DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Relational Model Concepts

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2: Relational Model

This unit covers

• The operations of the relational algebra which is one of the formal

languages associated with the relational model.

• Relates the relational model data structures to the constructs of

the ER models

• presents algorithms for designing a relational database schema by

mapping a conceptual schema in the ER model into a relational
representation

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Model : Reference

T1 : CHAPTER 5

The Relational Data Model Concepts

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Model Concepts

• A Relation is a mathematical concept based on the ideas of sets

• The model was first proposed by Dr. E.F. Codd of IBM Research
in 1970 in the following paper:

• "A Relational Model for Large Shared Data Banks,"

Communications of the ACM, June 1970

• The above paper caused a major revolution in the field of

database management and earned Dr. Codd the coveted ACM
Turing Award

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Model Concepts

Why Relational Model???

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
What is a flat file?

• The flat file refers to any file stored on a local file system,
as opposed to a more complex set of files, such as those
in a structured database.
• The data records in a flat file are typically stored
sequentially and without any metadata, such as the
indexes, keys, and relationships, that you would find in
database storage.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
File/Database Structure

Data is organised into fields, records and files:

• Field contains an individual piece of data

• Record contains one or more fields about a particular

person or thing

• File is a collection of records

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
File/Database Structure

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Structure ( Flat file)

• A flat file database organises its data using a single table

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What is wrong with this database?

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
What is wrong with this database?

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Why is that a problem?

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Why is that a problem?

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Flat file Database Problems

• Duplicate (repeated) data causes modification errors (update

anomalies):

• might miss a record when you update details

• might miss a record when you need to delete details

• cannot insert a new animal into the database without a

customer or vice-versa

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Structure ( relational)

• A relational database stores data in more than 1 table to

stop duplication

• Splitting a single table db (flat file) into a relational db

(multiple tables) is called normalisation

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Normalising the Vet table

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
How does this solve the problem?

• Splitting the table into two tables means:

• less data storage required - information is now only

stored once

• updates are less error prone as not multiple records of

same information to update

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Informal Definitions

• Informally, a relation looks like a table of values.

• A relation typically contains a set of rows.

• The data elements in each row represent certain facts

that correspond to a real-world entity or relationship
• In the formal model, rows are called tuples

• Each column has a column header that gives an indication of the meaning of
the data items in that column
• In the formal model, the column header is called an
attribute name (or just attribute)

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of a Relation

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Informal Definitions

Key of a Relation:
• Each row has a value of a data item (or set of items) that
uniquely identifies that row in the table
• Called the key
• In the STUDENT table, SSN is the key
• Sometimes row-ids or sequential numbers are assigned as
keys to identify the rows in a table
• Called artificial key or surrogate key

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Schema

The Schema (or description) of a Relation: Example:

• Denoted by R(A1, A2, .....An) CUSTOMER (Cust-id, Cust-name,

• R is the name of the relation Address, Phone#)

CUSTOMER is the relation name
• The attributes of the relation are
Defined over the four attributes: Cust-id,
A1, A2, ..., An
Cust-name, Address, Phone#
Each attribute has a domain or a set of
valid values.

• For example, the domain of Cust-id

is 6 digit numbers.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Tuple

• A tuple is an ordered set of values (enclosed in angled brackets ‘< … >’)

• Each value is derived from an appropriate domain.

• A row in the CUSTOMER relation is a 4-tuple and would consist of four

values, for example:
• <632895, "John Smith", "101 Main St. Atlanta, GA 30332", "(404)
894-2000">
• This is called a 4-tuple as it has 4 values
• A tuple (row) in the CUSTOMER relation.

• A relation is a set of such tuples (rows)

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Domain

• A domain has a logical definition:

• Example: “USA_phone_numbers” are the set of 10 digit phone

numbers valid in the U.S.

• A domain also has a data-type or a format defined for it.

• The USA_phone_numbers may have a format: (ddd)ddd-dddd where

each d is a decimal digit.

• Dates have various formats such as year, month, date formatted as

yyyy-mm-dd, or as dd mm,yyyy etc.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Domain

• The attribute name designates the role played by a domain in a

relation:

• Used to interpret the meaning of the data elements

corresponding to that attribute

• Example: The domain Date may be used to define two

attributes named “Invoice-date” and “Payment-date” with
different meanings

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - State

The relation state

• is a subset of the Cartesian product of the domains of its
attributes
• each domain contains the set of all possible values the attribute
can take.

• Example: attribute Cust-name is defined over the domain of

character strings of maximum length 25
• dom(Cust-name) is varchar(25)

• The role these strings play in the CUSTOMER relation is that of the
name of a customer.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Summary

Formally,
• Given R(A1, A2, .........., An)
• r(R) ⊂ dom (A1) X dom (A2) X ....X dom(An)

• R(A1, A2, …, An) is the schema of the relation

• R is the name of the relation

• A1, A2, …, An are the attributes of the relation

• r(R): a specific state (or "value" or “population”) of relation R – this is a set

of tuples (rows)
• r(R) = {t1, t2, …, tn} where each ti is an n-tuple
• ti = <v1, v2, …, vn> where each vj element-of dom(Aj)
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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Formal Definitions - Example

• Let R(A1, A2) be a relation schema:

• Let dom(A1) = {0,1}

• Let dom(A2) = {a,b,c}

• Then: dom(A1) X dom(A2) is all possible combinations:

{<0,a> , <0,b> , <0,c>, <1,a>, <1,b>, <1,c> }

• The relation state r(R) ⊂ dom(A1) X dom(A2)

• For example: r(R) could be {<0,a> , <0,b> , <1,c> }

• this is one possible state (or “population” or “extension”) r of

the relation R, defined over A1 and A2.

• It has three 2-tuples: <0,a> , <0,b> , <1,c> 29

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Definition Summary

Informal Terms Formal Terms

Table Relation
Column Header Attribute
All possible Column Domain
Values
Row Tuple

Table Definition Schema of a Relation

Populated Table State of the Relation

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example-A Relation Student

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Characteristics of Relations

Ordering of tuples in a relation r(R):

• The tuples are not considered to be ordered, even though they
appear to be in the tabular form.
Ordering of attributes in a relation schema R
(and of values within each tuple):
• We will consider the attributes in R(A1, A2, ..., An) and the values in
t=<v1, v2, ..., vn> to be ordered .
• (However, a more general alternative definition of relation does
not require this ordering. It includes both the name and the
value for each of the attributes ).
• Example: t= { <name, “John” >, <SSN, 123456789> }
• This representation may be called as “self-describing”. 32
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Same state as previous figure( But with different order of tuples)

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Characteristics of Relations

Values in a tuple:
• All values are considered atomic (indivisible).
• Each value in a tuple must be from the domain of the attribute
for that column
• If tuple t = <v1, v2, …, vn> is a tuple (row) in the relation state
r of R(A1, A2, …, An)
• Then each vi must be a value from dom(Ai)
• A special null value is used to represent values that are unknown
or not available or inapplicable in certain tuples.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Characteristics of Relations

Notation:

• We refer to component values of a tuple t by:

• t[Ai] or t.Ai

• This is the value vi of attribute Ai for tuple t

• Similarly, t[Au, Av, ..., Aw] refers to the subtuple of t

containing the values of attributes Au, Av, ..., Aw,
respectively in t

35
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

9/1/2021 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Relational Model Constraints and

Database Schema
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model Reference

CHAPTER 5

The Relational Data Model and Relational

Database Constraints
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Constraints

Constraints determine which values are permissible and which are not in the
database. They are of three main types:
1. Inherent or Implicit Constraints:
• Based on the data model itself. (E.g., relational model does not allow
a list as a value for any attribute)

2. Schema-based or Explicit Constraints:

• Expressed in the schema by using the facilities provided by the model.
(E.g., max. cardinality ratio constraint in the ER model)

3. Application based or semantic constraints:

• Beyond the expressive power of the model and must be specified and
enforced by the application programs.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Integrity Constraints

• Constraints are conditions that must hold on all valid relation states.

• The Main types of (explicit schema-based) constraints that can be expressed

in the relational model:
• Domain constraint.
• Key constraints and Constraints on NULL values

• Integrity Constraints

• Entity integrity constraints

• Referential integrity constraints

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Domain Constraints

Domain Constraint specifies that

• Within each tuple, the value of each attribute A must be
an atomic value from the domain dom(A)
• Every value in a tuple must be from the domain of its
attribute (or it could be null, if allowed for that attribute)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Domain Constraints

The data types associated with domains include

• Standard numeric data types for integers (such as short integer, integer,
and long integer)
• Real numbers (float and double-precision float).
• Characters,
• Booleans,
• Fixed-length strings, Variable-length strings, as are date, time, timestamp,
and other special data types.
• Domains can also be described by a subrange of values from a data type or
• as an enumerated data type in which all possible values are explicitly listed
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Key Constraints

Superkey of R: Key of R satisfies two properties:

• Is a set of attributes SK of R with the 1. Two distinct tuples in any state of the relation

following condition: cannot have identical values for (all) the

• No two tuples in any valid relation attributes in the key. This uniqueness property

state r(R) will have the same value also applies to a superkey.

for SK 2. A "minimal" superkey

● A key is a superkey K such that removal of
• That is, for any distinct tuples t1 and
any attribute from K results in a set of
t2 in r(R), t1[SK] ≠ t2[SK]
attributes that is not a superkey (does not
• This condition must hold in any valid
possess the superkey uniqueness property)
state r(R)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Key Constraints (Continued)

Example: Consider the STUDENT relation

• {Ssn} is a key of STUDENT In general:
• {Ssn, Name, Age}—is a superkey. ● Any key is a superkey (but not
• However, the superkey {Ssn, Name, Age} is not a key of vice versa)
STUDENT because removing Name or Age or both from the ● Any set of attributes that
set still leaves us with a superkey. includes a key is a superkey
• A key with multiple attributes must require all its attributes ● A minimal superkey is also a
together to have the uniqueness property key and key is timeinvariant
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Key Constraints (Continued)

A relation schema may have more than one key.

In this case, each of the keys is called a candidate key.

Example: Consider the CAR relation schema:

• CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, Year)

• CAR has two keys:

• Key1 = {State, Reg#}

• Key2 = {SerialNo}

• Both are also superkeys of CAR

• {SerialNo, Make} is a superkey but not a key.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CAR Table with two candidate
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Key Constraints (Continued)

• If a relation has several candidate keys, one is • Also used to reference the tuple from
chosen arbitrarily to be the primary key. another tuple
• The primary key attributes are underlined. General rule: Choose as primary key the
• Example: Consider the CAR relation schema: smallest of the candidate keys (in terms

• CAR(State, Reg#, SerialNo, Make, Model, of size)

Year) Not always applicable – choice is

• We chose SerialNo as the primary key sometimes subjective

• The primary key value is used to uniquely identify

each tuple in a relation
• Provides the tuple identity
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Database Schema

Relational Database Schema:

• A set S of relation schemas that belong to the same database.

• S is the name of the whole database schema

• S = {R1, R2, ..., Rn} and a set IC of integrity constraints.

• R1, R2, …, Rn are the names of the individual relation schemas

within the database S
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
COMPANY Database Schema

COMPANY database schema with

six relation schemas
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Database State

• A relational database state DB of S is a set of relation states

DB = {r1, r2, ..., rm} such that each ri is a state of Ri and such
that the ri relation states satisfy the integrity constraints
specified in IC.

• A relational database state is sometimes called a relational

database snapshot or instance.

• A database state that does not meet the constraints is an invalid

state

Note: Not use the term instance since it also applies to single tuples.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Database State

• A database state that does not obey all the integrity constraints is
called not valid, and

• A state that satisfies all the constraints in the defined set of integrity
constraints IC is called a valid state
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Populated Database State

• Each relation will have many tuples in its current relation state

• The relational database state is a union of all the individual

relation states

• Whenever the database is changed, a new state arises

• Basic operations for changing the database:

• INSERT a new tuple in a relation
• DELETE an existing tuple from a relation
• MODIFY an attribute of an existing tuple
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Populated database state for
COMPANY

Example state
for the
COMPANY
database
schema
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

9/1/2021 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Update Operations and Constraint

Violations
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model Reference

CHAPTER 5

The Relational Data Model and Relational

Database Constraints
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Entity Integrity

• The primary key attributes PK of each relation schema R in S

cannot have null values in any tuple of r(R).
• This is because primary key values are used to identify the
individual tuples.
• t[PK] ≠ null for any tuple t in r(R)
• If PK has several attributes, null is not allowed in any of
these attributes
• Note: Other attributes of R may be constrained to disallow
null values, even though they are not members of the primary
key.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity

• A constraint involving two relations

• The previous constraints involve a single relation.

• Used to specify a relationship among tuples in two relations:

• The referencing relation and the referenced relation.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity

• Tuples in the referencing relation R1 have attributes FK (called foreign

key attributes) that reference the primary key attributes PK of the
referenced relation R2.

• A tuple t1 in R1 is said to reference a tuple t2 in R2 if t1[FK] =

t2[PK].

• A referential integrity constraint can be displayed in a relational

database schema as a directed arc from R1.FK to R2.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity ( or foreign key) Constraint

• The conditions for a foreign key, given below, specify a referential integrity
constraint between the two relation schemas R1 and R2.

• A set of attributes FK in relation schema R1 is a foreign key of R1 that

references relation R2 if it satisfies the following rules:

1. The attributes in FK have the same domain(s) as the primary key

attributes PK of R2; the attributes FK are said to reference or refer to
the relation R2.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity ( or foreign key) Constraint

2. A value of FK in a tuple t1 of the current state r1(R1) either occurs as a

value of PK for some tuple t2 in the current state r2(R2) or is NULL. In
the former case, we have t1[FK] = t2[PK], and we say that the tuple t1
references or refers to the tuple t2.

• In this definition, R1 is called the referencing relation and R2 is the

referenced relation. If these two conditions hold, a referential integrity
constraint from R1 to R2 is said to hold.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity ( or foreign key) Constraint

Statement of the constraint

• The value in the foreign key column (or columns) FK of the

referencing relation R1 can be either:

(1) a value of an existing primary key value of a corresponding

primary key PK in the referenced relation R2, or

(2) a null.

In case (2), the FK in R1 should not be a part of its own primary key.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Displaying a relational database schema and its constraints

• Each relation schema can be displayed as a row of attribute

names

• The name of the relation is written above the attribute names

• The primary key attribute (or attributes) will be underlined

• A foreign key (referential integrity) constraints is displayed as a

directed arc (arrow) from the foreign key attributes to the
referenced table
• Can also point the primary key of the referenced relation for
clarity
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Referential Integrity Constraints for COMPANY database

• depicts the COMPANY

relational schema
diagram with referential
integrity constraints
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Other Types of Constraints

• Semantic Integrity Constraints:

• based on application semantics and cannot be expressed by the model
per se
• Example: “the max. no. of hours per employee for all projects he or she
works on is 56 hrs per week”

• A constraint specification language may have to be used to express these

• SQL-99 allows CREATE TRIGGER and CREATE ASSERTION to express some of

these semantic constraints

• Keys, Permissibility of Null values, Candidate Keys (Unique in SQL), Foreign

Keys, Referential Integrity etc. are expressed by the CREATE TABLE
statement in SQL.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Other Types of Constraints

• State constraints
because they define the constraints that a valid state of the
database must satisfy.
• Transition constraints, can be defined to deal with state changes in
the database.
Example of a transition constraint is:
“the salary of an employee can only increase.”
Such constraints are typically enforced
by the application programs or specified using active rules and
triggers
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Update Operations on Relations

Three basic operations that can change the states of relations in the
database
• INSERT a tuple.
• DELETE a tuple.
• MODIFY a tuple.
• Integrity constraints should not be violated by the update
operations.

• Several update operations may have to be grouped together.

• Updates may propagate to cause other updates automatically. This
may be necessary to maintain integrity constraints.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Update Operations on Relations

Discuss the types of constraints that may be violated by each of the

operations and the types of actions that may be taken if an operation
causes a violation.
In case of integrity violation, several actions can be taken:
• Cancel the operation that causes the violation (RESTRICT or
REJECT option)
• Perform the operation but inform the user of the violation
• Trigger additional updates so the violation is corrected (CASCADE
option, SET NULL option)
• Execute a user-specified error-correction routine
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Insert operation

INSERT may violate any of the constraints:

• Domain constraint:

• if one of the attribute values provided for the new tuple is

not of the specified attribute domain

• Key constraint:

• if the value of a key attribute in the new tuple already exists

in another tuple in the relation
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Insert operation

INSERT may violate any of the constraints:

• Referential integrity:

• if a foreign key value in the new tuple references a primary

key value that does not exist in the referenced relation

• Entity integrity:

• if the primary key value is null in the new tuple

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database schema

INSERT may violate any of the constraints:

• Referential integrity:

• if a foreign key value in the new tuple references a primary

key value that does not exist in the referenced relation

• Entity integrity:

• if the primary key value is null in the new tuple

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Populated database state for
COMPANY

Example state
for the
COMPANY
database
schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible Example violations for Insert operation

• Operation:
Insert <‘Cecilia’, ‘F’, ‘Kolonsky’, NULL, ‘1960-04-05’, ‘6357 Windy Lane,
Katy, TX’, F, 28000, NULL, 4> into EMPLOYEE.

Result: This insertion violates the entity integrity constraint (NULL

for the primary key Ssn), so it is rejected.

• Operation:
Insert <‘Alicia’, ‘J’, ‘Zelaya’, ‘999887777’, ‘1960-04-05’, ‘6357 Windy
Lane, Katy, TX’, F, 28000, ‘987654321’, 4> into EMPLOYEE.

Result: This insertion violates the key constraint because another

tuple with the same Ssn value already exists in the EMPLOYEE
relation, and so it is rejected.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible Example violations for Insert operation

• Operation:
Insert <‘Cecilia’, ‘F’, ‘Kolonsky’, ‘677678989’, ‘1960-04-05’, ‘6357
Windswept, Katy, TX’, F, 28000, ‘987654321’, 7> into EMPLOYEE.

Result: This insertion violates the referential integrity constraint

specified on Dno in EMPLOYEE because no corresponding
referenced tuple exists in DEPARTMENT with Dnumber = 7.

• Operation:
Insert <‘Cecilia’, ‘F’, ‘Kolonsky’, ‘677678989’, ‘1960-04-05’, ‘6357 Windy
Lane, Katy, TX’, F, 28000, NULL, 4> into EMPLOYEE.

Result: This insertion satisfies all constraints, so it is acceptable.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Insert operation

If an insertion violates one or more constraints, the default option is to

reject the insertion.
It would be useful if the DBMS could
• provide a reason to the user as to why the insertion was rejected.
• attempt to correct the reason for rejecting the insertion, but this is
typically not used for violations caused by Insert; rather, it is used more
often in correcting violations for Delete and Update.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Insert operation

• Operation 1: ask the user to provide a value for Ssn, and could then
accept the insertion if a valid Ssn value is provided.
• Operation 3: ask the user to change the value of Dno to some valid value
(or set it to NULL), or it could ask the user to insert a DEPARTMENT tuple
with Dnumber = 7 and could accept the original insertion only after such
an operation was accepted.
• Notice that in the latter case the insertion violation can cascade back to
the EMPLOYEE relation if the user attempts to insert a tuple for
department 7 with a value for Mgr_ssn that does not exist in the
EMPLOYEE relation.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Populated database state for
COMPANY

Example state
for the
COMPANY
database
schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Delete operation

DELETE may violate only referential integrity:

• If the primary key value of the tuple being deleted is referenced from
other tuples in the database
• Can be remedied by several actions: RESTRICT, CASCADE, SET NULL
RESTRICT option: reject the deletion
• CASCADE option: propagate the new primary key value into the
foreign keys of the referencing tuples
• SET NULL option: set the foreign keys of the referencing tuples to
NULL
• One of the above options must be specified during database design for
each foreign key constraint
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Delete operation

• Operation:
Delete the WORKS_ON tuple with Essn = ‘999887777’ and Pno = 10.
Result: This deletion is acceptable and deletes exactly one tuple.
• Operation:
Delete the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘999887777’.
Result: This deletion is not acceptable, because there are tuples
in WORKS_ON that refer to this tuple. Hence, if the tuple in
EMPLOYEE is deleted, referential integrity violations will result.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Delete operation

• Operation:
Delete the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘333445555’.
Result: This deletion will result in even worse referential integrity
violations, because the tuple involved is referenced by tuples
from the EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, WORKS_ON, and
DEPENDENT relations.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Populated database state for
COMPANY

Example state
for the
COMPANY
database
schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Update operation

UPDATE may violate domain constraint and NOT NULL constraint on an

attribute being modified

• Any of the other constraints may also be violated, depending on the

attribute being updated:
• Updating the primary key (PK):
• Like DELETE followed by an INSERT
• Need to specify similar options to DELETE
• Updating a foreign key (FK):
• May violate referential integrity
• Updating an ordinary attribute (neither PK nor FK):
• Can only violate domain constraints
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Update operation

• Operation:
Update the salary of the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘999887777’ to
28000.
Result: Acceptable.
• Operation:
Update the Dno of the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘999887777’ to 1.
Result: Acceptable.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Possible violations for Update operation

• Operation:
Update the Dno of the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘999887777’ to 7.
Result: Unacceptable, because it violates referential integrity.
• Operation:
Update the Ssn of the EMPLOYEE tuple with Ssn = ‘999887777’ to
‘987654321’.
Result: Unacceptable, because it violates primary key constraint by
repeating a value that already exists as a primary key in another
tuple; it violates referential integrity constraints because there are
other relations that refer to the existing value of Ssn.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Summary

• Presented Relational Model Concepts

• Definitions
• Characteristics of relations
• Discussed Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
• Domain constraints
• Key constraints
• Entity integrity
• Referential integrity
• Described the Relational Update Operations and Dealing with
Constraint Violations
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
In-Class Exercise

(Taken from Exercise 5.15)

Consider the following relations for a database that keeps track of
student enrollment in courses and the books adopted for each course:
STUDENT(SSN, Name, Major, Bdate)
COURSE(Course#, Cname, Dept)
ENROLL(SSN, Course#, Quarter, Grade)
BOOK_ADOPTION(Course#, Quarter, Book_ISBN)
TEXT(Book_ISBN, Book_Title, Publisher, Author)
Draw a relational schema diagram specifying the foreign keys for this
schema.
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

9/16/2021 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Relational Database Design using ER

to Relational mapping
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Database Design Reference

CHAPTER 9

Relational Database Design by ER- to-Relational

Mapping
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Outline

ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm

Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types
Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types
Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types
Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.
Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types.
Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.
Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Goals during Mapping

• Preserve all information (that includes all attributes)

• Maintain the constraints to the extent possible (Relational Model

cannot preserve all contstraints- e.g., max cardinality ratio such as 1:10
in ER; exhaustive classification into subtypes, e.g., STUDENTS are
specialized into Domestic and Foreign)

• Minimize null values

The mapping procedure described has been implemented in many

commercial tools.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm

Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types.

• For each regular (strong) entity type E in the ER schema, create a
relation R that includes all the simple attributes of E.
• Choose one of the key attributes of E as the primary key for R.
• If the chosen key of E is composite, the set of simple attributes that
form it will together form the primary key of R.

Example: We create the relations EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT in

the relational schema corresponding to the regular entities in the ER
diagram.
• SSN, DNUMBER, and PNUMBER are the primary keys for the relations
EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT, and PROJECT as shown.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 1 : Mapping of Regular Entity Types

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types

• For each weak entity type W in the ER schema with owner entity type
E, create a relation R & include all simple attributes (or simple
components of composite attributes) of W as attributes of R.

• Also, include as foreign key attributes of R the primary key attribute(s)

of the relation(s) that correspond to the owner entity type(s).

• The primary key of R is the combination of the primary key(s) of the

owner(s) and the partial key of the weak entity type W, if any.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Example: Create the relation DEPENDENT in this step to correspond to the

weak entity type DEPENDENT.

• Include the primary key SSN of the EMPLOYEE relation as a foreign key
attribute of DEPENDENT (renamed to ESSN).

• The primary key of the DEPENDENT relation is the combination {ESSN,

DEPENDENT_NAME} because DEPENDENT_NAME is the partial key of
DEPENDENT.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 2 : Mapping of Weak Entity Types

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types

For each binary 1:1 relationship type R in the ER schema, identify the relations
S and T that correspond to the entity types participating in R.

There are three possible approaches:

1. Foreign Key ( 2 relations) approach: Choose one of the relations-say S-

and include a foreign key in S the primary key of T. It is better to choose
an entity type with total participation in R in the role of S.

Example: 1:1 relation MANAGES is mapped by choosing the

participating entity type DEPARTMENT to serve in the role of S,
because its participation in the MANAGES relationship type is total.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types

2. Merged relation (1 relation) option: An alternate mapping of a 1:1

relationship type is possible by merging the two entity types and the
relationship into a single relation. This may be appropriate when both
participations are total.

3. Cross-reference or relationship relation ( 3 relations) option: The third

alternative is to set up a third relation R for the purpose of cross-
referencing the primary keys of the two relations S and T representing
the entity types.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 3 : Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.

• For each regular binary 1:N relationship type R, identify the relation S
that represent the participating entity type at the N-side of the
relationship type.

• Include as foreign key in S the primary key of the relation T that

represents the other entity type participating in R.

• Include any simple attributes of the 1:N relation type as attributes of S.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.

Example: 1:N relationship types WORKS_FOR, CONTROLS, and SUPERVISION in

the figure.

• For WORKS_FOR we include the primary key DNUMBER of the

DEPARTMENT relation as foreign key in the EMPLOYEE relation and call
it DNO.

An alternative approach is to use a Relationship relation (cross referencing

relation) – this is rarely done.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 4 : Mapping of Binary 1:N Relation Types

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types

• For each regular binary M:N relationship type R, create a new relation S to
represent R. This is a relationship relation.

• Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations that
represent the participating entity types; their combination will form the
primary key of S.

• Also include any simple attributes of the M:N relationship type (or simple
components of composite attributes) as attributes of S.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types

Example: The M:N relationship type WORKS_ON from the ER diagram is mapped
by creating a relation WORKS_ON in the relational database schema.

• The primary keys of the PROJECT and EMPLOYEE relations are included as
foreign keys in WORKS_ON and renamed PNO and ESSN, respectively.

• Attribute HOURS in WORKS_ON represents the HOURS attribute of the

relation type. The primary key of the WORKS_ON relation is the
combination of the foreign key attributes {ESSN, PNO}.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 5 : Mapping of Binary M:N Relation Types

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.

• For each multivalued attribute A, create a new relation R.

• This relation R will include an attribute corresponding to A, plus the

primary key attribute K-as a foreign key in R-of the relation that represents
the entity type of relationship type that has A as an attribute.

• The primary key of R is the combination of A and K. If the multivalued

attribute is composite, we include its simple components.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.

Example: The relation DEPT_LOCATIONS is created.

• The attribute DLOCATION represents the multivalued attribute LOCATIONS

of DEPARTMENT, while DNUMBER-as foreign key-represents the primary
key of the DEPARTMENT relation.

• The primary key of R is the combination of {DNUMBER, DLOCATION}.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Step 6 : Mapping of Multivalued Attributes

Result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER to Relational Mapping Algorithm ( Continued)

Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types.

• For each n-ary relationship type R, where n>2, create a new relationship
S to represent R.

• Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations

that represent the participating entity types.

• Also include any simple attributes of the n-ary relationship type (or
simple components of composite attributes) as attributes of S.

Example: The relationship type SUPPY in the ER on the next slide.

• This can be mapped to the relation SUPPLY shown in the relational

schema, whose primary key is the combination of the three foreign keys
{SNAME, PARTNO, PROJNAME}
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Ternary Relationship : Supply
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Mapping the n-ary relationship type Supply
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ER Conceptual schema diagram for Company Database
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Result of mapping COMPANY ER schema into a relational database schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Summary of Mapping constructs and constraints
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Summary

ER-to-Relational Mapping Algorithm

Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types
Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types
Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types
Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.
Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types.
Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.
Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types.
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Unary Relational Operations

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
9/19/2021 2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra

9/19/2021 3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus

9/19/2021 4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

9/19/2021 5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Overview

• Relational algebra is the basic set of operations

for the relational model

• These operations enable a user to specify basic

retrieval requests (or queries)

• The result of an operation is a new relation, which

may have been formed from one or more input
relations

• This property makes the algebra “closed” (all

9/19/2021
objects in relational algebra are relations) 6
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Overview(Continued)

• The algebra operations thus produce new relations

• These can be further manipulated using operations of the same

algebra

• A sequence of relational algebra operations forms a relational

algebra expression

• The result of a relational algebra expression is also a relation

that represents the result of a database query (or retrieval
request)

9/19/2021 7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Brief History of Origins of Algebra

• Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (800-847 CE) – from Morocco wrote a

book titled al-jabr about arithmetic of variables
• Book was translated into Latin.
• Its title (al-jabr) gave Algebra its name.

• Al-Khwarizmi called variables “shay”

• “Shay” is Arabic for “thing”.
• Spanish transliterated “shay” as “xay” (“x” was “sh” in Spain).
• In time this word was abbreviated as x.

• Where does the word Algorithm come from?

• Algorithm originates from “al-Khwarizmi"
• Reference: PBS (http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/innoalgebra.html)

9/19/2021 8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Overview

Relational Algebra consists of several groups of operations

• Unary Relational Operations Additional Relational Operations

• SELECT (symbol:  (sigma)) • OUTER JOINS, OUTER UNION
• PROJECT (symbol:  (pi)) • AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS (These
• RENAME (symbol:  (rho)) compute summary of information:
for example, SUM, COUNT, AVG,
• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory MIN, MAX)
• UNION (  ), INTERSECTION (  ), DIFFERENCE (or
MINUS, – )
• CARTESIAN PRODUCT ( x )

• Binary Relational Operations

• JOIN (several variations of JOIN exist)
• DIVISION

9/19/2021 9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database State for COMPANY

9/19/2021 10
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations : Select

• The SELECT operation (denoted by  (sigma)) is used to select a

subset of the tuples from a relation based on a selection condition.
• The selection condition acts as a filter
• Keeps only those tuples that satisfy the qualifying condition
• Tuples satisfying the condition are selected whereas the other
tuples are discarded (filtered out)
• Examples:
• Select the EMPLOYEE tuples whose department number is 4:
 DNO = 4 (EMPLOYEE)
• Select the employee tuples whose salary is greater than $30,000:
 SALARY > 30,000 (EMPLOYEE)

9/19/2021 11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT

In general, the select operation is denoted by  <selection condition>(R)

where

• the symbol  (sigma) is used to denote the select operator

• the selection condition is a Boolean (conditional) expression

specified on the attributes of relation R

• tuples that make the condition true are selected

• appear in the result of the operation

• tuples that make the condition false are filtered out

• discarded from the result of the operation

9/19/2021 12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT(Continued)

SELECT Operation Properties

• The SELECT operation  <selection condition>(R) produces a relation S
that has the same schema (same attributes) as R
• SELECT  is commutative:
•  <condition1>( < condition2> (R)) =  <condition2> ( < condition1> (R))
• Because of commutativity property, a cascade (sequence) of
SELECT operations may be applied in any order:
• <cond1>(<cond2> (<cond3> (R)) = <cond2> (<cond3> (<cond1> (
R)))

9/19/2021 13
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: SELECT(Continued)

SELECT Operation Properties

• A cascade of SELECT operations may be replaced by a

single selection with a conjunction of all the
conditions:

• <cond1>(< cond2> (<cond3>(R)) =  <cond1> AND < cond2>

AND < cond3>(R)))

• The number of tuples in the result of a SELECT is less

than (or equal to) the number of tuples in the input
relation R.
9/19/2021 14
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The following query results refer to this database state

9/19/2021 15
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT

• PROJECT Operation is denoted by  (pi)

• This operation keeps certain columns (attributes) from a relation
and discards the other columns.
• PROJECT creates a vertical partitioning
• The list of specified columns (attributes) is kept in each
tuple
• The other attributes in each tuple are discarded

• Example: To list each employee’s first and last name and salary,
the following is used:

LNAME, FNAME,SALARY(EMPLOYEE)
9/19/2021 16
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT

The general form of the project operation is:

<attribute list>(R)
•  (pi) is the symbol used to represent the project operation
• <attribute list> is the desired list of attributes from relation R.

• The project operation removes any duplicate tuples

• This is because the result of the project operation must be a set of
tuples
• Mathematical sets do not allow duplicate elements.

9/19/2021 17
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: PROJECT (contd.)

PROJECT Operation Properties

• The number of tuples in the result of projection  <list>(R) is always

less or equal to the number of tuples in R

• If the list of attributes includes a key of R, then the number of

tuples in the result of PROJECT is equal to the number of
tuples in R

• PROJECT is not commutative

•  <list1> ( <list2> (R) ) =  <list1> (R) as long as <list2>

contains the attributes in <list1>

9/19/2021 18
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Examples of applying SELECT and PROJECT operations

9/19/2021 19
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Expressions

• We may want to apply several relational algebra operations one after

the other

• Either we can write the operations as a single relational algebra

expression by nesting the operations, or

• We can apply one operation at a time and create intermediate

result relations.

• In the latter case, we must give names to the relations that hold the
intermediate results.

9/19/2021 20
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Single expression Vs Sequence of Relational operations(Example)

• To retrieve the first name, last name, and salary of all employees who work
in department number 5, we must apply a select and a project operation

• We can write a single relational algebra expression as follows:

• FNAME, LNAME, SALARY( DNO=5(EMPLOYEE))

• OR We can explicitly show the sequence of operations, giving a name to

each intermediate relation:

• DEP5_EMPS   DNO=5(EMPLOYEE)

• RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)

9/19/2021 21
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: Rename

• The RENAME operator is denoted by  (rho)

• In some cases, we may want to rename the

attributes of a relation or the relation's name
or both
• Useful when a query requires multiple
operations
• Necessary in some cases

9/19/2021 22
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: RENAME(continued)
The general RENAME operation  can be expressed by any
of the following forms:

• S (B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes both:

• the relation name to S, and
• the column (attribute) names to B1, B1, …..Bn

• S(R) changes:
• the relation name only to S

• (B1, B2, …, Bn )(R) changes:

• the column (attribute) names only to B1, B1,
…..Bn
9/19/2021 23
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unary Relational Operations: RENAME(continued)

For convenience, we also use a shorthand for

If we write:
renaming attributes in an intermediate
RESULT (F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU, DNO)
relation:   RESULT (F.M.L.S.B,A,SX,SAL,SU, DNO)(DEP5_EMPS)

If we write: The 10 attributes of DEP5_EMPS are renamed

to
RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, SALARY (DEP5_EMPS)
F, M, L, S, B, A, SX, SAL, SU, DNO, respectively
RESULT will have the same attribute names as Note: the  symbol is an assignment operator
DEP5_EMPS (same attributes as EMPLOYEE)

9/19/2021 24
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of applying multiple operations and RENAME

9/19/2021 25
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Set Theory Operations

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra

3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus

4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from UNION Operation

• Binary operation, denoted by 

• The result of R  S, is a relation that includes all tuples that

are either in R or in S or in both R and S
• Duplicate tuples are eliminated
• The two-operand relations R and S must be “type
compatible” (or UNION compatible)
• R and S must have same number of attributes
• Each pair of corresponding attributes must be type
Source:
compatible (have same or compatible domains) http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~faye/343/f07/lectures/wk3/03_RAlgebra.pdf

6
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : UNION

Example:
• To retrieve the social security numbers of all employees who either
work in department 5 (RESULT1 below) or directly supervise an
employee who works in department 5 (RESULT2 below)

• We can use the UNION operation as follows:

DEP5_EMPS  DNO=5 (EMPLOYEE)
RESULT1   SSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT2(SSN)  SUPERSSN(DEP5_EMPS)
RESULT  RESULT1  RESULT2
• The union operation produces the tuples that are in either RESULT1
or RESULT2 or both
7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Result of the UNION operation

RESULT ← RESULT1 𝖴 RESULT2.

8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory

• Type Compatibility of operands is required for the binary set

operation UNION , (also for INTERSECTION , and SET
DIFFERENCE –)

• R1(A1, A2, ..., An) and R2(B1, B2, ..., Bn) are type compatible if:
• they have the same number of attributes, and
• the domains of corresponding attributes are type compatible
(i.e. dom(Ai)=dom(Bi) for i=1, 2, ..., n).

• The resulting relation for R1R2

(also for R1R2, or R1–R2, has the same attribute names as

the first operand relation R1 (by convention)

9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : Intersection

INTERSECTION is denoted by 

• The result of the operation R  S, is a

relation that includes all tuples that are in
both R and S

• The attribute names in the result will be

the same as the attribute names in R

• The two-operand relations R and S must be

“type compatible”

10
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : SET DIFFERENCE(continued)

SET DIFFERENCE (also called MINUS or EXCEPT) is denoted by –

• The result of R – S, is a relation that includes all tuples

that are in R but not in S

• The attribute names in the result will be the same as

the attribute names in R
• The two-operand relations R and S must be “type
compatible”

11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example to illustrate the result of UNION, INTERSECT and DIFFERENCE

12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some properties of UNION, INTERSECT and DIFFERENCE

• Notice that both union and intersection are commutative operations;

that is

• R  S = S  R, and R  S = S  R

• Both union and intersection can be treated as n-ary operations

applicable to any number of relations as both are associative
operations; that is
• R  (S  T) = (R  S)  T
• (R  S)  T = R  (S  T)

• The minus operation is not commutative; that is, in general

• R–S≠S–R 13
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : Cartesian Product

CARTESIAN (or CROSS) PRODUCT Operation

• This operation is used to combine tuples from two relations in a combinatorial
fashion.
• Denoted by R(A1, A2, . . ., An) x S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm)
• Result is a relation Q with degree n + m attributes:
• Q(A1, A2, . . ., An, B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order.
• The resulting relation state has one tuple for each combination of tuples—one
from R and one from S.
• Hence, if R has nR tuples (denoted as |R| = nR ), and S has nS tuples, then R x S
will have nR * nS tuples.
• The two operands do NOT have to be "type compatible”

14
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : Cartesian Product(contd.)

• Generally, CROSS PRODUCT is not a meaningful operation

• Can become meaningful when followed by other operations

• Example (not meaningful):

• FEMALE_EMPS   SEX=’F’(EMPLOYEE)
• EMPNAMES   FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)
• EMP_DEPENDENTS  EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT

• EMP_DEPENDENTS will contain every combination of EMPNAMES and

DEPENDENT
• whether or not they are actually related

15
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Operations from Set Theory : Cartesian Product(contd.)

• To keep only combinations where the DEPENDENT is related to the EMPLOYEE,

we add a SELECT operation as follows

• Example (meaningful):
• FEMALE_EMPS   SEX=’F’(EMPLOYEE)
• EMPNAMES   FNAME, LNAME, SSN (FEMALE_EMPS)
• EMP_DEPENDENTS  EMPNAMES x DEPENDENT
• ACTUAL_DEPS   SSN=ESSN(EMP_DEPENDENTS)

• RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, DEPENDENT_NAME (ACTUAL_DEPS)

• RESULT will now contain the name of female employees and their dependents

16
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Cartesian Product (Cross Product)

continued on next slide

17
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Cartesian Product (Cross Product)

continued on next slide

18
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Cartesian Product (Cross Product)

19
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Cartesian Product (Cross Product) Example

In order to create a new relation which pairs each singer with each role,
we need to use the relational operation Cartesian product.
Relational Algebra operation: Singers Cartesian product Roles giving
Singers-Roles
Source: https://www.cs.uct.ac.za/mit_notes/database/htmls/chp02.html#cartesian-product

20
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The Cartesian Product (Cross Product) Example

• The result of Singers Cartesian

product Roles gives a new relation
Singers-Roles, showing each tuple
from one relation with each tuple of
the other, producing the tuples in the
new relation.
• Each singer is associated with all
roles; this produces a relation with
16 tuples, as there were 8 tuples in
the relation Singers, and 2 tuples in
the relation Roles.

21
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some Examples

• What will be the first Column Name after Union

of Paternity and Maternity Relation?
• Is It Meaningful?

22
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some Examples

23
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some Examples

Question:

Consider the following relational database schema

consisting of the four relation schemas:

passenger ( pid, pname, pgender, pcity)

agency ( aid, aname, acity)

flight (fid, fdate, time, src, dest)

booking (pid, aid, fid, fdate)

Answer the following questions using relational algebra

queries;
24
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some Examples

a) Get the complete details of all flights to New Delhi.

b) Get the details about all flights from Chennai to New Delhi.

25
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some Examples

Get the details of flights that are scheduled on both dates 01/12/2020 and
02/12/2020 at 16:00 hours

Get the details of flights that are scheduled on either of the dates 01/12/2020 or
02/12/2020 or both at 16:00 hours.

26
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Binary Relational Operations

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations : JOIN

JOIN Operation (denoted by )

• The sequence of CARTESIAN PRODECT followed by SELECT is used quite
commonly to identify and select related tuples from two relations
• A special operation, called JOIN combines this sequence into a single operation
• This operation is very important for any relational database with more than a
single relation, because it allows us combine related tuples from various
relations
• The general form of a join operation on two relations R(A1, A2, . . ., An) and
S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm) is:
R <join condition>S

• where R and S can be any relations that result from general relational algebra
expressions.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations : JOIN(contd.)

Example:
Suppose that we want to retrieve the name of the manager of each
department.
• To get the manager’s name, we need to combine each DEPARTMENT
tuple with the EMPLOYEE tuple whose SSN value matches the MGRSSN
value in the department tuple.
• DEPT_MGR  DEPARTMENT MGRSSN=SSN EMPLOYEE

• MGRSSN=SSN is the join condition

• Combines each department record with the employee who manages the
department
• The join condition can also be specified as DEPARTMENT.MGRSSN=
EMPLOYEE.SSN
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Result of the JOIN operation

DEPT_MGR ← DEPARTMENT Mgr_ssn=SsnEMPLOYEE

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
JOIN operation can be replaced by ( Recap)

• The JOIN operation can be specified as a CARTESIAN

PRODUCT operation followed by a SELECT operation.

• Suppose if I want to retrieve the dependents of the

Employees in EMPNAMES

or
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
JOIN operation can be replaced by ( Recap)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some properties of JOIN

Consider the following JOIN operation:

• R(A1, A2, . . ., An) S(B1, B2, . . ., Bm)
R.Ai=S.Bj
• Result is a relation Q with degree n + m attributes:
• Q(A1, A2, . . ., An, B1, B2, . . ., Bm), in that order.
• The resulting relation state has one tuple for each combination of tuples—r
from R and s from S, but only if they satisfy the join condition r[Ai]=s[Bj]
• Hence, if R has nR tuples, and S has nS tuples, then the join result will
generally have less than nR * nS tuples.
• Only related tuples (based on the join condition) will appear in the result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some properties of JOIN

The general case of JOIN operation is called a Theta-join:

R S
theta

• The join condition is called theta

• Theta can be any general boolean expression on the attributes of R and S; for
example:

• R.Ai<S.Bj AND (R.Ak=S.Bl OR R.Ap<S.Bq)

• Most join conditions involve one or more equality conditions “AND”ed

together; for example:

• R.Ai=S.Bj AND R.Ak=S.Bl AND R.Ap=S.Bq

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Some properties of JOIN

A general join condition is of the form • Tuples whose join attributes are NULL
or for which the join condition is FALSE
<condition> AND <condition> AND … AND <condition>
do not appear in the result.
where each <condition> is of the form Ai θ Bj, • In that sense, the JOIN operation does
not necessarily preserve all the
• Ai is an attribute of R,
information in the participating
• Bj is an attribute of S, relations, because tuples that do not
get combined with matching ones in
• Ai and Bj have the same domain, and
the other relation do not appear in the
• θ (theta) is one of the comparison operators {=, <, result.
≤, >, ≥, ≠}.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Variations of JOINS

• EQUIJOIN

• NATURAL JOIN
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations: EQUIJOIN

EQUIJOIN Operation

• The most common use of join involves join conditions with equality
comparisons only

• Such a join, where the only comparison operator used is =, is called an

EQUIJOIN.
• In the result of an EQUIJOIN, we always have one or more pairs of
attributes (whose names need not be identical) that have identical
values in every tuple.
• The JOIN seen in the previous example was an EQUIJOIN.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations: Natural Join Operation

NATURAL JOIN Operation

• Another variation of JOIN called NATURAL JOIN — denoted by * — was

created to get rid of the second (superfluous) attribute in an EQUIJOIN
condition.

• because one of each pair of attributes with identical values is superfluous

• The standard definition of natural join requires that the two join attributes, or
each pair of corresponding join attributes, have the same name in both
relations

• If this is not the case, a renaming operation is applied first.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
COMPANY Relational Database Schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Natural Join Operation

Suppose we want to retrieve the DEPARTMENT details that controls

the project.
In the following example,
1. Rename the Dnumber attribute of DEPARTMENT to Dnum, so
that it has the same name as the Dnum attribute in PROJECT

2. Apply NATURAL JOIN

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Natural Join Operation

• If the attributes on which the natural join is specified already

have the same names in both relations, renaming is unnecessary

• Suppose we want to retrieve the DEPARTMENT details and its

location.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Natural Join Operation
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations: Natural Join Operation (contd.)

Example: To apply a natural join on the DNUMBER Another example: Q  R(A,B,C,D) * S(C,D,E)
attributes of DEPARTMENT and DEPT_LOCATIONS, it is The implicit join condition includes each
sufficient to write: pair of attributes with the same name,
DEPT_LOCS  DEPARTMENT * DEPT_LOCATIONS “AND”ed together:
R.C=S.C AND R.D.S.D
• Only attribute with the same name is DNUMBER
Result keeps only one attribute of each
• An implicit join condition is created based on
such pair:
this attribute:
Q(A,B,C,D,E)
DEPARTMENT.DNUMBER=DEPT_LOCATIONS.DNU
MBER
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Join Operation

• Notice that if no combination of tuples satisfies the join condition, the

result of a JOIN is an empty relation with zero tuples.
• In general, if R has nR tuples and S has nS tuples, the result of a JOIN
operation R <join condition> S will have between zero and nR * nS tuples.
• The expected size of the join result divided by the maximum size nR * nS
leads to a ratio called join selectivity, which is a property of each join
condition.
• If there is no join condition, all combinations of tuples qualify and the
JOIN degenerates into a CARTESIAN PRODUCT, also called CROSS
PRODUCT or CROSS JOIN
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Join Operation

• The NATURAL JOIN or EQUIJOIN operation can also be specified

among multiple tables, leading to an n-way join.
• For example, consider the following three-way join:
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Complete Set of Relational Operations

• The set of operations including SELECT , PROJECT  , UNION ,

DIFFERENCE - , RENAME , and CARTESIAN PRODUCT X is called a
complete set because any other relational algebra expression can be
expressed by a combination of these five operations.

• For example:
• R  S = (R  S ) – ((R - S)  (S - R))
• R <join condition>S =  <join condition> (R X S)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Binary Relational Operations: Division Operation

DIVISION Operation
• The division operation is applied to two relations

• R(Z)  S(X), where X subset Z. Let Y = Z - X (and hence Z = X  Y); that is,
let Y be the set of attributes of R that are not attributes of S.

• The result of DIVISION is a relation T(Y) that includes a tuple t if tuples

tR appear in R with tR [Y] = t, and with

• tR [X] = ts for every tuple ts in S.

• For a tuple t to appear in the result T of the DIVISION, the values in t

must appear in R in combination with every tuple in S.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
COMPANY Relational Database Schema
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Division

Say for example

Retrieve the names of employees who work on all the projects that ‘John
Smith’ works on.

To express this query using the DIVISION operation, proceed as follows.

1. Retrieve the list of project numbers that ‘John Smith’ works on in the
intermediate relation SMITH_PNOS:
This gives ssn of john smith

Here we find all the project number which smith works on

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Division

Say for example

Retrieve the names of employees who work on all the projects that ‘John
Smith’ works on.

2. Create a relation that includes a tuple <Pno, Essn> whenever the

employee whose Ssn is Essn works on the project whose number is
Pno in the intermediate relation SSN_PNOS
Here we find all the ssn and project numbers

3. Apply the DIVISION operation to the two relations, which gives the
desired employees’ Social Security numbers

if a ssn project has 1 or more project then that ssn project numbers should we
equal to all the project numbers of the smith projects
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Division
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Division Operation

The DIVISION operation can be expressed as a sequence of

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Operations of Relational Algebra

continued on next slide

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Operations of Relational Algebra (continued)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Query Tree Notation

Query Tree

• An internal data structure to represent a query in RDBMS

• The notation is called a query tree or sometimes it is known as a query

evaluation tree or query execution tree

• Standard technique for estimating the work involved in executing the

query, the generation of intermediate results, and the optimization of
execution

• Nodes stand for operations like selection, projection, join, renaming,

division, ….
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Query Tree Notation (continued)

Query Tree

• Tree data structure corresponds to a relational algebra expression.

• It represents the input relations of the query as leaf nodes of the tree,
represents the relational algebra operations as internal nodes.

• An execution of the query tree consists of executing an internal node operation

whenever its operands (represented by its child nodes) are available, and then
replacing that internal node by the relation that results from executing the
operation.

• The execution terminates when the root node is executed and produces the
result relation for the query.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Query Tree Notation (continued)

Query Tree

• A tree gives a good visual feel of the complexity of the query and the
operations involved

• Algebraic Query Optimization consists of rewriting the query or

modifying the query tree into an equivalent tree.

• Consider the following scenario and construct the query tree

• For every project located in ‘Stafford’, list the project number, the controlling
department number, and the department manager’s last name, address, and
birth date.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Algebra Expression- Query Tree (continued)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example of Query Tree
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Aggregate Functions and Grouping

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
9/24/2021 2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra

9/24/2021 3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus

9/24/2021 4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

9/24/2021 5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relation Operation

• Generalized Projection

• where F1, F2, … , Fn are functions over the attributes in

relation R and
• may involve arithmetic operations and constant values

9/24/2021 6
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Aggregate Function Operation

9/24/2021 7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations: Aggregate Functions and Grouping

• A type of request that cannot be expressed in the basic relational algebra is to

specify mathematical aggregate functions on collections of values from the
database.

• Examples of such functions include retrieving the average or total salary of all
employees or the total number of employee tuples.

• These functions are used in simple statistical queries that summarize

information from the database tuples.

9/24/2021 8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations: Aggregate Functions and Grouping

• Common functions applied to collections of numeric values include

• SUM, AVERAGE, MAXIMUM, and MINIMUM.

• The COUNT function is used for counting tuples or values.

9/24/2021 9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Aggregate Function Operation

Use of the Aggregate Functional operation ℱ

• ℱMAX Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the maximum salary value from the EMPLOYEE
relation
• ℱMIN Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the minimum Salary value from the EMPLOYEE
relation
• ℱSUM Salary (EMPLOYEE) retrieves the sum of the Salary from the EMPLOYEE
relation
• ℱCOUNT SSN, AVERAGE Salary (EMPLOYEE) computes the count (number) of employees
and their average salary
• Note: count just counts the number of rows, without removing duplicates
9/24/2021 10
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Using Grouping with Aggregation

• The previous examples all summarized one or more attributes for a set
of tuples

• Maximum Salary or Count (number of) Ssn

• Grouping can be combined with Aggregate Functions

• Example: For each department, retrieve the DNO, COUNT SSN, and
AVERAGE SALARY

9/24/2021 11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Using Grouping with Aggregation

• A variation of aggregate operation ℱ allows this:

• Grouping attribute placed to left of symbol

• Aggregate functions to right of symbol

• DNO ℱCOUNT SSN, AVERAGE Salary (EMPLOYEE)

• Above operation groups employees by DNO (department number) and

computes the count of employees and average salary per department

9/24/2021 12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The aggregate function operation

a. ρR(Dno, No_of_employees, Average_sal)(Dno ℑ COUNT Ssn,

AVERAGE Salary (EMPLOYEE)).
b. Dno ℑ Count ssn,Average_salary(EMPLOYEE).
c. ℑ COUNT ssn, AVERAGE Salary(EMPLOYEE).

9/24/2021 13
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Results of GROUP BY and HAVING

9/24/2021 14
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

9/24/2021 15
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Aggregate Functions and Grouping

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra

3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus

4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations

• Recursive Closure Operations

• Another type of operation that, in general, cannot be specified in

the basic original relational algebra is recursive closure.

• This operation is applied to a recursive relationship.

• An example of a recursive operation is to retrieve all

SUPERVISEES of an EMPLOYEE e at all levels — that is, all
EMPLOYEE e’ directly supervised by e; all employees e’’ directly
supervised by each employee e’; all employees e’’’ directly
supervised by each employee e’’; and so on.
6
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations (continued)

• Although it is possible to retrieve employees at each level and then take

their union, we cannot, in general, specify a query such as “retrieve the
supervisees of ‘James Borg’ at all levels” without utilizing a looping
mechanism.

• The SQL3 standard includes syntax for recursive closure.

7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A two-level recursive query

Specify the Ssns of all employees directly supervised—at level

one—by the employee whose name is ‘James Borg’

To retrieve all employees supervised by Borg at level 2

To get both sets of employees supervised at levels

1 and 2 by ‘James Borg’

8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations (continued)

The OUTER JOIN Operation

• In NATURAL JOIN and EQUIJOIN, tuples without a matching (or related) tuple
are eliminated from the join result

• Tuples with null in the join attributes are also eliminated

• This amounts to loss of information.

• A set of operations, called OUTER joins, can be used when we want to keep
all the tuples in R, or all those in S, or all those in both relations in the result
of the join, regardless of whether or not they have matching tuples in the
other relation.

9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations (continued)

• The left outer join operation keeps every tuple in the first or left relation R in

R S; if no matching tuple is found in S, then the attributes of S in the

join result are filled or “padded” with null values.

• A similar operation, right outer join, keeps every tuple in the second or right
relation S in the result of R S.

• A third operation, full outer join, denoted by keeps all tuples in both
the left and the right relations when no matching tuples are found, padding
them with null values as needed.

10
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example

Suppose that we want a list of all employee names as well as the name
of the departments they manage if they happen to manage a
department; if they do not manage one, we can indicate it with a NULL
value

11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The result of a LEFT OUTER JOIN operation

12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations (continued)

OUTER UNION Operations

• The outer union operation was developed to take the union of tuples from
two relations if the relations are not type compatible.
• This operation will take the union of tuples in two relations R(X, Y) and
S(X, Z) that are partially compatible, meaning that only some of their
attributes, say X, are type compatible.
• The attributes that are type compatible are represented only once in the
result, and those attributes that are not type compatible from either
relation are also kept in the result relation T(X, Y, Z).

13
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Additional Relational Operations (continued)

Example: An outer union can be applied to two relations whose schemas are
STUDENT(Name, SSN, Department, Advisor) and INSTRUCTOR(Name, SSN,
Department, Rank).
• Tuples from the two relations are matched based on having the same
combination of values of the shared attributes— Name, SSN,
Department.
• If a student is also an instructor, both Advisor and Rank will have a value;
otherwise, one of these two attributes will be null.
• The result relation STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR will have the following
attributes:

STUDENT_OR_INSTRUCTOR (Name, SSN, Department, Advisor, Rank)

14
THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
9/24/2021 2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

1. Relational Model Concepts

2. Relational Model Constraints and Relational Database
Schemas
3. Update Operations, Transactions and dealing with
constraint violations
4. Relational Database Design Using ER-to Relational Mapping
5. Unary Relational Operations
6. Set Theory Operations
7. Binary Relational Operations
8. Aggregate Functions and Grouping
9. Examples Queries in Relational Algebra

9/24/2021 3
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

CHAPTER 8

The Relational Algebra and

The Relational Calculus

9/24/2021 4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 2 : Relational Model

Relational Algebra
• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

9/24/2021 5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Example Queries in Relational Algebra: Procedural Form

◼ Q1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work for the
‘Research’ department.
RESEARCH_DEPT   DNAME=’Research’ (DEPARTMENT)
RESEARCH_EMPS  (RESEARCH_DEPT DNUMBER= DNOEMPLOYEE EMPLOYEE)
RESULT   FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS (RESEARCH_EMPS)

◼ Q2: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.

ALL_EMPS   SSN(EMPLOYEE)
EMPS_WITH_DEPS(SSN)   ESSN(DEPENDENT)
EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS  (ALL_EMPS - EMPS_WITH_DEPS)
RESULT   LNAME, FNAME (EMPS_WITHOUT_DEPS * EMPLOYEE)

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra: Single Expression

As a single expression, these queries become:

◼ Q1: Retrieve the name and address of all employees who work
for the ‘Research’ department.
 Fname, Lname, Address (σ Dname= ‘Research’
(DEPARTMENT Dnumber=Dno(EMPLOYEE))

◼ Q2: Retrieve the names of employees who have no dependents.

 Lname, Fname(( Ssn (EMPLOYEE) − ρ Ssn ( Essn (DEPENDENT)))
∗ EMPLOYEE)

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Q3. Find the names of employees who work on all the

projects controlled by department number 5.

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Q4. Make a list of project numbers for projects that involve an

employee whose last name is ‘Smith’, either as a worker or as a
manager of the department that controls the project.

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Q5. List the names of all employees with two or more dependents

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Q7. List the names of managers who have at least one dependent.

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

Consider a database with the following schema: • Eats contains information about
what type of pizza each person
Person ( name, age, gender ) name is a key (customer) eats (likes)
• Name is always the customer’s
Frequents ( name, pizzeria ) (name, pizzeria) is a key name
• Frequents record information
Eats ( name, pizza ) (name, pizza) is a key about pizzerias that each customer
frequents (visits)
Serves ( pizzeria, pizza, price ) (pizzeria, pizza) is a key
• Serves contains information about
Write relational algebra expressions for the following queries all possible pizza types for each
pizzeria

Source: http://openclassroom.stanford.edu/MainFolder/courses/cs145/old-site/docs/backup/ra-exercises.html

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Example Queries in Relational Algebra

1. Find all pizzerias frequented by at least one person under the age of 18.
2. Find the names of all females who eat either mushroom or pepperoni
pizza (or both).
3. Find the names of all females who eat both mushroom and pepperoni
pizza.
4. Find all pizzerias that serve at least one pizza that Amy eats for less than
$10.00.
5. Find all pizzerias that are frequented by only females or only males.
6. For each person, find all pizzas the person eats that are not served by any
pizzeria the person frequents. Return all such person (name) / pizza pairs.
7. Find the names of all people who frequent only pizzerias serving at least
one pizza they eat.
8. Find the names of all people who frequent every pizzeria serving at least
one pizza they eat.
9. Find the pizzeria serving the cheapest pepperoni pizza. In the case of ties,
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Exercise

Draw the Query tree for the queries given in the previous slides

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Summary

Relational Algebra

• Unary Relational Operations

• Relational Algebra Operations From Set Theory

• Binary Relational Operations

• Additional Relational Operations

• Examples of Queries in Relational Algebra

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THANK YOU

S Nagasundari
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]