Yoakam describes comprehension as follow:
 comprehending reading matter involves the correct association of meanings with word symbols
 the evaluation of meanings which are suggested in context
 the selection of the correct meaning
 the organization of ideas as they are read
 the retention of these ideas, and
 their use in some present or future activity

Salazar states that comprehension encompasses all the reading skills. It begins with word perception, recognition, and
understanding and makes use of study or locational/research skills.

Comprehension is the means by which appreciation skills are gained.

There are four (4) main factors that affect a reader’s comprehension, says Salazar:
1. Prior Knowledge
2. Interest in the subject
3. Purpose in reading
4. Ability to decode.

Basic Comprehension Skills

May gives four (4) categories of comprehension skills and sub-skills:
1. Literal-thinking operations translating text into mental images following sequence of events, ideas, or cause-effect
remembering significant details
2. Inferential-thinking operations making predictions reading between the lines recognizing main ideas
3. Critical-thinking operations distinguishing fact from nonfactual detecting author bias evaluating according to
criteria
4. Creative-thinking operations inventing flexible alternative to author’s ideas or characters applying old ideas to new
Situations translating ideas into an artistic medium

Comprehension skills include the ability to:

 identify main ideas
 recognize details
 develop mental images
 make inferences
 predict outcomes
 follow directions
 recognize author’s
 organization
 read critically
 make judgments
 draw conclusions
 weed out
 irrelevant ideas
 recognize
 propaganda
Barett’s Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension
The taxonomy consists of four (4) categories, each
one designed to identify a discrete subset of skills,
as follows:
1. Literal Recognition or Recall
1.1 recognition or recall of details
1.2 recognition or recall of main ideas
1.3 recognition or recall of sequences
1.4 recognition or recall of comparisons
1.5 recognition or recall of cause-and-effect
relationships
1.6 recognition or recall of character traits
2. Inference
2.1 inferring supporting details
2.2 inferring the main ideas
2.3 inferring sequences
2.4 inferring comparisons
2.5 inferring cause-effect-relationships
2.6 inferring character traits
2.7 predicting outcomes
2.8 inferring about figurative language
3. Evaluation
3.1 judgment of reality
3.2 judgment of fact or opinion
3.3 judgment of adequacy or validity
3.4 judgment of appropriateness
3.5 judgment of worth, desirability or acceptability
4. Appreciation
4.1 Emotional response to plot or themes
4.2 Identification with characters and incidents
4.3 Reactions to the speaker’s use of language
4.4 Imagery

The Three Levels of Comprehension

Level I. Reading the Lines
You can derive meaning from sequential words and their grammatical relation to each other in sentences, paragraphs,
and chapters. The reader converts the author’s thoughts into his own using his personal experiences as “fillers”.
Level I enables you to recognize the main thought of a paragraph. You can identify the key words, main ideas, and
supporting details. You can follow the writer’s development of ideas.

Level II. Reading between the Lines

This type of comprehension expects you to be more mature in your reading habits. You are able to distinguish fact or
opinion, interpret clues to character and plot, sift the author’s ideas from your own. You are also able to assess the
author’s competence and authority in the areas being written about. Level II comprehension requires the ability to
recognize and interpret literacy devices, such as metaphor, simile, irony and etc.

Level III. Reading beyond the Lines

On this level, you are expected to recognize implications, anticipate consequences, and draw conclusion not stated by
the author. You are able to analyze and synthesize the author’s thoughts, giving you a new insight
into the significance of both sets of ideas— the author’s and yours.
The Questioning Technique to Develop Comprehension
Fraenkel’s Taxonomy of Questions
1. Recall Questions.
The purpose of this kind of question is to determine if the pupils have.

2. Descriptive Questions.
This type of question helps the pupils to put together and organize the facts which they have gathered to make some
sense out of their data. It is assumed that some type of relationship exists, that there is some continuity or sequence
within the material that can be identified.

3. Explanatory Questions.
With this type of question, pupils must tell why they think as they do, in short, they must explain the reason behind
their answers.

4. Synthesizing Questions.
The purpose of synthesizing questions is to get the pupils to suggest connects or relationship that they believe contain
data support, and on what basis.

5. Open-Ended Questions.
open-ended questions require the pupils to seek and determine for themselves what they consider to be acceptable
answers.

Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied to Questioning

Levels Bloom’s Taxonomy Applied to Questioning Levels

Level I. Knowledge.
Requires students to recall or recognize information. The student must rely on memory or senses to provide the
answer.

Level II. Comprehension.

Requires the student to go beyond simple recall and demonstrate the ability to arrange and organize information
mentally. The student must use previously learned information by putting it in his/her own words and rephrasing it.

Level III. Application.

Students are required to apply previously learned information to answer a problem.

Level IV. Analysis.

Students are required to use three kinds of cognitive processes.
A. To identify causes, reasons, or motives (when these have not been provided to the student previously.)
B. To analyze information to reach a generalization or conclusion.
C. To find evidence to support a specific occurrence, event or situation.

Level V. Synthesis.
Students are required to use original and creative thinking in (1) developing original communication; (2) making
predictions; (3) solving problems for which there is no single answer.

Level VI. Evaluation.

Requires the students to judge the merits of an aesthetic work, an idea, or a solution to a problem.

Purpose of Questions
1. To stimulate pupils to think
2. To motivate pupils
3. To diagnose pupils' difficulties
4. To discover pupils' interests
5. To help pupils organize and evaluate
6. To aid pupils to relate pertinent experiences to the lesson
7. To develop new appreciations and attitudes
8. To provide drill or practice
9. To show relationships such as cause and effect
10. To encourage the application of concepts
11. To encourage pupil evaluation

Characteristics of a Good Question (Lardizabal)

• Clear and simple
• Definite
• Challenging and thought-provoking
• Age and ability-appropriate
• Encourage extended responses

Do's in asking questions (Ornstein)

1. Ask questions that are stimulating and not merely testing or drill.
2. Ask questions that are commensurate with pupils' abilities.
3. Ask questions that are relevant to the pupils.
4. Ask questions that are sequential.
5. Vary the length and difficulty of questions.
6. Ask questions that are clear and simple.
7. Encourage pupils to ask each other questions and to make comments.
8. Allow sufficient time for deliberation.
9. Follow-up incorrect answers.
10. Call on non-volunteers and volunteers.
11. Call on disruptive pupils.
12. Write the objective and summary of the lesson as a question, preferably as a problem.
13. Change your position and move around the room.

Sample exercises for developing Comprehension Skills

 Noting Details ( Grade 1)
 Sequencing Ideas (Grade 1)
 Arranging Events in a Story (Grade 1)
 Predicting Questions (Grade 2)
 Answering “wh” questions (Grade 3)

UNIT V: Literary Appreciation Skills (Check printed slides)

UNIT VI TEACHING RATE AND STUDY SKILLS

RATE AND COMPREHENSION READING

Rate of Comprehension ( Carlson )

•Individuals with high intelligence tend to comprehend better when reading rapidly than when reading slowly.
•Those with average or low intelligence comprehend better when reading slowly than when reading rapidly.

Rate of Comprehension(Smith & Dechant)

•To discuss of reading adequately, it should be emphasized that it means rate of comprehending printed or written
material.
•Researchers have shown that correlation between the rate score and comprehension score generally range from slight
negative to high positive.

CLASSIFICATION OF READING RATE

A. Study Speed- It is the slowest reading speed and is used for material that requires careful reading owning to the
reader’s purpose.
B. Average Speed- Mostly applied to adult readers. This rate would approximately 250 words per minute and it is
normally use for easier textbooks, novels, newspapers and so on. A good reader's average speed might vary from 150
to 180 words per minute.

C. Fast and Selective Speed- A method of reading selectively, of reading only those material that are necessary for the
readers.

TWO TYPES OF SELECTIVE READING

1. Skimming- - Removing from the top, moving slightly over.
- Fastest speed a reader is capable of.
Why do reader skims-read? -The reader skims-read when he/she wishes to cover a reading material in a hurry or to
discern writer’s core message.

2. Scanning- Looking over a material hastily in search of a particular bit of information.

-Hunting for a date, name and place.

IMPROVEMENT OF RATE AND COMPREHENSION

The following are strategies for improving rate and comprehension in reading as suggested by Roldan:
1. Adjust your reading speed according to your purpose and the nature and type of reading material.
2. Read a difficult materials faster to get an overview of the work. Then re-read certain portions afterwards to augment
the general picture you have already obtained.
3. When skim-reading, take note of the significant sections, the structural constants of the material being read; the
headlines and the lead paragraphs of newspapers; the letter writer and action words in correspondence; the titles, sub-
titles, initial and final paragraphs in books and periodicals.

STUDY SKILLS AND LIBRARY SKILLS

Teaching Suggestions

A. Reading a Textbook-
Major Parts of a Book:
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Index

B. The Encyclopedia- An encyclopedia is a book or a set of books containing facts about many different subjects.
• Have your pupils think of topic they would like to explore
• Take them to the library to search for an encyclopedia article on their chose topic
• Have them answer the following questions as they search for an article on their topic.

1. What is the title of the encyclopedia?

2. Which volume are you using?
3. What is the title of the article?
4. Who is the author of the article?
5. What two interesting facts you learned from reading the article?

C. Thesaurus- a book that lists words or phrases that mean the same thing or almost the same thing–a book of
synonyms.
• Tell your pupils that a dictionary contains some synonyms, but a thesaurus contains many synonyms
• Tell them that a thesaurus can help them improve their writing because it provides them with a wide range of word
choices.
• Give the brief overview of how to use thesaurus. Then give the following list of words.
• Have them look up each word in thesaurus and list at least two synonyms for each word.
Ex. Laugh

D. Biographical Reference-
• Have your students work in pairs
• Ask each pair to find the name of one famous person in each of the following categories:
- sports people
- writers
- entertainers
- Scientists
- politicians

• Then for each famous person they have chosen, have each pair of pupils prepare answers to the following questions:
1. When and where was the person born?
2. What makes the person famous?

E. Atlas-
• Show your pupils how to locate their own town or city in an atlas.
• Be sure they understand how to use the grids on the maps to locate each spot.
•Then have them choose or locate another place on the map.

F. Almanacs
• Familiarize the pupils with the wide variety of facts in an almanac through an activity.
• Select five pupils to be fact finders.
• Ask the rest of the class to suggest fact questions they would like to answer.
• Have them choose from the following categories:
a. inventions and discoveries
b. arts and media
c. Cities
d. Population of a certain country

G. The Dictionary
Get to know the dictionary by:
• Telling your pupils the different kinds of information found in a dictionary.
• Get a dictionary and survey it with your class.
• Point out the special features such as guide words, alphabetical order, and information in each entry.

1. Word Location-
-Give your pupils practice in locating words by using guide words in alphabetical order. Have them work in pairs for
this activity.
-One pupil will think of a word and the other will locate the word using the guide word.

2. Information In An Entry
-To give pupils practice in using the dictionary, have them look up the following information in the dictionary;
a. What is the other spelling of the word traveled?
b. Divide the word transportation into syllables.
c. What is the plural form of tablespoonful?
d. What is the superlative form of the word good?
e. Write three definitions for the word sound- a noun, a verb and an adjective.

UNITVII: TEACHING READING METHODOLOGIES

TEACHING VOCABULARY
*Children develop increasingly sophisticated understanding of the world and language as they add to existing schema,
or symbolic structures they have for concepts and words.
•Teachers can support vocabulary and concept development in the classroom through experiential interaction, and
semantic mapping.

Ways of Teaching Vocabulary

 provide many interesting hands-on experiences in the classroom
 create many opportunities for interaction between the teacher and the pupils and among pupils as well

According to Cox, teachers can play a very important role in the children’s development of vocabulary and concepts
The teacher can initiate the following activities to promote vocabulary and concept development through experiential
interaction.

EXPERIENTIAL INTERACTION
1.Experience Things
 Sharing
 Hands-on classroom experiences
2. Read Books
 Read aloud
 Reading alone
3. Name Things
 New words
 Word for the day
4. Show Words
 Label things in the classroom
 Display lists
5. Write Words
 Personal dictionaries
 Word file

SEMANTIC MAPPING
Semantic maps are diagrams that help children see how words are related to one another. To create a semantic map,
Johnson and Pearson suggest using the following:
1. Choose a key word related to the to the pupils’ ideas, interests, or current studies.
2. Write the word in the middle of the chalkboard or a large piece of chart paper.
3. Brainstorm other words that are related to the key word, and classify the new words in categories that you or the
pupils suggest.
4. Label the categories that emerge.
5. Discuss the words and their relationships and their meanings.

Dimensional Ordinary Approach

The level of questions start from the simplest to the most complex. This is suited for fast learners.

THE DIMENSIONAL APPROACHES

The dimensional approach in teaching reading is based on the principle that learning is best when it proceeds from the
easiest to the most difficult.

Dimensional Intensive Approach

This approach is best suited for slow learners. The questions are still arranged from the first dimension to the fourth.
The difference lies in the choices of answers which are provided to aid the slow learner.

FIRST DIMENSION
The first dimension or literal understanding consists of the simplest forms of questions that ask about details of the
story. They answer the who, what, where, and when questions, often referred to as reading the lines

DIMENSIONAL LEVELS SECOND DIMENSION

consists of questions that involve interpretation or reasoning. How and why questions are asked which require
reasoning. It involves interpreting hidden meanings so that this is referred to as reading between the lines.

THIRD DIMENSION
involves critical evaluation or critical reading. The reader evaluates, comments, and make judgments about certain
aspects of the story. This level is referred to as reading beyond the lines.

DIMENSIONAL LEVELS FOURTH DIMENSION

focuses on application or integration. The reader integrates into his fund of experiences the new insights gained from
reading the story.
1. Literal Comprehension
1.1 clearly stated facts and details
1.2 sequence of fact
1.3 identification of references
1.4 association of quotation with speaker
1.5 identification of character spoken to
1.6 understanding punctuation
1.7 understanding of specific ends
1.8 double negatives
1.9 unusual word order

CLASSIFICATION OF READING SKILLS

2. Interpretation
2.1 2.1 implication
2.2 conclusion
2.3 generalization
2.4 comparison and contrast
2.5 cause and effect relationship
2.6 main idea
2.7 identifying assumptions
2.8 anticipating events
2.9 predicting outcomes
2.10 identifying character traits
2.11 identifying emotional characters
reactions
2.12 identifying motives of characters
2.13 perceiving relationships of various
kinds
3. Critical Evaluation
3.1 recognize (own reader’s) biases and
prejudices
3.2 evaluation
3.3 accuracy
3.4 relevancy
3.5 authoritativeness
3.6 validity
3.7 completeness
3.8 truthfulness

CLASSIFICATION OF READING SKILLS

3.9 recognize when words, phrases, and
sentences are quoted out of context
3.10 recognize emotionally-charged words
3.11 recognize half-truth
3.12 recognize exaggerated claims
3.13 identify author’s purpose
3.14 identify the techniques the author
uses to accomplish his purpose
3.15 identify to whom the author is
directing his message
3.16 identify writer’s pattern of
organization
3.17 evaluate quality of writing
3.18 evaluate values presented
3.19 evaluate and react in the light of
the author’s purpose
3.20 recognize pattern of writing
3.21 recognize material as glamorized

CLASSIFICATION OF READING SKILLS

4. Integration
4.1 Integration to life

SEMANTIC WEBBING
Johnson and Pearson define semantic maps as diagrams that help children see how words are related to one another .
Other terms used to refer to semantic maps are cluster, web, and word wall.

STRATEGIES TO CREATE A SEMANTIC MAP:

1. Choose a key word related to the pupils’ ideas, interest, or current studies.
2. Write the word in the middle of the chalkboard or a large piece of chart paper.
3. Brainstorm other words that are related to the key word, and classify the new words in categories that you or the
pupils suggest.
4. Label the categories that emerge.
5. Discuss the words and their relationships and meanings.

SEMANTIC WEBBING
Villamin gives a clearer and simplified approach using semantic maps.

FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE SEMANTIC MAP:

THE CORE QUESTION, THE WEB STRANDS, THE STRAND SUPPORT, AND THE
STRAND TIES.
1. The CORE QUESTION
The focus of the web and the purpose of the inquiry. It is chosen by the teacher. All information and ideas generated
for the web y the pupils are related to the core question.
2. WEB STANDS
Are the answers which pupils give to the core question.
3. STRAND SUPPORT
Are the facts, interferences and generalizations that pupils take from the story to give clarity and validity to the strands
and differentiate one from another.
4. STRAND TIES
Are the relationships that strands have for each other.

FOUR COMPONENTS OF THE SEMANTIC MAPS:

SEMANTIC WEBBING
A semantic web visually illustrates categories and relationships generated from a core question. Both teachers and
pupils expand their roles in the lesson by extending and elaborating their own meaning.

BASIC STEPS IN SEMANTIC WEBBING PROCESSES:

1. Set a purpose for reading which encourages the pupils to use a specific reading thinking strategy. Also decide what
part of the story they will read. Prepare a table of selected thinking strategies and the reading units that may be used
with each strategy.
2. Formulate a core question based on the reading thinking strategy and the reading unit.
3. Elicit from the pupils possible answers to the core question.
4. Build the web strand with the pupils’ support.
5. Guide the pupils in relating the strands.
6. Apply the web to set purposes for further reading of the same story, and others.

THE GRADUAL PSYCHOLOGICAL UNFOLDING APPROACH (GPU)

Developed and experimented by Manhit at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City This is a teaching
strategy to develop the pupils’ reading comprehension.

STEPS IN THE GPU APPROACH:

1. Asking the motivation question
2. Unlocking of difficulties
3. Presentation of the story
4. Silent reading of the story
5. Asking the motive question
6. Asking questions in sequential order bit by bit and gradually until the whole story is unfolded to the children giving
them the opportunity to savor the joy and thrill of the story.

STORYTELLING
Parents and other family members are the children’s best storytellers. Teachers need to be a skillful storyteller if she is
to foster love for reading and literature in the children

Reading Comprehension Strategies

Ross gives some teaching suggestions for storytelling:
•Read the story aloud several times.
•Picture the characters in the story carefully.
•Practice telling the entire story-complete with intonation, colorful phrases Gestures, and sequence-in a smooth and
natural fashion. Time your telling ofthe story.

Cox gives these teaching suggestions:

•Finding Stories
•Starting a Storytelling File
•Telling Stories
•Props
•Costumes

Reading Comprehension Strategies

Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA)
The steps in a DRTA:
•Prereading
•Introduce
•Ask for predictions
•Ask what they know
•Write ideas and predictions

.Reading
•Direct children to read
•Ask what will happen next
•Post Reading
•Discuss verification
•Let them prove their ideas and predictions

Reading Comprehension Strategies

READING ALOUD
Sulzby states that the benefits of reading aloud to children are well established

Reading Comprehension Strategies

READ-ALOUD DO’S
1. Remember that the art of listening is an acquired one and must be taught and cultivated gradually.
2. Vary the length and subject matter of reading.
3. Follow through with readings. Don't leave the class dangling for several days between chapters and expect
children's interest to be sustained.
4. Stop at a suspended spot each day.
5. If reading a picture book, make sure the children can see the pictures easily.
6. After reading, allow time for discussion and verbal, written, or artistic expression.
7. Don't turn discussion into quizzes. Get interpretation from the children.
8. Use plenty of expression in reading, and read slowly.
9. Preview books before reading them to the class.
10. Bring the author to life by adding a third dimension when possible, for example, get hold of beans while reading
the story Jack and the Beanstalk

Teaching Reading methodologies

SUSTAINED SILENT READING (SSR)
A reading methodology based on the constructivist theory that children learn by doing.
• Children learn to read by engaging in uninterrupted reading of self-selected materials. The teacher also participates
by reading during this time.

OTHER ACRONYMS:
USSR: Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading
DEAR: Drop Everything and Read

SUSTAINED SILENT READING (SSR)

Crawford explains the steps she used to initiate SSR in her first-grade classroom each year:
1. PROVIDE READING MATERIALS
Varied reading materials should be made available to the children such as picture books, poetry, nonfiction, magazines
and newspapers.
2. INTRODUCE BOOKS TO THE WHOLE CLASS
Put a pile of books within the children's reach. Introduce each book to them by giving them a short explanation about
it. Put them back so that the children can have their pick of the book that may appeal to their interests.

SUSTAINED SILENT READING (SSR)

Crawford explains the steps she used to initiate SSR in her first-grade classroom each year:
3. INTRODUCE APPROACH
Get one book and tell the children that they are going to select one book and sustain themselves in silent reading. They
may read and reread the book they have selected and look at the pictures carefully.
4. ALL SELECT BOOKS
The children may grab one book from the pile of books introduced by the teacher and go to a corner in the room to do
some sustained silent reading.
SUSTAINED SILENT READING (SSR)
Crawford explains the steps she used to initiate SSR in her first-grade classroom each year:
5. ALL READ SILENTLY
No one can interrupt anyone, including the teacher. All the children must stay in the places they have selected.
6. SHARE BOOKS
The teacher signals the end of the SSR. She shares her experiences with the book she had read-what she thinks about
the book, read a passage aloud, share interesting words, phrases, ideas or illustrations or tell how she felt about
reading.

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH (LEA)

•Teaching approach that integrates the four skills of language learning-listening, speaking, reading and
writing. The language experience approach uses language experience charts, which are composed orally by the
children and recorded by the teacher on a piece of chart paper.
REMEMBER
These charts show the connection between
reading, writing, experience, and meaning.
Teaching Reading methodologies

LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH (LEA)

The steps in the language experience approach
follow:
1. USE EXPERIENCES TO DEVELOP LANGUAGE AND CONCEPTS.
2. BUILD VOCABULARY
3. CHILDREN COMPOSE AND TEACHER RECORDS ON CHART
PAPER
4. CHILDREN READ THE LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE CHART
5. INTEGRATE SKILLS
6. PUBLISH
Teaching Reading methodologies
DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
• developed in 1991 by Michelle Commeyras, an Assistant Professor at the University of Georgia and an investigator
at the National Reading Research Center.
Goal: to engage pupils in reasonable reflective thinking in order to decide what they believe about a story-specific
issue.
KEY FEATURES
Encourages verification or clarification of information in the text.
Promotes consideration of multiple interpretations.
Involves evaluation of competing or alternative interpretations.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
Each lesson is composed of two phases: the reading phase and the discussion phase.
THE READING PHASE
An important element in D-TRL is the story to be read and discussed. It is important to select a story that lends itself
to discussion of an issue or question that can be considered from more than one perspective and that the pupils will
find it significant or intriguing.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
Each lesson is composed of two phases: the reading phase and the discussion phase.
THE DISCUSSION PHASE
This phase consumes most of the time because it is conceptually the most important part. Another key element of the
discussion phase is getting the pupils to evaluate the truth and relevance of their reasons. If all the reasons have been
filtered through the teacher's judgment, the pupils will be denied the opportunity to evaluate their own thinking.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
At the end of each D-TRL, the pupils are always given the opportunity to say what they believe about the central
question given all the thinking they have done on the topic.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
In the research done by Commeyras, she reported that the pupils were more successful when they could pool their
reasoning abilities to make judgments about the validity of reasons offered to support two competing conclusions for a
central story issue.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
Commeyras suggested variations in D-TRL to accommodate students' needs and abilities, with some variations
simplifying the process and others shifting more responsibility to the pupils. One variation of the D-TRL is by
simplifying the demands of D-TRLS to accommodate the differing needs and abilities of the pupils.

Teaching Reading methodologies

DIALOGICAL-THINKING READING LESSON (D-TRL)
The ultimate goal of D-TRLS should be for the pupils to engage in thoughtful and in-depth discussions of their
reading without the teacher serving as discussion leader

THE FAN TECHNIQUE

First introduced by Swaby in 1984 and later popularized in the country by Javier in 1988, the Fan Technique is a
visual strategy that helps students organize and connect story events in a structured, fan-like diagram. By mapping out
a story’s sequence, students enhance their comprehension, develop critical thinking skills, and gradually transition
from guided to independent learning.

THE COMPONENTS AND STEPS IN USING THE FAN TECHNIQUE AS A

VISUAL STRATEGY FOLLOW :
1.Components
2. Steps

THE COMPONENTS AND STEPS IN USING THE FAN

TECHNIQUE AS A VISUAL STRATEGY FOLLOW :
1. Components
1.1 It starts out with the making of the crescent, shaped like a moon in its first quarter in which the title of the
selection is written. Emerging from the title are the major facts and concepts in the selection.
1.2 Two semantic strands and webs are drawn and hung below the crescent.
1.3 The first core question written inside the first web extends to the text. In this process , the pupils thinks divergently
about the material read and thus extends the text's information.
Answers to the questions may not be drawn from the text but from the pupil's experiences.
1.4 The question written in the second web extends to the pupils' experiences in relation to the subject matter. This
process helps the pupils to understand how certain aspects of the text maybe signifcant in their environment and
experiences.

THE COMPONENTS AND STEPS IN USING THE FAN TECHNIQUE AS A VISUAL STRATEGY FOLLOW :
2. Steps
2.1 Draw a crescent in which the title of the selection is written.
2.2 Draw a lines to form a fan shape from the crescent.
2.3 Let the pupils read the selection silently.
2.4 The teacher requires the pupils to close their books after reading the selection.
2.5 The teacher begins to ask the entire major facts and information that the pupil's remember from the selection to be
written on the lines of the crescent.

THE COMPONENTS AND STEPS IN USING THE FAN

TECHNIQUE AS A VISUAL STRATEGY FOLLOW :
2.6 Draw the semantic strands and webs below the crescent.
2.7 Provide the first core question inside the web.
2.8 Elicit responses from the pupils representing both literal and inferential aspects of the text.
2.9 Provide the second core question on the second web.
2.10 Elicit responses from the pupil's extending experiences.

THE COMPONENTS AND STEPS IN USING THE FAN

TECHNIQUE AS A VISUAL STRATEGY FOLLOW :
2.11 Evaluate the pupil's reading comprehension by traditionally asking questions in different comprehension levels.
Useful question frames for content area materials are provided such as the following :
Main Idea : What does the information point out?
Supporting Information : What information does the author provide to support the statement?
Casual Relationship : What effect does it give?
Reactions :
• What are some of the things that you can learn about the topic?
• What is the most important thing you have learned about the topic?
• How do you feel about the event/practices/idea?
• What is your opinion concerning what the author says about the event/practices/idea?

PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
The phonovisual method (PVM) in teaching beginning reading has three stages involved, namely :
(1) hear, see, say stage
(2) sound blending stage
(3) meaning stage
The procedure of phonovisual-rap is the same as the phonovisual method which follows the three stages as mentioned.
The phonovisual-rap way was introduced by Atencio⁹³ in her colloquium titled "Teaching Beginning Reading the
Phono-Visual-Rap Way"

PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
The teaching procedure for the PVR follows :
1. The phono-visual-rap way starts with the sounds.
Sound sequencing follow :
1.1 Vowels : a,e,i,o,u
1.2 Consonants :
• ascending letters: b, d, h, l, t
• descending letters: g, j, p, q, y
• one-space letters: c, m, n, r, s, v, w, z
• special letter : f
PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
2. Upper case and lower case letters are introduced simultaneously. Words are formed by blending the initial
consonant sound with word families such as :
at family
bat pat
Etc.

PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
3. Phrases and sentences are formed by the introduction of the service words. Service words or junction words are
articles, conjunctions, pronouns, prepositions, Dolch 200 Basic Sight Words, and 95 most common nouns.
PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
4. Critical consonant sounds are also introduced :
• /f/ vs. /ph/
• /b/ vs. /v/
• /s/ vs. /z/
• /th/ vs /dh/
• c as /k/ in cake
• c as /s/ in city
• g as /j/ in gender
• g as /g/ in gender
PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
5. Critical vowels are also introduced :
• /e/ vs. /iy/
• /ae/ vs. /ey/
• /o/ vs. /u/
• /i/ vs. /ay/
PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
6. Cooperative learning by groups is a key factor.
7. All throughout meaning is attached to whatever is presented to develop comprehension of the pupils.
8. Pictures presented to develop the comprehension of the pupils.
9. For practice and drill exercises of sounds and words learned, the rap exercise is prepared by the teacher. Charted rap
materials are displayed in a conspicuous in the classroom so that the pupils can read them anytime they feel like
reading them.
PHONO-VISUAL-RAP
c as /k/ and c as /s/
a cat
Etc.

UNIT VIII: DIAGNOSIS AND REMEDIATION

Diagnosis in Reading
Diagnostic procedures - in reading, assess a child's instructional needs based on age and grade, exploring why pupils
read as they do, what they can read, and how they do to read successfully.

Brueckner- states the educational diagnosis as identifying and evaluating an individual's strengths and weaknesses to
provide more effective guidance.

Principles of Diagnosis
Seven Principles of Diagnosis
1. A diagnosis is always directed toward formulating methods of improvement.
2. A diagnosis involves for more than appraisal of reading skills and abilities.
3. A diagnosis must be efficient going as far as and no further than necessary.
4. Only pertinent information should be collected and by the most efficient means.
5. Whenever possible, standardized test procedures should be used.
6. Informal procedures may be required when it is necessary to expand a diagnosis.
7. A diagnosis should be continuous.

The Steps in Diagnosis are:

1.Secure as much information as possible about the pupil and record them on a case history.
2.Obtain the most accurate measure possible of the level at which the child should be able to read.
3.Administer a standardized reading survey.
4.Analyze the data to determine whether the child has a reading problem.
5.A detailed analysis of the child's reading problem is made.
6.Collate all the data secured and interpret the results as accurately as possible.
7.An attempt is made to identify the factors which may be inhibiting reading progress.
8.Make appropriate recommendations for remedial therapy.

Behavioral Clues to Reading Disabilities Whecler listed the behavior clues to reading disabilities. He suggests that
these can be used as basis for remediation.
1. lacks interest in reading tasks
2. lacks independent study habits
3. learns more readily through discussion and listening than through silent reading assignment
4. is unable to read materials that are on his grade level
5. achieves much better in non-reading than in language subject
6. takes too long to complete reading tasks
7. complains the reading is too difficult
8. may be poor in spelling
9. show symptoms of visual or hearing difficulties
10. has difficulty remembering what he has read
11. is unable to make practical applications of what he has read
12. shows emotional disturbances and nervous tensions when reading materials on his normal grade level.

DIAGNOSING THE PUPIL’S READING DIFFICULTIES

1. A diagnosis is always directed toward formulating methods of improvement.
2. A diagnosis involves for more than appraisal of reading skills and abilities.
3. A diagnosis must be efficient, going as far and no further than necessary.
4. Only pertinent should be collected and by the most efficient means.
5.