ELEMENTARY STATISTICS & PROBABILITY

MATH 105
WEEK 1 DAY 1

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the week, the Pre – service Teacher (PST) should be able to:
A. Discuss the contributions of the different statisticians/mathematicians in the continuous
improvement of statistical knowledge and concepts.
B. Differentiate between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics, Population and Sample.
C. Identify types of data and the level of measurement for each variable.
D. Describe the different data collection methods and sampling techniques.
E. Create a tree diagram illustrating data and their levels of measurement.
F. Explain how statistics can be used and misused
G. Point out the importance of using digital technology in statistics

Topics:
1. THE NATURE OF STATISTICS
A. Description and history of statistical science
B. Descriptive and inferential statistics
C. Population and sample
D. Variables and types of data
E. Data collection and sampling techniques
F. Uses and misuses of statistics
G. The use of computers and calculators

THE NATURE OF STATISTICS

Introduction

You may be familiar with probability and statistics through radio, television, newspapers, and
magazines. Like;

a. The FBI reported that violent crimes were down by 6.4% in 2011.
b. The college stress and mental illness poll reported that 85% of college and university
students feeling stress daily, 77% reported stress from school work, and 74% experienced
stress from grades.

Statistics is used in almost all fields of human endeavor.

Furthermore, statistics is used to analyze the results of surveys and as a tool in scientific research to
make decisions based on controlled experiments. Other uses if Statistics include operations
research, quality control, estimation, and prediction.

STATISTICS – Is the science of conducting studies to collect, organize, summarize, analyze, and
draw conclusions from data.

Follow – up Question:
1. Why do you think students study statistics? Can you provide different reasons?
Your answer here!
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

To gain knowledge about seemingly haphazard situations, statisticians collect information for
variables, which describe the situation.

VARIABLE – is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.

DATA – are the values (measurements or observation) that the variables can assume.

RANDOM VARIABLES – are the variables whose values are determined by chance.

Example:
Suppose that an insurance company studies its records over the past several years and determines
that, on average, 3 out of every 100 automobiles the company insured were involved in accidents
during 1 – year period. Although there is no way to predict the specific automobiles that will be
involved in an accident (random occurrence), the company can adjust its rates accordingly, since the
company knows the general pattern over the long run. (That is, on average 3% of the insured
automobiles will be involved in an accident each year).

DATA SET – A collection of data values forms.

DATA VALUE or DATUM – each value in the data set.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POPULATION & SAMPLE

POPULATION – Consists of all subjects (humans or otherwise) that are being studied.

CENSUS – when data are collected from every subject in the population.

Example:
Every 10 years the United States conducts a census. The primary purpose of this census is to determine
the apportionment of the seats in the House of Representatives. The first census was conducted in 1790
and was mandated by Article 1, Section 2 of the Constitution. As the United States grew, the scope of
the census also grew. Today the Census limits questions to populations, housing, manufacturing,
agriculture, and mortality. The census is conducted by the Bureau of the Census, which is part of the
Department of Commerce. Most of the time, due to the expense, time, size of population, medical
concerns, etc. it is not possible to use the entire population for a statistical study; therefore, researchers
use samples.

SAMPLE – Is a group of subjects selected from a population.

If the subjects of a sample are properly selected, most of the time they should possess the same or
similar characteristics as the subject in the population.
Figure 1.1 Population and Sample.

Population

Sample

BIASED – If the results from the sample population are radically different from the results of a
census of the population.
- A sample is said to be biased if it does not represent the population from which it has
been selected.

The body of knowledge called statistics is sometimes divided into two main areas, depending on
how data are used. The two areas are:
1. Descriptive statistics
2. Inferential statistics

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS – consists of the collection, organization, summarization, and

presentation of data.

In this type of statistic, the statistician tries to describe a situation.

Example:
Consider the national census conducted by U.S. government every 10 years. Results of this census give
you the average age, income, and other characteristics of the U.S. population. To obtain this
information, the Census Bureau must have some means to collect relevant data. Once data are
collected, the bureau must organize and summarize them. Finally, the bureau needs a means of
presenting the data in some meaningful form, such as charts, graphs, or tables.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – consists of generalizing from samples to population, performing

estimations and hypothesis test, determining relationships among variables, and making
predictions.

In this type of statistic, statistician tries to make inferences from samples to populations. Inferential
Statistics uses probability (the chance of an event occurring).

You may be familiar with the concepts of probability through various forms of gambling. If you play
cards, dice, bingo, or lotteries, you win or lose according to the laws of probability.

PROBABILITY THEORY is also used in the insurance industry and other areas.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING – Is the area of inferential statistics. It is a decision-making process for
evaluating claims about a population, based on information obtained from samples.

Example:
A researcher may wish to know if a new drug will reduce the number of heart attacks in men over age
70 years of age. For this study, two groups of men over age 70 would be selected. One group would be
given the drug, and the other would be given placebo (a substance with no medical benefits or harm).
Later, the number of heart attacks occurring in each group of men would be counted, a statistical test
would be run, and a decision would be made about the effectiveness of the drug.

Statistician also use statistics to determine relationships among variables.

Example:
Relationships were the focus of the most noted study in 20th century. “Smoking and Health,” published
by Surgeon General of the United States in 1964. He stated that after reviewing and evaluating the
data, is group found a definite relationship between smoking and lung cancer. He did not say that
cigarette smoking actually causes lung cancer, but that there is a relationship between smoking and
lung cancer. This conclusion was based on a study done in 1958 by Hammond and Horn. In this study,
187, 783 men were observed over a period of 45 months. The death rate from lung cancer in this group
of volunteers was 10 times a great for smokers as for nonsmokers.

Finally, by studying past and present data and conditions, statisticians try to make predictions
based on this information.

Example:
A car dealer may look at past sales records for a specific month to decide what types of automobiles
and how many of each type to order for that month next year.

ACTIVITY.
I. KNOW ME BETTER
Instructions: Determine whether descriptive or inferential statistics were used. Write D if the
statement is Descriptive, and I if the statement if Inferential.

1. The average jackpot for the top five lottery winners was 367.6 million.
Answer: _______________________________________________________________________

2. A study done by the American Academy of Neurology suggests that older people who had a
high caloric diet more than doubled their risk of memory loss.
Answer: ________________________________________________________________________
3. Based on survey of 9317 consumers done by the National Retail Federation, the average
amount that consumers spent on Valentine’s Day in 2011 was 116.
Answer: _________________________________________________________________________
4. Scientist at the University of Oxford in England found that a good laugh significantly raises a
person’s pain level tolerance.
Answer: _________________________________________________________________________

II. Q & A
Instructions: Read and analyze the situation carefully and answer the following questions.
A study conducted at Manatee Community College revealed that students who attended class 95 to
100% of the time usually received an A in the class. Students who attended class 80 to 90% of the
time usually received a D or an F or eventually withdrew from the class.

Based on this information, attendance and grades are related. The more you attend class, the more
likely it is you will receive a higher grade. If you improve your attendance, your grades will
probably improve. Many factors affect your grade in a course. One factor that you have considerable
control over is attendance. You can increase your opportunities for learning by attending class more
often.

1. What are the variables under study?

2. What are the data in the study?
3. Are descriptive, inferential or both types of statistics used?
4. What is the population under study?
5. Was a sample collected? If so, where?
6. From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables.

ASSESSMENT 1
Instruction: Answer the following questions.

1. Define statistics.
2. What is a variable?
3. What is meant by a census?
4. How does a population differ from a sample?
5. Explain the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics.
6. Name two areas where probability is used.
7. Why is information obtained from samples used more often than information obtained from
populations?
8. What is meant by a biased sample?

For 9 - 17, determine whether descriptive or inferential statistics were used.

9. Because of the current economy, 49% of 18 to 34 year – olds have taken a job to pay bills.
(source: Pew Research Center)
10. In 2025, the world population is predicted to be 8 billion people. (source: United Nations)
11. In 2011, there were 34 deaths from the avain flu. (Source: World Health Organization)
12. Based on sample of 2739 respondents, it is estimated that pet owners spent a total of 14
billion dollars on veterinarian care for their pets. (source: American Pet Products
Association, Pet Owners Survey)
13. In 2011, 79% of U.S adults used the Internet. (Source: Pew Research Center)
14. In 2010, a total of 68, 905 people died from diabetes. (source: Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention)
15. In an online survey of 500 Virginia Tech students between spring 2010 and spring 2011,
31% said that they had missed class because of alcohol consumption. (source: Center for
Applied Behaviour Systems at Virginia Tech)
16. In 2008 – 2009, a total of 260, 327 U.S students were studying abroad. (source: Institute of
International Education)
17. Forty – four percent of the people in the United States have type O blood. (source: American
Red Cross)
 18. Find three statistical studies and explain whether they used descriptive or inferential
statistics.
19. Find a gambling game and explain how probability was used to determine the outcome.

VARIABLES AND TYPES OF DATA

Variables can be classified as qualitative or quantitative.

QUALITATIVE VARIABLES – are variables that have distinct categories according to some
characteristic or attribute.

Example:
If subjects are classified according to gender (male or female), then the variable gender is qualitative.
Other examples of qualitative variables are religious preferences and geographic locations.

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES – are variables that can be counted or measured.

Example:
The variable age is numerical, and people can be ranked in order according to the value of their ages.
Other examples of quantitative variables are heights, weights, and body temperatures.

Quantitative variable can be further classified into two groups.

1. DISCRETE VARIABLES – can be assigned values such as 0,1,2,3 and are said to be countable.

Example:
Number of children in a family, number of students in a classroom, and the number of calls received by
a switchboard operator each day for a month.

2. CONTINUOS VARIABLES – can assume an infinite number of values between any two
specific values. They are obtained by measuring. They often include fractions and decimals.

Example:
Temperature is one of continuous variables since the variable can assume an infinite number of values
between any given temperature.

Figure 1.2 Types of variables.

Variables

Qualitative Quantitative

Continuous Discrete
Take note!

Since continuous data must be measured, answer must be rounded because of the limits of the
measuring device. Usually, answers are rounded to the nearest given unit. For example, heights might
be rounded to the nearest inch, weights to the nearest ounce, etc. Hence, a recorded height of 73 inches
could mean any measure from 72.5 up to but not including 73.5 inches. Thus, the boundary of this
measure is given as 72.5 – 73.5 inches. The boundary of a number, then, is defined as class in which a
data value would be placed before the data value was rounded. Boundaries are written for
convenience as 72.5 – 73.5 but are understood to mean all values up to but not including 73.5. Actual
data values of 73.5 would be rounded to 74 and would be included in a class with boundaries of 73.5
up to but not including 74.5, written as 73.5 – 74.5. As another example, if a recorded weight is 86
pounds, the exact boundaries are 85.5 up to but not including 86.5, written as 85.5 – 86.5 pounds.
Table 1.1 helps to clarify this concept. The boundaries of a continuous variable are given in one
additional decimal place and always end with the digit 5.

ACTIVITY 2. KNOW ME BETTER?

I. Classify each variable as a discrete variable or a continuous variable.

1. The highest wind speed of a hurricane

2. The weight of baggage on an airplane
3. The number of pages in a statistics book
4. The amount of money a person spends per year for online purchases.

II. Find the boundaries of each variable.

1. 8.4 quarts
2. 138 mmHg
3. 137.63 mg/dL

MEASUREMENT SCALES (4 COMMON TYPES OF SCALES)

Can the data be organized into specific categories, such as area of residence (rural, suburban, or
urban)? Can the data be ranked as first, second, third place? Or the values obtained from
measurement, such as heights, IQs or temperature?
 1. NOMINAL LEVEL – First level of measurement
- Classifies data into mutually exclusive (nonoverlapping) categories in which no order or
ranking can be imposed on the data).
Example:

o A sample of college instructors classified according to subject taught (English,

History, Psycholody, or Mathematics).

o Classifying survey subjects as male or female.

o Classifying residents according to zip codes (even though numbers are assigned as
zip codes, there is no meaningful order or ranking).

o Political party (Democratic, Republican, Independent etc.)

o Religion (Christianity, Judaism, Islam etc.)

o Marital status (Single, Married, Divorced)

2. ORDINAL LEVEL – second level of measurement.

- Classifies data into categories that can be ranked; however, precise differences between
the ranks do not exist.

Example:

o From student evaluations, guest speakers might be ranked as superior, average, or

poor.
o Floats in a homecoming parade might be ranked as first place, second place, or
third.
Note!

Precise measurement of differences in the ordinal level of measurement does not exist.

o People are classified according to their build (small, medium or large), a large
variation exists among the individuals in each class.
o First letter of surnames (A, B, C, D)

3. INTERVAL LEVEL - The third level of measurement.

- Ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do exist; however, there is
no meaningful zero.

Example:

o Standardized psychological test yield values measured on an interval scale. IQ is

an example of such a variable. There is a meaningful difference of 1 point
between IQ of 109 and an IQ of 110.
o Temperature is another example, since there is a meaningful difference of 10 𝐹
between each unit, such as 72 and 730 𝐹.
Note!
 In this scale, there is no true zero. IQ test do not measure people who have no intelligence.
00 𝐹 does not mean no heat at all.

4. RATIO LEVEL – 4th level of measurement.

- Possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there exist a true zero. In
addition true ratios exist when the same variable is measured on two different members
of the population.

Example:

o Measures of height, weight, area, and number of phone calls received. Having
differences between units (1 inch, 1 pound, etc) and a true zero.
o Contains a true ration between values like; one person can lift 200 pounds and
another can lift 100 pounds, then the ratio between them is 2 to 1. Put another
way, the first person can lift twice as much as the second person.

Table 1.2. 4 common types of Scales

FACT CHECK!

There is not complete agreement among statisticians about the classification of data into one of the
four categories. For example, some researchers classify IQ data as ratio data rather than interval.
Also, data can be altered so that they fit into a different category. For instance, if the incomes of all
professors of a college are classified into the three categories of low, average, and high, then a ration
variable becomes an ordinal variable. See Table 1.2 (for some examples of each type of data) See
Figure 1.3 for illustrative example.
Figure 1.3

ACTIVITY 3.

What level of measurement would be used to measure each variable?

1. The ages of patients in a local hospital

2. The ratings of movies released this month
3. Colors of athletic shirts sold by Oak Park Health Club
4. Temperatures of hot tubs in local health clubs

ASSESSMENT 2.

Instructions: Read the following information about the number of fatal accidents for the
transportation industry in 2010, and answer each question.
 1. Name the variables under study.
2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or qualitative
3. Categorize each quantitative variable as discrete or continuous.
4. Identify the level of measurement for each variable.
5. The railroad has the fewest fatalities for 2010. Dios that mean railroads have fewer
accidents than the other industries?
6. What factors other than safety influence a person’s choice of transportation?
7. From the information given, comment on the relationship between the variables.

II.

1. Explain the difference between qualitative variables and quantitative variables

2. Explain the difference between discrete and continuous variables
3. Why are continuous variables rounded when they are used in statistical studies?
4. Name and define the four types of measurement levels used in statistics

For exercises 5 – 10, determine whether the data are qualitative or quantitative.

5. Color of football uniforms

6. Pizza sizes (small, medium, large)
7. Cholesterol counts for individuals
8. Lightbulb wattage
9. Genders of movie stars
10. Ratings of teachers

For exercises 11 – 16, determine whether the data are discrete or continuous

11. Number of text messages sent in a month

12. Systolic blood pressure readings
13. Heights of basketball players on a local high school team
14. Number of phone calls received during one day at a poison control center
15. Number of students in the mathematics classes during the fall semester at your school for a
particular school year
16. Temperatures at a seashore resort

For exercise 17 – 22, give the boundaries of each value.

17. 7 feet
18. 6.3 millimeters
19. 143 miles
20. 3.25 pounds
21. 25.8 yards
22. 19 quarts

For exercise 23 – 30, classify each as nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.

23. Telephone numbers

24. Leap years: . . . 2008, 2012, 2016, . . .
25. Amounts of money spent on a medical checkup
26. Scores on a statistical final exam
27. Ratings of fiction books – excellent, good, fair, poor
28. Blood types – O, A, B, AB
29. Online spending
30. Number of flowers in a bouquet
 ELEMENTARY STATISTICS & PROBABILITY
MATH 105
WEEK 1 DAY 2

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the week, the Pre – service Teacher (PST) should be able to:
H. Discuss the contributions of the different statisticians/mathematicians in the continuous
improvement of statistical knowledge and concepts.
I. Differentiate between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics, Population and Sample.
J. Identify types of data and the level of measurement for each variable.
K. Describe the different data collection methods and sampling techniques.
L. Create a tree diagram illustrating data and their levels of measurement.
M. Explain how statistics can be used and misused
N. Point out the importance of using digital technology in statistics

Topics:
2. THE NATURE OF STATISTICS
H. Description and history of statistical science
I. Descriptive and inferential statistics
J. Population and sample
K. Variables and types of data
L. Data collection and sampling techniques
M. Uses and misuses of statistics
N. The use of computers and calculators

Introduction

Data can be collected in a variety of ways. One of the most common methods is through the use of
surveys. Surveys can be done by using a variety of methods.

THREE COMMON METHODS FOR SURVEYS

1. TELEPHONE SURVEYS – Have an advantage over personal interview surveys in that they
are less costly. People may be more candid in their opinions since there is no face-to-face
contact. Major Drawback to the telephone survey is that some people in the population will
not have phones or will not answer when the calls are made; hence, not all people have a
chance of being surveyed. Also, many people not have unlisted numbers and cell phones, so
they cannot be surveyed. Even tone of voice of the interviewer might influence the response
of the person who is being interviewed.
2. MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEYS – Can be used to covers a wider geographic area than
telephone surveys or personal interviews since mailed questionnaire surveys are less
expensive to conduct. Respondents can be anonymous if they desire. Disadvantage of mailed
questionnaire surveys include a low number of responses and inappropriate answers to
questions. Some people may have difficulty reading or understanding the questions.
3. PERSONAL INTERVIEW SURVEYS – Have the advantage of obtaining in-depth responses to
questions from the person being interviewed. The Disadvantage is that the interviewer may
be biased in his or hey selection of respondents.
Take Note!

Using samples saves time and money and in some cases enables the researcher to get more detailed
information about a particular subject. Remember, samples cannot be selected in Haphazard ways
because the information obtained might be biased.

Example, interviewing people on a street corner during the day would not include responses from
people working in offices at that time or from people attending school; hence, not all subjects in a
particular population would have a chance of being selected.

To obtain sample that are unbiased – i.e., that given each subject in the population an equally likely
chance of being selected – statisticians use four basic methods of sampling.

BASIC METHODS OF SAMPLING

1. RANDOM SAMPLING – A sample in which all members of the population have an equal
chance of being selected.

Example:

Number each subject in the population. Then place numbered cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly,
and select as many cards as needed. The subjects whose numbers are selected constitute the sample.
Since it is difficult to mix the cards thoroughly, there is a chance of obtaining a biased sample. For this
reason, statisticians use another method of obtaining numbers. They generate random numbers with a
computer or calculator. Before the invention of computers, random numbers were obtained from
tables.

How to do it?
From the given table above, select random sample of say, 15 subjects our of 85 subjects, it is
necessary to number each subject from 01 to 85. Then select a starting number closing your eyes
and placing your finger on a number in the table. (Although this may sound somewhat unusual, it
enables us to find a starting number at random.). In this case suppose your finger landed on the
number 12 in the second column. (It is the sixth number down from the top.) Then proceed
downward until you have selected 15 different numbers between 01 and 85. When you reach the
bottom of the column, go to the top of the next column. If you select a number greater than 85 or the
number 00 or a duplicate number, just omit it. In our example, we will use the subjects numbered
12, 27, 75, 62, 57, 13, 31, 06, 16, 49, 46, 71, 53, 41, and 02. A more detailed procedure for selecting a
random sample using a table or random numbers.

2. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING – A sample obtained by selecting every 𝐾 𝑡ℎ member of the

population where k is a counting number.

Example:

Suppose there were 2000 subjects in the population and a sample of 50 subjects was needed. Since
2000 ÷ 50 = 40, then k = 40 and every 40𝑡ℎ subject would be selected; however, the first subject
(numbered between 1 and 40) would be selected at random. Suppose subject 12 were the first subject
selected; then the sample would consist of the subjects whose numbers were 12, 52, 92, etc., until 50
subjects were obtained. When using systematics sampling, you must be careful about how the subjects
in the population are numbered. If subjects were arranged in a manner such as wife, husband, wife,
and every 40𝑡ℎ subject were selected, the sample would consist of all husbands.

Numbering is not always necessary.

A researcher may select every 10th item from an assembly line to test for defects.

3. STRATIFIED SAMPLING – A sample obtained by dividing the population into subgroups or

strata according to some characteristic relevant to the study. (There can be several
subgroups.) Then subjects are selected from each subgroup.

Example:

Suppose the president of a two-year college wants to learn how students feel about a certain issue.
Furthermore, the president wishes to see if the opinions of first – year students differ from those of
second – year students. The president will randomly select students from each subgroup to use in the
sample.

4. CLUSTER SAMPLING – obtained by dividing the population into sections or clusters and
then selecting one or more clusters and using all members in the cluster(s) as the members
of the sample.

Here, the population is divided into groups or clusters by some means such as geographic area or
schools in a large school district. Then the researcher randomly selects some of there clusters and
uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the samples. Suppose a researcher
wishes to survey apartment dwellers in a large city. If there are 10 apartment buildings in the city,
the researcher can select at random 2 buildings from the 10 and interview all the residents of these
buildings. Cluster sampling is used when the population is large or when it involves subjects
residing in a large geographic area.

Example:

If one wanted to do a study involving the patients in the hospitals in New York City, it would be very
costly and time – consuming to try to obtain a random sample of patients since they would be spread
over a large area. Instead, a few hospitals could be selected at random, and the patients in these
hospitals would be interviewed in a cluster.

5. OTHER SAMPLING METHODS

Convenience Sample – researcher uses subjects who are convenient.

Example:

The researcher may interview subjects entering a local mall to determine the nature of their
visit or perhaps what stores they will be patronizing. This sample is probably taken at a
specific time of day, so not all customers entering the mall have an equal chance of being
selected since they were not there when the survey was being conducted. Convenience samples
can be representative of the population. If the researcher investigates the characteristics of the
population and determines that the sample is representative, then it can be used.

Volunteer Sample or Self – Selected sample - Here, respondents decide for themselves if
they wish to be included in the sample.

Example:

A radio station in Pittsburgh asks a question about a situation and then asks people to call one
number if they agree with the action taken or call another number if that most often, only
people with strong opinions will call. The station does explain that this is not a “scientific poll”.

Since samples are not perfect representatives of the populations from which they are
selected, there is always some error in the results.

SAMPLING ERROR – the difference between the results obtained from a sample and the results
obtained from the population from which the sample was selected.
NONSAMPLING ERROR – Occurs when the data are obtained erroneously or the sample is biased,
(nonrepresentative).

Example:

Data could be collected by using a defective scale. Each weight might be off by., say 2 pounds. Also,
recording errors can be made. Perhaps the researcher wrote an incorrect data value.

Caution and vigilance should be used when collecting data.

ACTIVITY 4.
I. State which sampling method was used.

1. Out of 10 hospitals in a municipality, a researcher selects one and collects records for a 24 –
hour period on the types of emergencies that were treated there.
2. A researcher divides a group of students according to gender, major field, and low, average,
and high grade point average. Then she randomly selects six students from each group to
answer questions in a survey.
3. The subscribers to a magazine are numbered. Then a sample of these people is selected
using random numbers.
4. Everu 10th bottle of Super – Duper Cola is selected, and the amount of liquid in the bottle is
measured. The purpose is to see if the machines that fill the bottles are working properly.

II. Read and analyze the situation, and answer the follow – up questions.

Assume you are a member of the family research council and have become increasingly concerned
about the drug use by professional sports players. You set up a plan and conduct a survey on how
people believe the American culture (television, movies, magazines, and popular music) influences
illegal drug use. Your survey consists of 2250 adults and adolescents from around the country. A
consumer group petitions you for more information about your survey.

1. What type of survey did you use (Phone, Mail, or interview)?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the surveying methods you did not use?
3. What type of scores did you use? Why?
4. Did you use a random method for deciding who would be in your sample?
5. Which of the methods (stratified, systematic, cluster, volunteer, convenience) did you use?
6. Why was that method more appropriate for this type of data collection?
7. If a convenience sample were obtained consisting of only adolescents, how would the
results of the study be affected?

III. Answer the following questions.

1. Name five ways that data can be collected.

2. What is meant by sampling error and nonsampling error?
3. Why are random numbers used in sampling, and how are random numbers generated?
4. Name and define the four basic sampling methods.

For exercise 5 – 10, define a population that may have been used and explain how the sample might
have been selected.

5. In 2011, 25% of people did not engage in regular physical activity.

6. The number one automobile that vehicle thieves prefer is the Honda Accord.
7. There are 78 million pet owners in the United States who have dogs.
8. Adults aged 19 – 50 need 1000 milligrams of calcium per day
9. Taking statins raises the risk of developing diabetes
10. The average January 2012 temperature in Boston was 34.20 𝐹. This was 5.20 higher than the
normal January average temperature.

For exercise 11 – 16, identify the sampling method that was used.
 11. To check accuracy of a machine that is use for filling ice cream containers, every 20th bottle
is selected and weighed.
12. To determine how long people exercise, a researcher interviews 5 people selected from a
yoga class, 5 people selected from a weight – lifting class, 5 people selected from an aerobics
class, and 5 people from swimming classes.
13. In large school district, a researcher numbers all the full-time teachers and then randomly
selects 30 teachers to be interviewed.
14. In a medical research study, a researcher selects a hospital and interviews all the patients
that day.
15. Customers in the Sunrise Coffee Shop are asked how much they spend on coffee per week.
16. Ten countries in Pennsylvania are randomly selected to determine the average country real
estate tax that the residents pay.

TYPES OF STUDIES

1. OBSERVATIONAL STUDY – the researcher merely observes what is happening or what has
happened in the past and tries to draw conclusions based on these observations.

Example:

Data from the Motorcycle Industry Council (USA today) stated that “Motorcycle owners are getting
older and richer.” Data were collected on the ages and incomes of motorcycle owners for the years
1980 and 1998 and then compared. The findings showed considerable differences in the ages and
incomes of motorcycle owners for the two years. In this study, the researcher merely observed what
had happened to the motorcycle owners over a period of time. There was no type of research
intervention.

There are three main types of observational studies.

CROSS – SECTIONAL STUDY – when all data are collected at one time.

RETROSPECTIVE STUDY – Data are collected using records obtained from the past.

LONGITUDINAL STUDY – data are collected over a period of time (past, present)

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL STUDY

1. Usually occurs in a natural setting.

Example:

Researchers can observe people’s driving patterns on streets and highways in large cities.

2. It can be done in situations where it could be unethical or downright dangerous to conduct

an experiment.
Example:

Researchers can study suicides, rapes, murders, etc.

3. Can be done using variables that cannot be manipulated by the researcherS.

 Example:

Drug users vs. nondrug users and Right – handedness vs. Left – handedness

DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONAL STUDY

A definite cause and effect situation cannot be shown since other factors may have had an effect on
the results.

1. Can be expensive and time – consuming.

Example:

If one wanted to study the habitat of lions in Africa, one would need a lot of time and money,
and there would be a certain amount of danger involved.

2. Researcher may not be using his or her own measurements, the results could be subject to
inaccuracies of those who collected the data.
Example:

the researchers were soing a study of events that occurred in the 1800s, they would have rely
on information and records obtained by others from a previous era.

2. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY – the researcher manipulates one of the variables and tries to determine
how the manipulation influences other variables.