Design and Analysis of Algorithm

UNIT - II

DIVIDE AND CONQUER:

General method:

 Given a function to compute on ‘n’ inputs the divide-and-conquer strategy suggests

splitting the inputs into ‘k’ distinct subsets, 1<k<=n, yielding ‘k’ sub problems.

 These sub problems must be solved, and then a method must be found to combine sub
solutions into a solution of the whole.

 If the sub problems are still relatively large, then the divide-and-conquer strategy can
possibly be reapplied.

 Often the sub problems resulting from a divide-and-conquer design are of the same type as
the original problem.

 For those cases the re application of the divide-and-conquer principle is naturally expressed
by a recursive algorithm.

 D And C(Algorithm) is initially invoked as D and C(P), where ‘p’ is the problem to be
solved.

 Small(P) is a Boolean-valued function that determines whether the i/p size is small enough
that the answer can be computed without splitting.

 If this so, the function ‘S’ is invoked.

 Otherwise, the problem P is divided into smaller sub problems.

 These sub problems P1, P2 …Pk are solved by recursive application of D And C.

 Combine is a function that determines the solution to p using the solutions to the ‘k’ sub
problems.

 If the size of ‘p’ is n and the sizes of the ‘k’ sub problems are n1, n2 ….nk, respectively,
then the computing time of D And C is described by the recurrence relation.

T(n)= { g(n) n small

T(n1)+T(n2)+……………+T(nk)+f(n); otherwise.

Where T(n)  is the time for D And C on any I/p of size ‘n’.
g(n)  is the time of compute the answer directly for small I/ps.
f(n)  is the time for dividing P & combining the solution to
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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

sub problems.

1. Algorithm D And C(P)

2. {
3. if small(P) then return S(P);
4. else
5. {
6. divide P into smaller instances
P1, P2… Pk, k>=1;
7. Apply D And C to each of these sub problems;
8. return combine (D And C(P1), D And C(P2),…….,D And C(Pk));
9. }
10. }

 The complexity of many divide-and-conquer algorithms is given by recurrences

of the form
T(n) = { T(1) n=1
AT(n/b)+f(n) n>1
 Where a & b are known constants.
 We assume that T(1) is known & ‘n’ is a power of b(i.e., n=b^k)
 One of the methods for solving any such recurrence relation is called the substitution
method.
 This method repeatedly makes substitution for each occurrence of the function. T is the
Right-hand side until all such occurrences disappear.

Example:
1) Consider the case in which a=2 and b=2. Let T(1)=2 & f(n)=n.
We have,
T(n) = 2T(n/2)+n
= 2[2T(n/2/2)+n/2]+n
= [4T(n/4)+n]+n
= 4T(n/4)+2n
= 4[2T(n/4/2)+n/4]+2n
= 4[2T(n/8)+n/4]+2n
= 8T(n/8)+n+2n
= 8T(n/8)+3n
*
*
*

 In general, we see that T(n)=2^iT(n/2^i )+in., for any log n >=I>=1.

 T(n) =2^log n T(n/2^log n) + n log n

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Corresponding to the choice of i=log n

 Thus, T(n) = 2^log n T(n/2^log n) + n log n

= n. T(n/n) + n log n
= n. T(1) + n log n [since, log 1=0, 2^0=1]
= 2n + n log n

BINARY SEARCH

1. Algorithm Bin search(a,n,x)

2. // Given an array a[1:n] of elements in non-decreasing
3. //order, n>=0,determine whether ‘x’ is present and
4. // if so, return ‘j’ such that x=a[j]; else return 0.
5. {
6. low:=1; high:=n;
7. while (low<=high) do
8. {
9. mid:=[(low+high)/2];
10. if (x<a[mid]) then high;
11. else if(x>a[mid]) then
low=mid+1;
12. else return mid;
13. }
14. return 0;
15. }

 Algorithm, describes this binary search method, where Binsrch has 4I/ps a[], I , l & x.
 It is initially invoked as Binsrch (a,1,n,x)
 A non-recursive version of Binsrch is given below.
 This Binsearch has 3 i/ps a,n, & x.
 The while loop continues processing as long as there are more elements left to check.
 At the conclusion of the procedure 0 is returned if x is not present, or ‘j’ is returned, such
that a[j]=x.
 We observe that low & high are integer Variables such that each time through the loop
either x is found or low is increased by at least one or high is decreased at least one.

 Thus we have 2 sequences of integers approaching each other and eventually low becomes
> than high & causes termination in a finite no. of steps if ‘x’ is not present.

Example:
1) Let us select the 14 entries.
-15,-6,0,7,9,23,54,82,101,112,125,131,142,151.
 Place them in a[1:14], and simulate the steps Binsearch goes through as it searches for different
values of ‘x’.
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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 Only the variables, low, high & mid need to be traced as we simulate the algorithm.
 We try the following values for x: 151, -14 and 9.
for 2 successful searches &
1 unsuccessful search.

 Table. Shows the traces of Bin search on these 3 steps.

X=151 low high mid

1 14 7
8 14 11
12 14 13
14 14 14
Found

x=-14 low high mid

1 14 7
1 6 3
1 2 1
2 2 2
2 1 Not found

x=9 low high mid

1 14 7
1 6 3
4 6 5
Found

Theorem: Algorithm Binsearch(a,n,x) works correctly.

Proof:
We assume that all statements work as expected and that comparisons such as x>a[mid] are
appropriately carried out.

 Initially low =1, high= n,n>=0, and a[1]<=a[2]<=……..<=a[n].

 If n=0, the while loop is not entered and is returned.

 Otherwise we observe that each time thro’ the loop the possible elements to be checked of
or equality with x and a[low], a[low+1],……..,a[mid],……a[high].
 If x=a[mid], then the algorithm terminates successfully.
 Otherwise, the range is narrowed by either increasing low to (mid+1) or decreasing high to
(mid-1).
 Clearly, this narrowing of the range does not affect the outcome of the search.
 If low becomes > than high, then ‘x’ is not present & hence the loop is exited.
Maximum and Minimum:

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 Let us consider another simple problem that can be solved by the divide-and-conquer
technique.

 The problem is to find the maximum and minimum items in a set of ‘n’ elements.

 In analyzing the time complexity of this algorithm, we once again concentrate on the no. of
element comparisons.

 More importantly, when the elements in a[1:n] are polynomials, vectors, very large
numbers, or strings of character, the cost of an element comparison is much higher than the
cost of the other operations.

 Hence, the time is determined mainly by the total cost of the element comparison.

1. Algorithm straight MaxMin(a,n,max,min)

2. // set max to the maximum & min to the minimum of a[1:n]
3. {
4. max:=min:=a[1];
5. for I:=2 to n do
6. {
7. if(a[I]>max) then max:=a[I];
8. if(a[I]<min) then min:=a[I];
9. }
10. }

Algorithm: Straight forward Maximum & Minimum

 Straight MaxMin requires 2(n-1) element comparison in the best, average & worst cases.

 An immediate improvement is possible by realizing that the comparison a[I]<min is

necessary only when a[I]>max is false.

 Hence we can replace the contents of the for loop by,

If(a[I]>max) then max:=a[I];
Else if (a[I]<min) then min:=a[I];

 Now the best case occurs when the elements are in increasing order.
 The no. of element comparison is (n-1).

 The worst case occurs when the elements are in decreasing order.
 The no. of elements comparison is 2(n-1)

 The average no. of element comparison is < than 2(n-1)

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 On the average a[I] is > than max half the time, and so, the avg. no. of comparison is 3n/2-
1.

 A divide- and conquer algorithm for this problem would proceed as follows:

 Let P=(n, a[I] ,……,a[j]) denote an arbitrary instance of the problem.

 Here ‘n’ is the no. of elements in the list (a[I],….,a[j]) and we are interested in finding
the maximum and minimum of the list.

 If the list has more than 2 elements, P has to be divided into smaller instances.

 For example , we might divide ‘P’ into the 2 instances, P1=([n/2],a[1],……..a[n/2]) & P2=
(n-[n/2],a[[n/2]+1],…..,a[n])

 After having divided ‘P’ into 2 smaller sub problems, we can solve them by recursively
invoking the same divide-and-conquer algorithm.

Algorithm: Recursively Finding the Maximum & Minimum

1. Algorithm MaxMin (I,j,max,min)

2. //a[1:n] is a global array, parameters I & j
3. //are integers, 1<=I<=j<=n.The effect is to
4. //set max & min to the largest & smallest value
5. //in a[I:j], respectively.
6. {
7. if(I=j) then max:= min:= a[I];
8. else if (I=j-1) then // Another case of small(p)
9. {
10. if (a[I]<a[j]) then
11. {
12. max:=a[j];
13. min:=a[I];
14. }
15. else
16. {
17. max:=a[I];
18. min:=a[j];
19. }
20. }
21. else
22. {
23. // if P is not small, divide P into subproblems.
24. // find where to split the set mid:=[(I+j)/2];
25. //solve the subproblems
26. MaxMin(I,mid,max.min);
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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

27. MaxMin(mid+1,j,max1,min1);
28. //combine the solution
29. if (max<max1) then max=max1;
30. if(min>min1) then min = min1;
31. }
32. }

 The procedure is initially invoked by the statement,

MaxMin(1,n,x,y)
 Suppose we simulate MaxMin on the following 9 elements

A: [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]

22 13 -5 -8 15 60 17 31 47
 A good way of keeping track of recursive calls is to build a tree by adding a node each time
a new call is made.
 For this Algorithm, each node has 4 items of information: I, j, max & imin.
 Examining fig: we see that the root node contains 1 & 9 as the values of I &j corresponding
to the initial call to MaxMin.
 This execution produces 2 new calls to MaxMin, where I & j have the values 1, 5 & 6, 9
respectively & thus split the set into 2 subsets of approximately the same size.
 From the tree, we can immediately see the maximum depth of recursion is 4. (including the
1st call)
 The include no.s in the upper left corner of each node represent the order in which max &
min are assigned values.

No. of element Comparison:

 If T(n) represents this no., then the resulting recurrence relations is

T(n)={ T([n/2]+T[n/2]+2 n>2

1 n=2
0 n=1

 When ‘n’ is a power of 2, n=2^k for some +ve integer ‘k’, then
T(n) = 2T(n/2) +2
= 2(2T(n/4)+2)+2
= 4T(n/4)+4+2
*
*
= 2^k-1T(2)+
= 2^k-1+2^k-2
= 2^k/2+2^k-2
= n/2+n-2
= (n+2n)/2)-2
T(n)=(3n/2)-2

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

*Note that (3n/3)-3 is the best-average, and worst-case no. of comparisons when ‘n’ is a power
of 2.

MERGE SORT

 As another example divide-and-conquer, we investigate a sorting algorithm that has the

nice property that is the worst case its complexity is O(n log n)
 This algorithm is called merge sort
 We assume throughout that the elements are to be sorted in non-decreasing order.
 Given a sequence of ‘n’ elements a[1],…,a[n] the general idea is to imagine then split into
2 sets a[1],…..,a[n/2] and a[[n/2]+1],….a[n].
 Each set is individually sorted, and the resulting sorted sequences are merged to produce a
single sorted sequence of ‘n’ elements.
 Thus, we have another ideal example of the divide-and-conquer strategy in which the
splitting is into 2 equal-sized sets & the combining operation is the merging of 2 sorted sets
into one.

Algorithm For Merge Sort:

1. Algorithm MergeSort(low,high)
2. //a[low:high] is a global array to be sorted
3. //Small(P) is true if there is only one element
4. //to sort. In this case the list is already sorted.
5. {
6. if (low<high) then //if there are more than one element
7. {
8. //Divide P into subproblems
9. //find where to split the set
10. mid = [(low+high)/2];
11. //solve the subproblems.
12. mergesort (low,mid);
13. mergesort(mid+1,high);
14. //combine the solutions .
15. merge(low,mid,high);
16. }
17. }

Algorithm: Merging 2 sorted subarrays using auxiliary storage.

1. Algorithm merge(low,mid,high)
2. //a[low:high] is a global array containing
3. //two sorted subsets in a[low:mid]
4. //and in a[mid+1:high].The goal is to merge these 2 sets into
5. //a single set residing in a[low:high].b[] is an auxiliary global array.
6. {
8
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

7. h=low; I=low; j=mid+1;

8. while ((h<=mid) and (j<=high)) do
9. {
10. if (a[h]<=a[j]) then
11. {
12. b[I]=a[h];
13. h = h+1;
14. }
15. else
16. {
17. b[I]= a[j];
18. j=j+1;
19. }
20. I=I+1;
21. }
22. if (h>mid) then
23. for k=j to high do
24. {
25. b[I]=a[k];
26. I=I+1;
27. }
28. else
29. for k=h to mid do
30. {
31. b[I]=a[k];
32. I=I+1;
33. }
34. for k=low to high do a[k] = b[k];
35. }

 Consider the array of 10 elements a[1:10] =(310, 285, 179, 652, 351, 423, 861, 254, 450,
520)

 Algorithm Mergesort begins by splitting a[] into 2 sub arrays each of size five (a[1:5] and
a[6:10]).
 The elements in a[1:5] are then split into 2 sub arrays of size 3 (a[1:3] ) and 2(a[4:5])
 Then the items in a a[1:3] are split into sub arrays of size 2 a[1:2] & one(a[3:3])
 The 2 values in a[1:2} are split to find time into one-element sub arrays, and now the
merging begins.

(310| 285| 179| 652, 351| 423, 861, 254, 450, 520)

 Where vertical bars indicate the boundaries of sub arrays.

Elements a[I] and a[2] are merged to yield,

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

(285, 310|179|652, 351| 423, 861, 254, 450, 520)

 Then a[3] is merged with a[1:2] and

(179, 285, 310| 652, 351| 423, 861, 254, 450, 520)

 Next, elements a[4] & a[5] are merged.

(179, 285, 310| 351, 652 | 423, 861, 254, 450, 520)

 And then a[1:3] & a[4:5]

(179, 285, 310, 351, 652| 423, 861, 254, 450, 520)

 Repeated recursive calls are invoked producing the following sub arrays.
(179, 285, 310, 351, 652| 423| 861| 254| 450, 520)

 Elements a[6] &a[7] are merged.

Then a[8] is merged with a[6:7]

(179, 285, 310, 351, 652| 254,423, 861| 450, 520)

 Next a[9] &a[10] are merged, and then a[6:8] & a[9:10]
(179, 285, 310, 351, 652| 254, 423, 450, 520, 861 )

 At this point there are 2 sorted sub arrays & the final merge produces the fully
sorted result.
(179, 254, 285, 310, 351, 423, 450, 520, 652, 861)

 If the time for the merging operations is proportional to ‘n’, then the computing time for
merge sort is described by the recurrence relation.

T(n) = { a n=1,’a’ a constant

2T(n/2)+cn n>1,’c’ a constant.

 When ‘n’ is a power of 2, n= 2^k, we can solve this equation by successive substitution.

T(n) =2(2T(n/4) +cn/2) +cn

= 4T(n/4)+2cn
= 4(2T(n/8)+cn/4)+2cn
*
*
= 2^k T(1)+kCn.
= an + cn log n.

 It is easy to see that if s^k<n<=2^k+1, then T(n)<=T(2^k+1). Therefore,

T(n)=O(n log n)
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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

QUICK SORT

 The divide-and-conquer approach can be used to arrive at an efficient sorting method

different from merge sort.

 In merge sort, the file a[1:n] was divided at its midpoint into sub arrays which were
independently sorted & later merged.

 In Quick sort, the division into 2 sub arrays is made so that the sorted sub arrays do not
need to be merged later.

 This is accomplished by rearranging the elements in a[1:n] such that a[I]<=a[j] for all I
between 1 & n and all j between (m+1) & n for some m, 1<=m<=n.

 Thus the elements in a[1:m] & a[m+1:n] can be independently sorted.

 No merge is needed. This rearranging is referred to as partitioning.

 Function partition of Algorithm accomplishes an in-place partitioning of the elements of

a[m:p-1]

 It is assumed that a[p]>=a[m] and that a[m] is the partitioning element. If m=1 & p-1=n,
then a[n+1] must be defined and must be greater than or equal to all elements in a[1:n]

 The assumption that a[m] is the partition element is merely for convenience, other choices
for the partitioning element than the first item in the set are better in practice.

 The function interchange (a,I,j) exchanges a[I] with a[j].

Algorithm: Partition the array a[m:p-1] about a[m]

1. Algorithm Partition(a,m,p)
2. //within a[m],a[m+1],…..,a[p-1] the elements
3. // are rearranged in such a manner that if
4. //initially t=a[m],then after completion
5. //a[q]=t for some q between m and
6. //p-1,a[k]<=t for m<=k<q, and
7. //a[k]>=t for q<k<p. q is returned
8. //Set a[p]=infinite.
9. {
10. v=a[m];I=m;j=p;
11. repeat
12. {
13. repeat
11
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

14. I=I+1;
15. until(a[I]>=v);
16. repeat
17. j=j-1;
18. until(a[j]<=v);
19. if (I<j) then interchange(a,i.j);
20. }until(I>=j);
21. a[m]=a[j]; a[j]=v;
22. retun j;
23. }

1. Algorithm Interchange(a,I,j)
2. //Exchange a[I] with a[j]
3. {
4. p=a[I];
5. a[I]=a[j];
6. a[j]=p;
7. }

Algorithm: Sorting by Partitioning

1. Algorithm Quicksort(p,q)
2. //Sort the elements a[p],….a[q] which resides
3. //is the global array a[1:n] into ascending
4. //order; a[n+1] is considered to be defined
5. // and must be >= all the elements in a[1:n]
6. {
7. if(p<q) then // If there are more than one element
8. {
9. // divide p into 2 subproblems
10. j=partition(a,p,q+1);
11. //’j’ is the position of the partitioning element.
12. //solve the subproblems.
13. quicksort(p,j-1);
14. quicksort(j+1,q);
15. //There is no need for combining solution.
16. }
17. }

Record Program: Quick Sort

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int a[20];
main()
{
12
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

int n,I;
clrscr();
printf(“QUICK SORT”);
printf(“\n Enter the no. of elements “);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
printf(“\nEnter the array elements”);
for(I=0;I<n;I++)
scanf(“%d”,&a[I]);
quicksort(0,n-1);
printf(“\nThe array elements are”);
for(I=0;I<n;I++)
printf(“\n%d”,a[I]);
getch();
}
quicksort(int p, int q)
{
int j;
if(p,q)
{
j=partition(p,q+1);
quicksort(p,j-1);
quicksort(j+1,q);
}
}

Partition(int m, int p)
{
int v,I,j;
v=a[m];
i=m;
j=p;
do
{
do
i=i+1;
while(a[i]<v);
if (i<j)
interchange(I,j);
} while (I<j);
a[m]=a[j];
a[j]=v;
return j;
}

Interchange(int I, int j)
13
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

{
int p;
p= a[I];
a[I]=a[j];
a[j]=p;
}

Output:
Enter the no. of elements 5
Enter the array elements
3
8
1
5
2
The sorted elements are,
1
2
3
5
8

STRASSON’S MATRIX MULTIPLICAION

 Let A and B be the 2 n*n Matrix. The product matrix C=AB is calculated by using the
formula,

C (i ,j )= A(i,k) B(k,j) for all ‘i’ and and j between 1 and n.

 The time complexity for the matrix Multiplication is O(n^3).

 Divide and conquer method suggest another way to compute the product of n*n matrix.

 We assume that N is a power of 2 .In the case N is not a power of 2 ,then enough rows and
columns of zero can be added to both A and B .SO that the resulting dimension are the
powers of two.

 If n=2 then the following formula as a computed using a matrix multiplication operation
for the elements of A & B.

 If n>2,Then the elements are partitioned into sub matrix n/2*n/2..since ‘n’ is a power of 2
these product can be recursively computed using the same formula .This Algorithm will
continue applying itself to smaller sub matrix until ‘N” become suitable small(n=2) so that
the product is computed directly .
 The formula are
14
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

A11 A12 B11 B12 C11 C12

* =
A21 A21 B21 B22 C21 C22

C11 = A11 B11 + A12 B21

C12 = A11 B12 + A12 B22
C21 = A21 B11 + A22 B21
C22 = A21 B12 + A22 B22

For EX:
2222 1 1 11
4*4= 2222 1 11 1
2222 * 1 11 1
2222 1 11 1

The Divide and conquer method

2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 * 1 1 1 1 = 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4

 To compute AB using the equation we need to perform 8 multiplication of n/2*n/2 matrix

and from 4 addition of n/2*n/2 matrix.
 Ci,j are computed using the formula in equation 4
 As can be sum P, Q, R, S, T, U, and V can be computed using 7 Matrix multiplication and
10 addition or subtraction.
 The Cij are required addition 8 addition or subtraction.

T(n)= b n<=2 a &b are

7T(n/2)+an^2 n>2 constant

Finally we get T(n) =O( n ^log27)

Example
15
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

4 4 4 4
*
4 4 4 4

P=(4*4)+(4+4)=64
Q=(4+4)4=32
R=4(4-4)=0
S=4(4-4)=0
T=(4+4)4=32
U=(4-4)(4+4)=0
V=(4-4)(4+4)=0
C11=(64+0-32+0)=32
C12=0+32=32
C21=32+0=32
C22=64+0-32+0=32

So the answer c(i,j) is 32 32

32 32

since n/2n/2 &matrix can be can be added in Cn for some constant C, The overall computing time
T(n) of the resulting divide and conquer algorithm is given by the sequence.

T(n)= b n<=2 a &b are

8T(n/2)+cn^2 n>2 constant

That is T(n)=O(n^3)

* Matrix multiplication are more expensive then the matrix addition O(n^3).We can attempt to
reformulate the equation for Cij so as to have fewer multiplication and possibly more addition .

 Stressen has discovered a way to compute the Cij of equation (2) using only 7
multiplication and 18 addition or subtraction.
 Strassen’s formula are

P= (A11+A12)(B11+B22)
Q= (A12+A22)B11
R= A11(B12-B22)
S= A22(B21-B11)
T= (A11+A12)B22
U= (A21-A11)(B11+B12)
V= (A12-A22)(B21+B22)

C11=P+S-T+V
16
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

C!2=R+t
C21=Q+T
C22=P+R-Q+V

GREEDY METHOD

 Greedy method is the most straightforward designed technique.

 As the name suggest they are short sighted in their approach taking decision on the basis
of the information immediately at the hand without worrying about the effect these
decision may have in the future.

DEFINITION:

 A problem with N inputs will have some constraints .any subsets that satisfy these
constraints are called a feasible solution.
 A feasible solution that either maximize can minimize a given objectives function is called
an optimal solution.

Control algorithm for Greedy Method:

1.Algorithm Greedy (a,n)
2.//a[1:n] contain the ‘n’ inputs
3. {
4.solution =0;//Initialise the solution.
5.For i=1 to n do
6.{
7.x=select(a);
8.if(feasible(solution,x))then
9.solution=union(solution,x);
10.}
11.return solution;
12.}

* The function select an input from a[] and removes it. The select input value is assigned to X.

 Feasible is a Boolean value function that determines whether X can be included into the
solution vector.
 The function Union combines X with The solution and updates the objective function.
 The function Greedy describes the essential way that a greedy algorithm will once a
particular problem is chosen ands the function subset, feasible & union are properly
implemented.

Example
 Suppose we have in a country the following coins are available :

Dollars(100 cents)
17
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Quarters(25 cents)
Dimes( 10 cents)
Nickel(5 Cents)
Pennies(1 cent)

 Our aim is paying a given amount to a customer using the smallest possible number of
coins.
 For example if we must pay 276 cents possible solution then,

 1 doll+7 q+ 1 pen9 coins

 2 doll +3Q +1 pen6 coins
 2 doll+7dim+1 nic +1 pen11 coins.

KNAPSACK PROBLEM

 we are given n objects and knapsack or bag with capacity M object I has a weight Wi
where I varies from 1 to N.

 The problem is we have to fill the bag with the help of N objects and the resulting profit
has to be maximum.

 Formally the problem can be stated as

Maximize xipi subject to XiWi<=M

Where Xi is the fraction of object and it lies between 0 to 1.

 There are so many ways to solve this problem, which will give many feasible solution for
which we have to find the optimal solution.

 But in this algorithm, it will generate only one solution which is going to be feasible as
well as optimal.

 First, we find the profit & weight rates of each and every object and sort it according to the
descending order of the ratios.

 Select an object with highest p/w ratio and check whether its height is lesser than the
capacity of the bag.

 If so place 1 unit of the first object and decrement .the capacity of the bag by the weight of
the object you have placed.

 Repeat the above steps until the capacity of the bag becomes less than the weight of the
object you have selected .in this case place a fraction of the object and come out of the
loop.

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 Whenever you selected.

ALGORITHM:

1.Algorityhm Greedy knapsack (m,n)

2//P[1:n] and the w[1:n]contain the profit
3.// & weight res’.of the n object ordered.
4.//such that p[i]/w[i] >=p[i+1]/W[i+1]
5.//n is the Knapsack size and x[1:n] is the solution vertex.
6.{
7.for I=1 to n do a[I]=0.0;
8.U=n;
9.For I=1 to n do
10.{
11.if (w[i]>u)then break;
13.x[i]=1.0;U=U-w[i]
14.}
15.if(i<=n)then x[i]=U/w[i];
16.}

Example:

Capacity=20
N=3 ,M=20
Wi=18,15,10
Pi=25,24,15

Pi/Wi=25/18=1.36,24/15=1.6,15/10=1.5

Descending Order  Pi/Wi1.6 1.5 1.36

Pi = 24 15 25
Wi = 15 10 18
Xi = 1 5/10 0
PiXi=1*24+0.5*1531.5

The optimal solution is 31.5

X1 X2 X3 WiXi PiXi
½ 1/3 ¼ 16.6 24.25
1 2/5 0 20 18.2
0 2/3 1 20 31
0 1 ½ 20 31.5

Of these feasible solution Solution 4 yield the Max profit .As we shall soon see this solution is
optimal for the given problem instance.
19
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

JOB SCHEDULING WITH DEAD LINES

The problem is the number of jobs, their profit and deadlines will be given and we have to find a
sequence of job, which will be completed within its deadlines, and it should yield a maximum
profit.

Points To remember:
 To complete a job, one has to process the job or a action for one unit of time.
 Only one machine is available for processing jobs.
 A feasible solution for this problem is a subset of j of jobs such that each job in this subject
can be completed by this deadline.
 If we select a job at that time ,

Since one job can be processed in a single m/c. The other job has to be in its waiting state until
the job is completed and the machine becomes free.

So the waiting time and the processing time should be less than or equal to the dead line of the
job.

ALGORITHM:

Algorithm JS(d,j,n)
//The job are ordered such that p[1]>p[2]…>p[n]
//j[i] is the ith job in the optimal solution
// Also at terminal d [ J[ i]<=d[ J {i+1],1<i<k
{
d[0]= J[0]=0;
J[1]=1;
K=1;
For I =1 to n do
{ // consider jobs in non increasing order of P[I];find the position for I and check feasibility
insertion
r=k;
while((d[J[r]]>d[i] )and
(d[J[r]] = r)do r =r-1;
if (d[J[r]]<d[I])and (d[I]>r))then
{
for q=k to (r+1) step –1 do J [q+1]=j[q]
J[r+1]=i;
K=k+1;
}
}
return k;
}
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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Example :

1. n=5 (P1,P2,…P5)=(20,15,10,5,1)
(d1,d2….d3)=(2,2,1,3,3)

Feasible solution Processing Sequence Value

(1) (1) 20
(2) (2) 15
(3) (3) 10
(4) (4) 5
(5) (5) 1
(1,2) (2,1) 35
(1,3) (3,1) 30
(1,4) (1,4) 25
(1,5) (1,5) 21
(2,3) (3,2) 25
(2,4) (2,4) 20
(2,5) (2,5) 16
(1,2,3) (3,2,1) 45
(1,2,4) (1,2,4) 40

The Solution 13 is optimal

2. n=4 (P1,P2,…P4)=(100,10,15,27)
(d1,d2….d4)=(2,1,2,1)

Feasible solution Processing Sequence Value

(1,2) (2,1) 110

(1,3) (1,3) 115
(1,4) (4,1) 127
(2,3) (9,3) 25
(2,4) (4,2) 37
(3,4) (4,3) 42
(1) (1) 100
(2) (2) 10
(3) (3) 15
(4) (4) 27

The solution 3 is optimal.

MINIMUM SPANNING TREE

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 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 Let G(V,E) be an undirected connected graph with vertices ‘v’ and edge ‘E’.
 A sub-graph t=(V,E’) of the G is a Spanning tree of G iff ‘t’ is a tree.3
 The problem is to generate a graph G’= (V,E) where ‘E’ is the subset of E,G’ is a
Minimum spanning tree.
 Each and every edge will contain the given non-negative length .connect all the nodes with
edge present in set E’ and weight has to be minimum.

NOTE:
 We have to visit all the nodes.
 The subset tree (i.e) any connected graph with ‘N’ vertices must have at least N-1 edges
and also it does not form a cycle.

Definition:
 A spanning tree of a graph is an undirected tree consisting of only those edge that are
necessary to connect all the vertices in the original graph.
 A Spanning tree has a property that for any pair of vertices there exist only one path
between them and the insertion of an edge to a spanning tree form a unique cycle.

Application of the spanning tree:

1. Analysis of electrical circuit.
2. Shortest route problems.

Minimum cost spanning tree:

 The cost of a spanning tree is the sum of cost of the edges in that trees.
 There are 2 method to determine a minimum cost spanning tree are

1. Kruskal’s Algorithm
2. Prom’s Algorithm.

KRUSKAL’S ALGORITHM:

In kruskal's algorithm the selection function chooses edges in increasing order of length
without worrying too much about their connection to previously chosen edges, except that never to
form a cycle. The result is a forest of trees that grows until all the trees in a forest (all the
components) merge in a single tree.

 In this algorithm, a minimum cost-spanning tree ‘T’ is built edge by edge.

 Edge are considered for inclusion in ‘T’ in increasing order of their cost.

 An edge is included in ‘T’ if it doesn’t form a cycle with edge already in T.

22
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

 To find the minimum cost spanning tree the edge are inserted to tree in increasing order of
their cost

Algorithm:

Algorithm kruskal(E,cost,n,t)
//Eset of edges in G has ‘n’ vertices.
//cost[u,v]cost of edge (u,v).tset of edge in minimum cost spanning tree
// the first cost is returned.
{
for i=1 to n do parent[I]=-1;
I=0;mincost=0.0;
While((I<n-1)and (heap not empty)) do
{
j=find(n);
k=find(v);
if(j not equal k) than
{
i=i+1
t[i,1]=u;
t[i,2]=v;
mincost=mincost+cost[u,v];
union(j,k);
}
}
if(i notequal n-1) then write(“No spanning tree”)
else return minimum cost;
}
Analysis
 The time complexity of minimum cost spanning tree algorithm in worst case is O(|E|log|
E|),
where E is the edge set of G.

Example: Step by Step operation of Kurskal algorithm.

Step 1. In the graph, the Edge(g, h) is shortest. Either vertex g or vertex h could be representative.
Lets choose vertex g arbitrarily.

23
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Step 2. The edge (c, i) creates the second tree. Choose vertex c as representative for second tree.

Step 3. Edge (g, g) is the next shortest edge. Add this edge and choose vertex g as representative.

Step 4. Edge (a, b) creates a third tree.

Step 5. Add edge (c, f) and merge two trees. Vertex c is chosen as the representative.

Step 6. Edge (g, i) is the next next cheapest, but if we add this edge a cycle would be created.
Vertex c is the representative of both.

24
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

Step 7. Instead, add edge (c, d).

Step 8. If we add edge (h, i), edge(h, i) would make a cycle.

Step 9. Instead of adding edge (h, i) add edge (a, h).

Step 10. Again, if we add edge (b, c), it would create a cycle. Add edge (d, e) instead to complete
the spanning tree. In this spanning tree all trees joined and vertex c is a sole representative.

25
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

PRIM'S ALGORITHM
Start from an arbitrary vertex (root). At each stage, add a new branch (edge) to the tree
already constructed; the algorithm halts when all the vertices in the graph have been reached.

Algorithm prims(e,cost,n,t)
{
Let (k,l) be an edge of minimum cost in E;
Mincost :=cost[k,l];
T[1,1]:=k; t[1,2]:=l;
For I:=1 to n do
If (cost[i,l]<cost[i,k]) then near[i]:=l;
Else near[i]:=k;
Near[k]:=near[l]:=0;
For i:=2 to n-1 do
{
Let j be an index such that near[j]≠0 and
Cost[j,near[j]] is minimum;
T[i,1]:=j; t[i,2]:=near[j];
Mincost:=mincost+ Cost[j,near[j]];
Near[j]:=0;
For k:=0 to n do
If near((near[k]≠0) and (Cost[k,near[k]]>cost[k,j])) then
Near[k]:=j;
}
Return mincost;
26
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

}
 The prims algorithm will start with a tree that includes only a minimum cost edge of G.
 Then, edges are added to the tree one by one. the next edge (i,j) to be added in such that I is
a vertex included in the tree, j is a vertex not yet included, and cost of (i,j), cost[i,j] is
minimum among all the edges.
 The working of prims will be explained by following diagram

Step 1: Step 2:

Step 3: Step 4:

Step 5: Step 6:

27
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

SINGLE SOURCE SHORTEST PATH

Single-source shortest path:
Graphs can be used to represent the highway structure of a state or country with vertices
representing cities and edges representing sections of highway. The edges can then be assigned
weights which may be either the distance between the two cities connected by the edge or the
average time to drive along that section of highway. A motorist wishing to drive from city A to B
would be interested in answers to the following questions:

1. Is there a path from A to B?

2. If there is more than one path from A to B? Which is the shortest path?

The problems defined by these questions are special case of the path problem we study in this
section. The length of a path is now defined to be the sum of the weights of the edges on that path.
The starting vertex of the path is referred to as the source and the last vertex the destination. The
graphs are digraphs representing streets. Consider a digraph G=(V,E), with the distance to be
traveled as weights on the edges. The problem is to determine the shortest path from v0 to all the
remaining vertices of G. It is assumed that all the weights associated with the edges are positive.
The shortest path between v0 and some other node v is an ordering among a subset of the edges.
Hence this problem fits the ordering paradigm.

Example:
Consider the digraph of fig 7-1. Let the numbers on the edges be the costs of travelling along that
route. If a person is interested travel from v1 to v2, then he encounters many paths. Some of them
are
1. v1 v2 = 50 units
2. v1 v3 v4 v2 = 10+15+20=45 units
3. v1 v5 v4 v2 = 45+30+20= 95 units
4. v1 v3 v4 v5 v4 v2 = 10+15+35+30+20=110 units

28
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

The cheapest path among these is the path along v1 v3 v4 v2. The cost of the path is
10+15+20 = 45 units. Even though there are three edges on this path, it is cheaper than travelling
along the path connecting v1 and v2 directly i.e., the path v1 v2 that costs 50 units. One can also
notice that, it is not possible to travel to v6 from any other node.
To formulate a greedy based algorithm to generate the cheapest paths, we must conceive a
multistage solution to the problem and also of an optimization measure. One possibility is to build
the shortest paths one by one. As an optimization measure we can use the sum of the lengths of all
paths so far generated. For this measure to be minimized, each individual path must be of
minimum length. If we have already constructed i shortest paths, then using this optimization
measure, the next path to be constructed should be the next shortest minimum length path. The
greedy way to generate these paths in non-decreasing order of path length. First, a shortest path to
the nearest vertex is generated. Then a shortest path to the second nearest vertex is generated, and
so on.
A much simpler method would be to solve it using matrix representation. The steps that should be
followed is as follows,

Step 1: find the adjacency matrix for the given graph. The adjacency matrix for fig 7.1 is given
below

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

V1 - 50 10 Inf 45 Inf

V2 Inf - 15 Inf 10 Inf

V3 20 Inf - 15 inf Inf

V4 Inf 20 Inf - 35 Inf

V5 Inf Inf Inf 30 - Inf

V6 Inf Inf Inf 3 Inf -

Step 2: consider v1 to be the source and choose the minimum entry in the row v1. In the above
table the minimum in row v1 is 10.

Step 3: find out the column in which the minimum is present, for the above example it is column
v3. Hence, this is the node that has to be next visited.

Step 4: compute a matrix by eliminating v1 and v3 columns. Initially retain only row v1. The
second row is computed by adding 10 to all values of row v3.
The resulting matrix is

29
 Design and Analysis of Algorithm

V2 V4 V5 V6

V1 Vw 50 Inf 45 Inf

V1 V3 Vw 10+inf 10+15 10+inf 10+inf

Minimum 50 25 45 inf
Step 5: find the minimum in each column. Now select the minimum from the resulting row. In the
above example the minimum is 25. Repeat step 3 followed by step 4 till all vertices are covered or
single column is left.

The solution for the fig 7.1 can be continued as follows

V2 V5 V6

V1 Vw 50 45 Inf

V1 V3 V4 Vw 25+20 25+35 25+inf

Minimum 45 45 inf

V5 V6

V1 Vw 45 Inf

V1 V3 V4 V2 45+10 45+inf

Vw

Minimum 45 inf

V6

V1 Vw Inf

V1 V3 V4 V2 V5 Vw 45+inf

Minimum inf

Finally the cheapest path from v1 to all other vertices is given by V1 V3 V4 V2 V5.

30