A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
in
GE 5

Mathematics in the Modern World

College of Criminal Justice Education

Bachelor of Science in Criminology

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 Module No. 02

Problem Solving & Reasoning

Mathematics as a Tool - 1

1st Semester AY 2022-2023

ESTHERLYN E. LOMIBAO

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 Instructor 1
Table of Contents
Page
Title Page 1
Table of Contents 2
Instruction to the User 4
Lesson 3: Problem Solving & Reasoning
5
Learning Outcomes
5
Time Allotment 5
Discussion 5
Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
5
Intuition, Proof & Certainty 8
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem solving 9
Problem Solving Strategies
10
Mathematical Investigation 15
Activities/ Exercises
17
Evaluation/ Post – Test 17
Chapter 2
Title of the Chapter
18
Overview 18
Learning Outcomes
18
Pre - Test 18
Lesson 1: Data Gathering and Organizing
19
Learning Outcomes
19
Time Allotment 19
Discussion 19
Importance of Statistics
19
Types of Statistics
19
Sampling Techniques 22
Data Collection 23
Classification/ Types of Data 24
Activities/ Exercises
25
Evaluation/ Post – test 25
Lesson 2: Presentation of Data
26

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 Learning Outcomes
26
Time Allotment 26
Discussion 26
Textual 26
Tabular 27
Graphical 30
Activities/ Exercises
33
Evaluation/Post Test 33
Chapter 3
Title of the Chapter
34
Overview 34
Learning Outcomes
34
Pre – Test 34
Lesson 1: The Mean
35
Learning Outcomes
35
Time Allotment 35
Discussion 35
Arithmetic Mean for Ungrouped Data
35
Mean for Grouped Data
37
Properties of the Mean 38
Activities/ Exercises
39
Evaluation/ Post Test 39
Lesson 2: The Median 40
Learning Outcomes
40
Time Allotment 40
Discussion 40
Median for Ungrouped Data 40
Median for Grouped Data
42
Properties of the Median
43
Activities/ Exercises
43
Evaluation/ Post Test 43
Lesson 2: The Mode
44

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 Learning Outcomes
44
Time Allotment 44
Discussion 44
Crude Mode
44
True Mode 44
Properties of the Mode 44
Activities/ Exercises
45
Evaluation/ Post Test 45

References 46

INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience

while independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or
time. It aims as well to ensure that learning is unhampered by
health and other challenges. It covers the topic about Problem
solving and Reasoning and Using
Mathematics as a Tool.

Reminders in using this module:

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 1. Keep this material neat and intact.
2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and
what to be learned about the topic discussed in this
module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and
reinforcement for better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it
to social media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and
honestly answering and doing the exercises and activities.
Time and effort were spent in the preparation in order that
learning will still continue amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain
physical distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines

University!
Shape your dreams with quality learning
experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

Lesson 3: Problem Solving & Reasoning

A. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you can:

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 1. use different types of reasoning to justify statements and
arguments make about mathematics and mathematical
concepts in the field of education;
2. solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems
following Polya’s four steps related to education
Image retrieved from
Curriculum and
Instruction Student
Resources Clip Art

B. B. Time Allotment 9 hours

C. Discussion

Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability of a person to

analyze problem situations and construct logical arguments to
create both conceptual foundations and connections to be able to
process the available information and solve the problems. The
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics ( 2000 ) stated that
people who can reason and think analytically “tend to note
patterns, structure, or regularities in both real-world situations and
symbolic objects; ask if those patterns are accidental or if they
occur for a reason; and conjecture and prove.” Mathematical
reasoning requires more than simply memorizing facts but thinking
beyond rules and procedures to form one’s own questions and
conjectures ( Nocon, 2018 ).

When is a mathematical reasoning correct? What methods

can be used to construct effective mathematical reasoning?

a. Inductive versus Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process

of making general conclusions based on
specific examples. Examples include the
following statements:

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 1. Every object that I release from my hand falls to the ground.
Therefore, the next object I release from my hand will fall to
the ground.
2. Every crow I have ever seen is black. Therefore all crows are
black.
3. Based on available data, the Earth has revolved around the
sun following an elliptical path for millions of years.
Therefore, the Earth will continue to revolve around the sun
in the same manner next year.

On the other hand, deductive reasoning is the process of

making specific conclusions based on general principles.
Examples of deductive reasoning include the following:

1. All men are mortal. I am a man. Therefore, I am mortal.

(General principle: If ρ implies q and ρ holds, then q must
follow).
2. Given two supplementary angles with one of them measuring
120 degree, the measure of the other angle is 60 degrees.
(General principle: Supplementary angles add up to 180˚).
3. If 6x = 12, then x = 2. (General principle: If a, b and c are
real numbers and a = b, then ac = bc ).

Comparing these two approaches further, consider science

and mathematics. Science is the application if inductive reasoning
to build knowledge based on observable evidence. That is why
every statement in science is considered a theory. The only way to
prove it is to collect more evidence. However, there is always the
possibility that future evidence could prove the statement false. On
the other hand, mathematics is deductive reasoning applied to
relations among patterns, shapes, forms, structures and even
changes. Deductive reasoning is always valid. Nevertheless, to
make correct deductions, a complete understanding of the relevant
abstract principles is required. Errors can occur either by applying
principles incorrectly or by starting with incorrect assumptions.

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 Deductive reasoning makes use of undefined terms, formally
defined terms, axioms, theorems and rules of inference.

A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true. It is

formulated by using a sequence of statements that form an
argument, called a proof. The statements used in a proof may
include axioms, which are the underlying assumptions about
mathematical structures, the hypothesis of the theorem to be
proved, and previously proved theorems. The rules of inference tie
together the steps of a proof.

Image retrieved from Essential Mathematics for the Modern World, p. 25, Nocon, 2018

Example 1
What rule of inference is used in each of the following
arguments?
(a) Anna is a human resource management major. Therefore,
Anna is either a human resource management major or a
computer applications major.
(b)Ben is a game designer and a game developer. Therefore,
Ben is a game designer.
(c) If it rains today, the college will be closed. The college is
not closed today. Therefore, it did not rain today.

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 (d)If it is rainy, then the oval will be closed. It is rainy.
Therefore, the oval is closed.
(e) If I go swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If I
stay in the sun too long, then I will get burned. Therefore,
if I go swimming, then I will get burned.

Solution:
(a) Addition
(b)Simplification
(c) Modus tollens
(d)Modus ponens
(e) Hypothetical syllogism

An argument constructed using the rules of inference is said

to be valid. When all the propositions used in a valid argument are
true, it leads to a correct conclusion. Fallacies are incorrect
reasoning which appear to follow the rules of inference but are
based on contingencies rather than tautologies.

There are three types of fallacies:

 The fallacy of affirming the conclusion is based on the

compound proposition [(p = q)^ q] = p.

 The fallacy of denying the hypothesis is based on the

compound proposition [(p = q) ^ ¬p ] = ¬q.
 Begging the question or circular reasoning occurs when
one or more steps of a proof are based on the truth of
the statement being proved.

Example 2

Is the following argument valid?

If you do every problem in a math book, then you will learn
mathematics. You learned mathematics. Therefore, you did every
problem in the book.

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 Solution:

Let p be “You did every problem in the book” and q be “You

learned mathematics.” Then the argument can be written as [(p =
q) ^ q] = p. This is an invalid argument which uses the fallacy of
affirming the conclusion since it is possible for you to learn
mathematics in some way other than by doing every problem in the
book.

Example 3

Is the following argument valid?

If you do every problem in a math book, then you will learn
mathematics. You did not do every problem in the book. Therefore, you
did not learn mathematics.

Solution:

Let p be “You did every problem in the book” and q be “You

learned mathematics.” Then, the argument can be written as [(p = q)^
¬p] = ¬q. This is an invalid argument which uses the fallacy of denying
the hypothesis since it is possible that you learned mathematics even if
you did not do every problem in the book.

Example 4

When proving the statement “If n2 is even, then n is even,”

is the following argument valid?

Suppose that n2 is even. Then n2 = 2k for some integer k.

Let n = 2l for some integer l. this shows that n is even.

Solution:

The part “Let n = 2l for some integer l” is circular reasoning

because that statement is equivalent to the statement being
proved.

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b. Intuition Proof & Certainty

1. Methods of Proof
When proving statements, different approaches may be
followed. Some of these are:

Method of Proof Description

A proof that the implication p=q is
Vacuous proof true based on the fact that p is false
A proof that the implication p = q is
Trivial proof true based on the fact that q is true
A proof that the implication p = q is
Direct proof true by showing that q must be true
if p is true
A proof that the implication p = q is
Indirect proof true by showing that p must be false
when q is false
A proof that the proposition p is
Proof by contradiction true based on the truth of the
implication ¬p = q where q is a
contradiction
A proof of an implication where the
Proof by cases hypothesis is a disjunction of
propositions showing that each
proposition separately implies the
conclusion
A proof of a proposition of the from
зx P (x)

Existence proofs are classified as

either constructive or non-
Existence proof constructive.
 A constructive existence proof
establishes the assertion by
exhibiting a value c such that
P ( c ) is true.
 A non-constructive existence
proof establishes the assertion
without indicating how to find
a value x such that P (x) is
true. It commonly involves a
proof by contradiction.
A proof of the statement ¬зxP(x)
( which is also V x¬ P (x) )
Non – existence proof
One way is to assume that there is a

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 member of the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true, and try to
arrive at a contradiction.
Let P (n) be a proposition for each
positive integer n. If the following
Proof by mathematical two conditions are satisfied, then P
induction (n) is true for all positive integers n:
 The proposition P(1) is true.
 The implication P(n) = P(n+1)
is shown to be true for every
positive integer n.

c. Polya’s Four ( 4 ) Step Strategy

What is problem solving?

Problem solving is a complex process which requires an
individual to coordinate previous experiences, knowledge,
understanding and intuition, in order to satisfy the demands of a
novel situation. (Berinderjeet Kaur & Yeap Ban Har)

George Polya (1973 ) is known as the Father of

Problem Solving.

Problem – Solving Principles

1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Look back

c.1 Understand the problem

The following guide questions may be considered in order

to understand the given problem:

 What is/are the given information/s in the problem?

 What is the unknown?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?

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  Can you define the important terms used in the
problem?
 Can you think of the some properties of the terms
used?
 Can you picture the problem with the given
information?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a
solution?
 Is there extraneous information?
 Do you have all the necessary information to solve
the problem?

c.2 Devise a plan

From the preliminary analysis of the problem, find if there
is a connection between the given data and the unknown.

The following strategies may be used in solving the

given problem:

 Draw a diagram
 Guess – and – check
 Work backwards
 Use a variable
 Make a systematic list
 Look for a pattern
 Simplify the problem
 Eliminate possibilities

c.3 Carry out the plan

Once a particular strategy has been set in order to
solve the problem.

 Be patient to check each step

 See to it that each step is correct

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  If the chosen strategy does not work, then try a new
one

c.4 Look back

Once you have solved the problem, examine the
solution obtained.

 Can you check the result?

 Can you check if the argument is logical?
 Can you show a better solution?

d. Problem Solving Strategies

Problem – Solving Strategy 1: Draw a

diagram
This strategy uses a diagram to model a situation or illustrate
relationships in a problem.

Example 1

In a party there are 8 people. If everyone at the party

shakes hands with everyone else, how many handshakes
would there be?

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Image retrieved from Mathematics, A Reviewer for the Licensure Examination for Teachers, p. 193,
PNU, 2013

Problem – Solving Strategy 2: Make a systematic list

This strategy requires one to list all the possibilities in a
systematic way in the form of charts or tables.

Example
2

Kristine asked how many different outfits she could form if

she had two skirts and three blouses. Let’s list the different ways.

Image retrived from Mathematics, A Reviewer for the Licensure Examination for Teachers, p. 193,
PNU, 2013

Problem – Solving Strategy 3: Guess – and Check

This strategy is also known as “trial and error.” It is a
primitive method and the idea of guessing and checking it for

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correctness is always not a good means of arriving at a solution.
This may be helpful if you cannot think of a better way of doing it.

Example
3

On a farm there are cows and chickens. Altogether, they have

41 heads and 100 legs. How many chickens are there?

21 cows  21*4 = 88 legs 10 cows  10*4 = 40

legs
20 chickens  20*2 = 40 legs 21 chickens  31*2 = 62
legs
Therefore, 128 legs Therefore, 102 legs

15 cows  15*4 = 60 legs 9 cows  9*4 = 36

legs
26 chickens  26*2 = 52 legs 32 chickens  32*2 =
64 legs
Therefore, 112 legs Therefore, 100 legs

Problem – Solving Strategy 4: Look for a pattern

Looking for a pattern is a good strategy in solving a problem.
It enables the problem solver to reduce a complex problem to a
pattern and then use the pattern to eventually solve the problem.

Example 4

Find the sum of odd numbers from 1 to 99.

1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +….. 95 + 97 + 99 = ?
Observe the following particular cases:
1 = 1 = 12
1+3 = 4 = 22
1+3+5 = 9 = 32
From 1 to 99, there are 50 odd numbers. Considering the pattern for
the first three cases, we can assume that the sum of the first 7 odd
numbers = 49 = 72
Similarly, the sum of the first 13 odd numbers = 169 =
132
Therefore, the sum of the first 50 odd numbers = 502 =
2500

Answer: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + …+ 95 + 97 + 99 = 2500
Problem – Solving Strategy 5: Work Backwards

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 This strategy as suggested by its name, the problem will be
solved by working backwards from an endpoint of a situation to
where it started. To do this, keep track of the information and
organize it in a meaningful way.

Example 5

Jamie, Sky, Angel and Raven washed cars as part of their

fund raising project in school. Jamie washed twice as much cars as
Sky. Sky washed 3 less than Angel. Angel washed 9 more than
Raven. Raven washed 8 cars. How many cars did Jamie wash?
Raven washed 8 cars.
Angel washed 9 + 8 = 17 cars
Sky washed 17 – 3 = 14 cars
Jamie washed 2 * 14 = 28

Answer: Jamie washed 28 cars

Problem – Solving Strategy 6: Simplify the problem

This strategy is a combination of sub – problems and
patterns.
Example 6

How many squares are there on a checker board.

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Image retrieved from Mathematics, A Reviewer for the Licensure Examination for Teachers, p. 195,
PNU, 2013

The number of squares on a checker board based from the

pattern observed is 82 + 72 + 62 + 52 + 42 + 32 + 22+ 12= 204

Answer: There are 204 squares on a checker board.

Problem – Solving Strategy 7: Eliminate possibilities

This strategy uses the given information of the problem to
decide which outcomes are possible. Then the possibility that was
not ruled out must be the solution.

Example 7

Patricia, Bea and Myles play on the basketball team. Their

positions are forward, center, and guard. Patricia and the guard
bought Gatorade for Myles. Patricia is not the forward. Who plays
each position?

Patricia and the guard bought Gatorade for

Myles
Center Guard Forward
Patricia x
Bea x / x
Myles x

Therefore, Bea is the guard.

Patricia is not the forward.

Center Guard Forward

Patricia / x x
Bea x / x
Myles x x /

Therefore, Patricia is the center.

Answer: Guard – Bea

Center – Patricia
Forward - Myles

Problem – Solving Strategy 8: Use a variable

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 For this strategy, a problem requires that a number be
determined. With the use of a variable, represent the unknown
number then set up an equation as defined in the problem.

Example 8

What are the four consecutive numbers whose sum is 50?

Represent the four consecutive numbers as x, x + 1, x + 2,

and x + 3.
Thus the equation is x + x + 1 + x + 2 + x + 3 = 50
4x + 6 = 50
4x = 50 – 6
4x = 44
x = 44/4
x = 11

Therefore, if x = 11; x + 1 = 11 + 1 = 12; x + 2 = 11 + 2 =

13; x + 3 = 11 + 3 = 14

e. Mathematical Investigation
What is Mathematical Investigation?
A mathematical investigation of a problem, in particular an
open – ended situation is a sustained exploration of the problem
or situation. The emphasis of the activity is on process rather
than content.

Stages in a Mathematical Investigation

1. Getting Started
2. Exploring Systematically
3. Making Conjectures
4. Testing Conjectures
5. Exploring/ Justifying Conjectures
6. Reorganizing

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7. Elaborating
8. Summarizing

Image retrieved from

htpps://ecmiindmath.org
/2015/06/09/theoretical-and-
numerical-
investigation-of-nonlinear-
mathematical-models/amp/

Getting Started
 Getting familiarity with the situation to be investigated
 Producing instances, like starting from the simplest or
whatever is interesting
 Deciding on what is worth attainable
Exploring Systematically
 Systematic listing/drawing
 Organizing relationships in tables or graphs
 Looking for a pattern or relationship
Making conjectures
 A conjecture is a generalization obtained inductively,
which has not been validated or proven true.
 Making general statements about patterns or
relationships observed in the cases considered
Testing Conjectures
 Checking consistency of conjectures using existing
cases
 Predicting results for untied cases for which data are
available.
Explaining/Justifying Conjectures
 Explaining why the conjectures made will work for new
or all cases
Reorganizing
 Simplifying/ generalizing the approach
 Seeing the connection among the conjectures

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 Elaborating
 Extending the investigation by considering other
aspects of the investigation
Summarizing
 Making oral or written summary of what has been
obtained in the investigation from exploring
systematically to elaborating stage.

Example 9

Image retrieved from Mathematics, A Reviewer for the Licensure

Examination for Teachers, p. 196, PNU, 2013

The following are sample questions that one may ask as a

guide in investigating the given open – ended problem.

1. From a particular point of the wire grid, how many

different paths are there?
2. Is it possible to determine the number of paths without
starting counting from the hole at the top of the wire grid?
3. Can the entries for each horizontal line of the grid be
determined from those in the line immediately above it?

Example 10

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 CONSECUTIVE SUMS
Some numbers can be expressed as the sum of consecutive
positive integers.
7=3+4
9=2+3+4
14 = 2 + 3 + 4 + 5

Investigate.

The following are sample questions that one may ask as a

guide in investigating the given open – ended problem.

1. Which numbers can be expressed as sums of two consecutive

integers? Can you predict whether or not a number can be
expressed in this way?
2. Which numbers can be expressed as sums of three
consecutive positive integers?
3. Consider numbers that can be expressed as sums of
particular consecutive integers.
 Consider sums of an odd number of consecutive
integers.
 Look at the factors of numbers that can be written in
this way.
 Consider sums of consecutive integers.
4. How many different ways are there of expressing numbers as
sums of consecutive integers?
 Which numbers cannot be expressed in this way?
 Which can be expressed in only one way?
 Which can be expressed in several ways?
 Can you predict the number of ways of expressing a
particular number as a sum of consecutive integers?

D. Activities/ Exercises

Reasoning & Logic:

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 1. Two engineers were standing on a street corner. The first
engineer was the second engineer’s father but the second
engineer was not the first engineer’s son. How could this
be? _____________________________.

Let’s Play “Human Knot”

Time: 2 mins.
2. With the help of your family members or those living in the
same house or compound, execute the game “human
knot”. This is to test your problem solving techniques.

Instructions:
1. Have everyone stand in a circle, and ask each person to
hold hands with two people who aren’t directly next to
them.
2. When everyone is tangled together, ask them to
untangle the knot and form a perfect circle – without
letting anyone’s hand.
3. Record/video your activity and send to your Instructor’s
messenger account.

E. Evaluation/ Post - Test

Multiple Choice.
Direction: Write the letter of your choice on the space provided
after each number. Your answer will be sent through private
message to your instructor.
1. A farmer has some pigs and some chickens. He finds that
together they have 65 heads and 180 legs. How many
chickens does he have?
a. 30 b. 35 c. 40 d. 45

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 2. Two people have the same parents. They were born on the
same day, and at the same place, but they are not twins. How
are they related?
a. Sisters b. brothers c. brother & sister
d. sibling
3. A commuter bus seats 96 passengers. On a trip to Baguio,
there was one empty seat for every two occupied seats. How
many passengers were on board?
a. 60 b. 62 c. 64 d. 66
4. While three watchmen were guarding an orchard, a thief
slipped in and stole some apples. On his way out, he met the
three watchmen, one after another, and to each in turn he gave
half the apples he had and two besides. In this way, he
managed to escape with one apple. How many had he stolen
originally?
a. 36 b. 42 c. 48 d. 54
5. Who am I? If you multiply me by and subtract 5, the result is
10.
a. 10 b. 15 c. 20 d. 25

Chapter 2: Mathematics as a Tool - Statistics

Overview
Statistics plays an important role in nearly all phase of our
lives. It is used in agriculture, biology and natural sciences,
business and economics, electronics and computer sciences,
education, political science and sociology and other fields of
science and engineering.

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 Statistics is derived from the Latin word status which means
“state”. In the word statistics, it refers to the actual numbers
derived from the data and a method of analysis. Generally, the term
means numerical observation of any kind. Originally, statistical
data took the forms of figures of birth, death, tax returns,
population, frequency of failures in school, crop yield, etc.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, you can:
1. identify the appropriate method/s to be used
2. identify different ways of presenting data
3. solve problems in frequency distribution
4. construct the appropriate presentation of collected data
5. interpret the characteristics of data presented

Pre – Test - “What do you already know?”

Before we start with our discussion, please try to answer the
following test. Don’t worry about your performance. This test aims
only to check what you already know about the lessons to follow.
1. What is pie graph? Can you show an example?
2. Is there a difference between frequency and tally? How?

Lesson 1: Data Gathering and Organizing

A. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, you can:

1. identify the appropriate method/s to be used
2. identify different ways of presenting data

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B. Time Allotment 9 hours
C. Discussion

Importance of Statistics

Some of the uses of statistics as a science are evident in

empirical studies. Among the contributions of statistics are: it aids
in decision making, summarizes or describes data, helps to forecast
or predict future outcomes, aids in making inferences, and helps in
comparisons or establishing relationships.

In education, statistical techniques and methods are used to

get information on enrolment, finance, physical facilities, dropout
rate, proficiency level and many others. In researches, statistical
tools are used to test differences, effectiveness, impact,
relationships or independence of some variables.

Management uses statistics in decision making and in varied

aspects such as organizational behavior, labor relations, human
resource allocation, performance assessment and evaluation for the
improvement of personal relation. In economics, it determines
trends, helps financial analysts make investment decisions and
determines the potential of an investment including inventory
turnover ratio of cash flow to total assets, the quick ratio which is
the ratio of the difference between current assets and inventory
values to current liabilities; return on assets before taxes, controls
the quality of goods produced and many others.

Methods for the statistical designs of experiments are useful

and valuable in medicine and physical sciences, causes and effects
of factors, which affect experiments once evaluated.

Psychologists and sociologists can understand human beings

better, through systematic and personality tests of through
observations. A study of conditions of the people may be analyzed

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and interpreted affecting positive action for the improvement of the
society.

To cope with the present demands and with the growing

complexity of the world and as the activities and functions of the
various fields of endeavor become more complicated, the use of
statistics increases and becomes a great importance.

1. TYPES OF STATISTICS

Descriptive statistics

 A type of statistics which focuses on the collecting,

summarizing and presenting a mass of data so as to
yield meaningful information
 Is a field of statistics that does not involve any
generalizations
Examples:
1. A math teacher wants to determine the percentage
of students who passed the examination.
2. Lula is a bowler who wants to find her bowling
average for the past 10 games

Inferential statistics

 A type of statistics, that deals with making

generalizations and analyzing sample data to draw
conclusions about a population. This is a process of
obtaining information about a large group from the
study of a smaller group.
 Makes use of generalizations, predictions, estimations,
or approximations in the face of uncertainty
Examples:
a. Kim is a basketball player who wants to estimate his
chance of winning as MVP award based on his
current season averages and averages of his
opponents.

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 b. A manager who would like to predict base on
previous year’s sales, the sales performance of
company for the next six years
2. BASIC STATISTICAL TERMS

1. Population is consisting of all elements such as events,

objects and individuals whose characteristic is being studied.
Example:
The researcher would like to determine the number of male
BSCRIM students in WPU – Quezon Campus.
2. Variable is a characteristic of an item or individual that will
be analyzed using statistics. Variables are usually denoted by
any capital letter.
3. Sample is a portion of population selected for study.
4. Parameter – a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of a population.
5. Statistics – a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of a sample
6. Measurement – the process of assigning the value or label
of a particular experiment unit.

3. SOME COMMONLY USED SYMBOLS IN STATISTICS

Σ capital letter sigma denotes the sum of, and summation

of
f small letter f denotes frequencies
F capital letter F denotes cumulative frequencies
n small letter n denotes sample size
i small letter i denotes interval
N capital letter N denotes population size
X capital letter x denotes independent variable
Y capital letter Y denotes dependent variable
x mean of the sample
µ capital letter mu denotes population mean

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 s small letter s denotes standard deviation
s2 denotes population variance

4. TYPES OF VARIABLES

1. Qualitative variable – a variable that cannot be measured

numerically but can be classified into different categories

Examples: Names, Gender, Hair color, subjects enrolled in a

semester, species

2. Quantitative variable – consists of variable that can be

measured numerically.

Examples: price of a house, height, gross sales, number of

cars own.

CLASSIFICATION OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE

1. Discrete Quantitative Variable – a variable results from
either a finite number of possible values or a countable
number of possible values. In other words, a discrete
variable can assure only certain values, no intermediate
values.

Examples: number of patient (3), number of sold cars

(268), number of books (1,654)

2. Continuous Quantitative Variable – a variable results

from indefinitely many possible values that can be
associated with points on a continuous scale in such a
way that there are no gaps of interruptions.

Examples: time (8:45), height of a person (1.58 m.), weight

(60. 32 kgs.)

5. LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

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 The level of measurement of data determines the
algebraic operations that can be performed and the statistical
tools that can be applied to the data set.

LEVEL 1. Nominal is characterized by data that consists of

names, labels or categories only.

Examples: gender, marital status, employment, religion,

address, degree program

Sex: M – Male F – Female

LEVEL 2. Ordinal involves data that may be arranged in some
order, but differences between data values either cannot be
determined or are meaningless. The data can be ordered or
rank.

Examples: grades of the students, military rank, job position,

year level, degree of illness, class standing

Class standing Excellent, Good, Poor

Teacher’s Evaluation 1 – Poor

2 – Fair
3 – Good
4 – Very Good

LEVEL 3. Interval. In this level has precise differences between

measures but there is no true zero; data are arranged

Examples: temperature, IQ score, salaries

Consider the IQ scores of four students 90, 150, 85 and 145.

Here, we can say that the difference between 90 and 150 is the
same as the difference between 85 and 145 but we cannot claim
that the second student is twice as intelligent as the first.

LEVEL 4. Ratio is the interval level modified to include the

inherent zero starting point. For values at this level, differences

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 and ratios are meaningful. Data can be classified and placed in a
proper order. We can compare the magnitudes of these data.

Examples: weekly allowance, area and volume.

For practical reasons such as to economize on time, money

and effort, it is not necessary for the researcher to examine every
member of the population to get data or information about the
population. Cost and time constraints will prohibit one from
undertaking a study of the entire population. At any rate, all that he
needs to do is to draw sample units systematically or at random. If
sampling is done in this way, we can validly infer conclusions about
the entire population from our sample.

Often, when we talk about picking things at random we mean

picking things without bias or any predetermined choice. In a TV
program, for example, participants may be asked to pick a prize at
random. Listing all the possible prizes and assigning a number to
each prize can do this. The numbers are then written on pieces of
paper and placed in a box or container where they are shaken
thoroughly. When the participants draw a number from the box, he
would have drawn a number at random. The practice of awarding
prizes through the “raffle” system follows the principle of random
sampling.

1. Sampling Techniques

1.1 Probability Sampling – every element of population is

given an equal chance of being selected as a member of
sample.
a. Random Sampling – may be done by lottery or Table of
Random Numbers
 Lottery sampling. Assigning numbers to each member
of the population usually carries out the lottery
sampling method. For example, writing down the name
of each member of the population on pieces of paper.

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 These papers are then placed in a box or container
drum. The box or lottery drum must be shaken
thoroughly to prevent some pieces of paper from
sinking at the bottom, where they will have less
chances of being drawn. From the box or lottery drum,
the required number of sample units is picked.
 Table of Random Numbers. The use of the Table of
Random Number is another technique of random
sampling wherein the selection of each member of the
population is left adequately to chance. Every member
of the population has an equal chance to being chosen
b. Systematic Sampling – in addition to the method of random
sampling, a number of methods have been developed which
may be called systematic methods. These methods use
prior knowledge of the individuals comprising a universe
with an end in view to increasing precision and
representation of samples. When sample units are obtained
by drawing every, say, 4th or 7th or 10th item on a list, the
process of selecting the sample is called systematic
sampling.
c. Stratified random sampling – creating different classes or
strata within the population. The grouping may be done
based on grade level, income groupings and gender among
others.
d. Cluster sampling – if the population is too big, the
population may be divided geographically into regions,
divisions or districts.

To determine the appropriate sample size without resorting

to your subjective decision, you may use the Slovin’s formula.
N
n=

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 1 + Ne 2

where:

n = number of samples
N = number of population
e = ( 0.05 ) the sampling error

1.2 Non – probability sampling – not every element of the

population is given a chance of being selected as sample .

a. Convenience sampling – the researcher’s convenience is

the primary concern of the researcher.
b. Quota sampling – if the quota is reached
c. Purposive sampling - specific objective under study
requires a particular sample.

2. Data Collection

2.1 Methods of Collecting Data. There are several methods

of collecting data, however, there is no best method to get the
desired information under investigation. The choice of
appropriate methods to be utilized depends on some factors
such as the nature of the problem, the population under
investigation, the time and the material factors. So, to obtain
the needed accurate information at minimum cost and least
possible time, a combination of the following methods of data
gathering may be applied ( Nocon, et. al. 2000 )

Direct method – data is collected through interviews. The

enumerator talks to the subject personally. He gets the
data through a series of questions asked from the subject
of the interview. This is one of the most effective
methods in collecting original data. To obtain accurate

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responses, well-trained interviewers may do the
interview. The interviewers can be of great help to the
respondents in answering questions that the respondents
can understand.

The following are the advantages of the interview

method:

a. It can give complete information needed in the

study;
b. It can yield inaccurate information since the
interviewer can influence the respondent’s answers
through his facial expression, tone of voice, or
wording of the questions.
c. The interviewer may cheat by turning in dishonest
responses if their expected or desired responses are
not obtained;

Indirect method – data is collected through the use of

questionnaires. These questionnaires may be sent
through the postal or electronic mail. This is one of the
easiest methods of data gathering. It takes time to
prepare because questionnaires needed to be attractive.
The content of a typical questionnaire, directions
included, must be precise, clear and self – explanatory.
Illustrations and pictures may be used to add clarity and
attractiveness.

The advantages of the questionnaire method are as

follows:

a. It is less expensive since questionnaires can be

distributed personally or by email;
b. It is less time – consuming since it can be
distributed over a wider geographical area in a
shorter time;

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 c. It can give confidential responses since the
respondents can answer the questionnaire
privately; and
d. The answers obtained are free from any influence
coming from the interviewer.

The limitations of the questionnaire method are as

follows:

a. It cannot be accomplished by illiterates.

b. It has a high proportion of nonresponse or non - return.
c. It tends to give wrong information since answers
cannot be corrected right away.
d. It tends to give incomplete information.

Observation – this method is utilized to gather data

regarding attitudes, behaviors, values and cultural
patterns of the samples under investigation. For
example, the MMDA gives report every week on the
number of accidents happening at EDSA. To do this, an
MMDA personnel will just count the number of accidents
through their CCTV.

Telephone Interview – this method is employed if the

questions to be asked are brief and few. An example is
the check made on listeners to certain radio programs
like asking what program his radio is turned on to. This
method is used to find the most popular TV or radio
programs.

Experimentation – this method is applied to collect or

gather data is the investigator wants to control the
factors affecting the variable being studied. Data is
usually gathered through experiments in laboratories
and classroom. An example is when the researcher aims
to determine the different factors affecting the academic

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 performance of the students such as methods or
approaches used in teaching, etc.

Registration – through this method, the respondents

provide information incompliance with certain laws,
policies, rules, regulations decrees or standard practice.
Data are acquired from private and government agencies
such as from the Philippine Statistics Authority, Bangko
Sentral ng Pilipinas, Department of Finance, etc.

1.2 Classification/ Types of Data

a. Primary Data – are information gathered directly from
the source
b. Secondary Data – gathered from the secondary sources
like books, journals, magazines, of thesis of other
researchers
c. Raw Data – are in their original form and structure
d. Grouped Data – are placed in tabular form characterized
by class intervals with the corresponding frequency.

 Try this!
Compute for the n if the desired margin of error is
1. 10%
2. 5%
3. 8%
4. 12%
5. 2%

D. Activities/ Exercises

1. With the help of your family members, perform the following

activities:

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 a. RoyalStatSoc. September 14, 2018. Hands-on statistics –
Capture recapture. Record your activity.
b. Sampling 101 with Skittles ( use may use chocolate Nips)
Rachelle Wilkinson. October 4, 2017

E. Evaluation/ Post – Test

1. In a town of 25,000 people, it is but practical to choose a
representative group for a certain research project. How do
you get the random sample?
2. An educator wants to find out information about the families
represented in a school system and decides to pick a random
sample of children from those registered in the schools for
survey. He will ask such questions as: How large is your
family? How much education do your parents have? and so
on. Is there anything wrong with this sample? Explain your
answer

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Lesson 2: Presentation of Data

A. Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, you can:
1. identify appropriate ways to present data
2. construct correct table or graph
3. explain the result of the table

A. Time Allotment 6 hours

B. Discussion

The presentation of data collected is very crucial in showing

its importance and use. The collected data are generally
presented in three different ways:
1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical

TEXTUAL

In the textual form, the presentation is in narrative of

paragraph form. The data are within the text of the
paragraph. This form may not get the immediate interest of
the reader. However, it can present a more comprehensive
picture of the data because of further written explanation of
its nature. There are case which are better presented in this

Example:

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 Nominally, the peso improved by 1.4 percent as of April 14,
2003 compared to its level in 2002, followed by the Thai baht,
which gained 0.86 percent; Indonesian rupiah, 0.68 percent; and
Taiwan dollar, 0.2 percent.

Other currencies, on the other hand, depreciated during the

same period. The Singapore dollar fell 2.33 percent. The South
Korean won slid 2.14 percent while the Japanese yen dropped 0.61
percent. (Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 17, 2003, p. B2)
\

TABULAR

The tabular method (from the word “table”) makes use of

rows and columns like a frequency table or frequency
distribution. The data are presented in a systematic and
orderly manner, which catches one’s attention and may
facilitate the comprehension and analysis of the data
presented. However, in the case of the grouped frequency
distribution, information on the exact values like the
highest or lowest values may be sacrificed which
necessitates reference to the original data. On the other

Example:
Consider the quiz scores of 50 students in Statistics as shown
in the following table:

Statistics Quiz Score

Quiz Scores Tally

Frequency ( f )

20 l 1

19 llll 4

18 llll
4

17 llll – llll – llll – lll 18

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 15 llll – llll
10

13 llll 5

12 llll 5

11 lll 3

TOTAL 50

Note that the above table illustrates an ungrouped frequency

distribution. This is possible for a small number of data. However,
in cases where the number of data is rather big, the presentation
using the grouped frequency distribution is preferred. In this case,
the data are arranged by categories or classes with their
corresponding frequencies.

Example:

Consider the following raw data on an arithmetic test.

56 42 68 56 42
78 54 53 56 55
62 44 48 55 57
37 62 47 66 65
54 72 52 42 68
39 38 50 52 47
62 82 41 48 42
60 28 47 48 56
Let us construct the frequency distribution by following this
procedure.
a. Determine the range by taking the difference of the
highest score and the lowest score.

Range = Highest score – Lowest score

= 82 – 28

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 = 54

b. Determine the number of class intervals (c). There is no

definite rule in determining the number of class intervals
for as long as the number can provide the necessary
information needed (not so many or so few, least the
purpose of grouping is lost). However, the ideal number of
class intervals is between 5 and 20 depending on the
nature of data. In this example, let there be 12 class
intervals. (For some cases, c is set to 10).
c. Take the quotient of the range by the desired number of
class intervals to get the size of the class interval denoted
by i, So,

i = 54 ÷ 12 = 4.5 ≈ 5

or i = 54 ÷ 10 = 5.4 ≈ 5

d. The lower limit of the lowest class interval is preferable a

multiple of the class size of the class interval.

So, since the class interval size is 5 and the lowest

score is 28, the nearest multiple of 5 lower than 28 is 25,
which will be the lower limit. Thus, the lowest class
interval will be 25 – 29 since i is equal to 5.

e. Class mark is the sum of the lower and upper limits of a

class interval divided by two.

25 + 29 54
Class mark = = = 27
2 2

30 + 34 64
= = = 32,
etc.
2 2
A Grouped Distribution of the Algebra Test Scores of Forty
Students

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 Class Interval Tally Frequency
Class Mark

80 – 84 l 1
82

75 – 79 l 1
77

70 – 74 l 1
72

65 – 69 llll 4
67

60 – 64 llll 4
62

55 – 59 llll - ll 7
57

50 – 54 llll - l 6
52

45 – 49 llll - l 6
47

40 – 44 llll - l 6
42

35 – 39 lll 3
37

30 – 34 0
32

25 – 29 l 1
27

n= 40

In the lowest class interval, (25 – 29), the lower limit is 25

and the upper limit is 29. But the real limits are the class
boundaries. For the lowest class interval, the class boundaries are
24.5 and 29.5 and for the next class interval (30 – 34), the class
boundaries are 29.5 and 33.5. In other words, to get the lower class
boundary, simply subtract 0.5 from the lower limit and add 0.5 to

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the upper limit for the upper class boundary. The number of
observation in each class interval is the interval size. Thus, in the
class interval 25 – 29, the class size is 5.

Example:
The following scores were the results on an examination in
statistics.
88 77 72 68 66 60 55 51 47 37 26
85 77 71 68 64 58 54 50 45 36 25
81 75 71 67 63 57 53 50 45 35 24
80 75 70 67 63 57 52 49 44 33 23
79 74 70 66 62 57 52 49 40 29 19
79 74 69 66 61 56 51 48 39 27

Let us construct the frequency distribution table

a. Range = 88 – 19 = 69
b. Number of class interval = 10
c. Size of class interval ( i ) = 69 ÷ 10 = 6.9 ≈7.0

Since the lowest score is 19 and the size of the class interval
is 7, the multiple of 7 lower than 19 is 14. Therefore, the
lowest class interval is 14 - 20

Scores in Statistics Examination

Class Interval Frequency, f Class Mark Class

Boundaries

84 – 90 2 87 83.5 - 90.5

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 77 – 83 6 80 76.5 – 83. 5
70 – 76 9 73 69.5 – 76.5
63 – 69 11 66 62. 5 – 69.5
56 – 62 8 59 55.5 – 62.5
49 – 55 11 52 48.5 – 55.5
42 – 48 5 45 41.5 – 48.5
35 – 41 5 38 34.5 – 41.5
28 – 34 2 31 27.5 – 34.5
21 – 27 5 24 20.5 – 27.5
14 – 20 1 17 13.5 – 20.5

n = 65

Since the scores were arranged, the tally column is not

needed and the class frequency can be determined outright.

GRAPHICAL

The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution

can be made more interesting and easier to understand
when depicted in graphical form. A graph is a pictorial or
geometrical representation of a given data.

This may be in the form of a:

1. Frequency polygon
2. Bar graph
3. Stem and leaf display
4. Pie graph
5. Pictograph

The frequency polygon is also

sometimes called the line
graph because the graph is just
a line connecting the points
representing the important data
in the xy-plane
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Using the arithmetic scores of the 40 students, the frequency
polygon of the grouped data is presented below:

8 Test Scores
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

The bar graph is an

illustration of the data
using bars in the xy -
plane

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Statistics Scores

The stem and leaf display is

another visual illustration of the
distribution of data. This form,
however, is feasible only for a small
number of observations with at
least two – digit numbers.
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 Using the previous raw data on the previous test, the stem
will be the tens digit arranged in order and the leaf will be the ones
digits. The presentation will then be:

8 2
7 8 2
6 2 2 0 2 8 6 5 8
5 6 4 4 3 2 0 6 6 5 2
5 7 6
4 2 4 8 7 1 7 2 8 8 2
7 2
3 7 9 8
2 8

The pie graph is also known as the

circle graph. Obviously, the
presentation makes use of a circle
to represent given data that make
up a whole.

Considering the enrolment to represent the population, the

pie or circle graph shows:

Enrolment Data for 1st Semester, AY

2020- 2021

First Second Third Fourth

With the pictograph or pictogram,

picture symbols are used to illustrate
or represent the data under
consideration. Usually, in depicting
population data, the figures of
persons are used orWPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
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D. Activities/ Exercises

1. Using your grades in all your subjects from Grade 7 to 12

( whichever is available ), construct the following: ( Note: We
will keep it confidential and for monitoring purposes of your
performance too)
Grade 7 - 8 - bar graph
Grade 9 - 10 - pie graph
Grade 11 - 12 - line graph

How is your performance?

E. Evaluation/ Post Test

1. Construct the frequency distribution of the following set of

raw scores in English test.

68 44 55 48 53 58 82 47
42 46 63 43 65 56 55 56
59 52 68 52 65 51 57 28
56 45 40 54 71 62 42 55
48 40 47 60 38 39 78 40

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2. Using the data in #1, construct the following:
a. Frequency polygon
b. Bar graph
c. Stem and leaf display
d. Pie graph
e. pictograph

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Chapter 3: The Measures of Central Tendency

Overview
If one who works with statistics intends to have a set of
quantitative measures to have a glimpse of the form of distribution
and the characteristics of the population from where the data were
collected, he is to have measures, which summarize such data.
Further, he is to calculate a single number, which is typical of the
general level of magnitudes of the measurements in a set. Such
single figure, which is the concentration point of scores, is
preferred to as the measure of central tendency. The three
common measures of central tendency are the mean, the median
and the mode (Basilio, et. al., 2003).

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, you can:

1. identify the central tendency

2. solve problems related to mean, median and mode
3. relate to your everyday experiences

Pre – Test - “What do you already know?”

Before we start with our discussion, please try to answer the

following test. Don’t worry about your performance. This test aims
only to check what you already know about the lessons to follow.
1. Out of 70 numbers, 15 were 7s, 10 were 9s, 12 were 14s, 8
were 25s and the remaining were 20s. Find the mean of
these numbers.
2. The height of 20 young rambutan trees, which are to be
transplanted by a tree nursery aide, are 18, 20, 30, 36, 16,
14, 16, 20, 15, 16, 14, 17, 16, 21, 24, 22, 30, 35, 26 and 16
inches. Determine the median height.

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 3. The number of rice harvests in kilograms in a certain
number of years are 220, 212, 180, 230, 220, 230, 195 and
180. What is the common weight of harvest?

Lesson 1: The Mean

A. Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson you can:

1. identify and discuss the characteristics, properties and

uses of the mean, median and mode
2. solve problems related to mean of grouped and ungrouped
data

B. Time Allotment 3 hours

C. Discussion

1. Simple Arithmetic Mean for Ungrouped Data

The most popular measure used to represent a set of

numbers of a single number is the arithmetic mean. The
arithmetic mean or average of a set of measurement is
determined by adding the scores together and the sum is divided
by the number of scores.

Example:
The following are the students’ scores in a quiz. Compute the
mean score.
35, 42, 45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55
55, 56, 57, 57, 57, 60, 61, 62, 64, 64
65, 65, 68, 69, 70, 71, 71, 72, 73, 75

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 Answer: 59 (Compare this to your solution)

The sample mean that is denoted by X is generally employed as

an estimator (or predictor) of m, the mean of the population, which
is unknown.
When n is small, the definition form x =Σ X/n can be used to
compute the mean, but when n is large, say 50, 100 or more, the
said method of determining the mean is not practical. A frequency
distribution is made, where it is possible to compute the statistical
measures needed to describe the distribution.
To shorten the computation of the mean, an arbitrary origin is
used and the measurements are taken from these. For example,
one could measure each student’s score in excess of a stationary
score which is 70. The sum of the excesses divided by n will be the
mean excess and adding 70 to this would give us the mean score of
the group.
Let us say, the scores of 10 students in a mathematics test were
72, 80, 75, 70, 79, 73, 72, 74, 75 and 78. The total point in excess
of 70 is 48. Divide this by 10 and we get 4.8. Add this to 70 and,
therefore, the mean score of the group is 74.8.

1.1 Weighted Arithmetic Mean

Another method for calculating the mean is by multiplying each

of the scores by the corresponding frequency. Then add the
products and divide by the number of scores. Here, consider a
frequency distribution of ungrouped data, which shows the
number of times a variate, occurs. In symbols,

x1 f1 + x2 f2+ ……+ xi fi
x=
f1 + f2 + ……+ fi
where:
xi = number of different values
fi = frequency of the corresponding
scores

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 Example:
xi fi fi x i

60 4 240
58 8 464
65 12 780
63 5 315
52 10 520
55 13 715
50 15 750
70 8 560
56 11 616
67 9 603
__________________________________________________
Σfi = 95 Σfixi =
5563

Each value of xi above is weighted as shown by the

corresponding frequency, fi. The sum of all the products in the third
column equals to 5563 and then divided by the total frequency,
which is equal to 95, the weighted arithmetic mean, x = 58.56.

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 This long method of computing the mean is conveniently used
in finding the mean of not more than 30 cases.

Example.

In the performance evaluation of teachers, if the supervisor’s

evaluation is given a weight of 5, self - evaluation is 2, peer’s
evaluation is 2 and client evaluation is 1 and the teacher’s rating is
90, 95, 85 and 90, the mean rating of the teacher would be

5(90) + 2(95) + 2(85) + 1(90)

x =
10
900
x = = 90
10

2. Mean of Grouped Data

The short method in computing the mean is conveniently

used for more than 30 cases because it involves the use of small
numbers.

Example:
Find the mean of the following test scores.
30 33 54 44 53 49 46 44
32 35 57 43 56 50 45 43
31 34 51 39 52 49 46 42
28 33 52 41 51 45 47 44
27 34 53 36 48 42 37 38

Computation of the mean of Test scores of 40 college students

Class interval Midpoint f d

fd

57 – 59 58 1 5 5
54 – 56 55 2 4 8
51 – 53 52 6 3 18
48 – 50 49 4 2 8

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45 – 47 46 5 1 5
42 – 44* 43 7 0 0
39 – 41 40 2 -1 -2
36 – 38 37 3 -2 -6
33 – 35 34 5 -3 -15
30 – 32 31 3 -4 -12
27 – 29 28 2 -5 -10
n= 40 Σfd = -
1

The formula for computing the mean is

Σfd
M = AM + ci
N
where:

AM – assumed mean
Σfd – algebraic sum of the products of their
frequencies by the
corresponding deviations from the assumed
mean
n – number of class
ci - class interval
The steps followed are:

1. Prepare a table having a step distribution column, midpoint

column, frequency (f) column, deviation column and fd
column;
2. Group the scores under the step distribution column using3
for class interval (ci);
3. Fill the midpoint column;
4. Determine the step where the assumed mean will lie and
enclose it with horizontal lines across the width of the table;
5. For the assumed mean, one may select step interval
regardless of the frequency. It could be at the middle, at the
bottom, or at the top of the distribution. However, to
facilitate the computation, the middle point is preferable*
42 + 44 86
AM = = = 43

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 2 2

6. Fill the f column and get the total n, which is 40.

7. Fill the d column beginning from the step where the assumed
mean lies, give this a 0 deviation. Number the steps from 0
upward 1, 2, 3, 4, ,5 and so on using positive numbers. Below
0, number steps downward -1, -2,
-3 and so on using negative numbers.
8. Multiply the frequency by the deviation for each step to get
the fd column. Get their summation, which is equal -1. This is
the algebraic sum of fd. Divide the summation fd by n and
multiply by the class interval c.

Σfd (-1) 3
c = = (-0.025)3 = -0.075
n 40

This is the correction for the assumed mean.

9. Add the correction value of -0.075 to the assumed mean value

of 43.

Solution: x = 43 + (-0.075)
= 42.925 or 42.92

3. Properties of the Mean

3.1 The presence of an extreme value that is very large or

very small in a series of data will have a pronounced effect
upon the arithmetic mean.

Example:

The scores of 7 students in a quiz are 84, 80, 78, 85, 82, 80
and 24 and the mean is 73. The single low mark of 24 has pulled
the mean down to a value of 73, but this does not picture the
distribution of scores for we cannot say that the scores are

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scattered around 73. Better say, “Except for 24, which is an
extremely low score, the mean score of the group is 81.5.”

3.2 Adding a constant to each observation increases the mean

by the amount of constant added. If a constant is subtracted from
each score, the mean is decreased by the amount of the constant.
When each score is multiplied ( or divided ) by a constant, the
mean is multiplied ( or divided ) by that constant. This is shown
below.

Original score a b c
d
(x) (x+5) (x-2) (x*3)
(x/5)
20 25 18 60 4
30 35 28 90 6
40 45 38 120 8
50 55 48 150 10
60 65 58 180 12
Σx =200 Σa=200 Σb =200 Σc = 200 Σd
=200
x = 40 a= 45 b = 38 c = 120 d= 8

3.3 The third property is that the algebraic sum of the

deviations of the various values from the arithmetic mean equals
zero.
Example:
The scores 8, 4, 2, 6, 7 has a mean of 5.4. The deviations of
the numbers from their arithmetic mean are 2.6, -1.4, -3.4, 0.6 and
1.6 respectively, with algebraic sum equal to zero.

Also, the sum of the squares of the deviations of values from

the arithmetic mean is a minimum, i.e., it is less than the sum of
the squares of the deviations around any other value. The sum of
the squares of the deviations taken from the mean are (2.6)2 +

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(-1.4)2 + (-3.4)2 + (.6)2 + (1.6)2 = 23.2

D. Activities/ Exercises

1. List the food expenses of your family from Monday to Sunday

next week. Compute the average. Compare this to your
average food expenses before the pandemic. Has there any
difference? By how much? Why? Explain your answer.

2. “Let’s Go Fishing”

Prepare a box full of fish – shaped

number cards from 1 – 20 (5 cards
each number for a total of 100 number
cards). Draw the first 30 cards by the
use of an improvised hook and compute
the mean. Record your activity. You
may play music for the background.

E. Evaluation/ Post - Test

1. Find the mean of 10, 12, 11, 14 and 21. Square each value.
What is the new mean? Is this mean squared? Comment.
2. If the mean annual yield of mangoes in 5 orchards is 180,000
kilograms, can one of the orchards yield 40,000 kilograms?
3. A company pays its 115 employees a mean monthly salary of
P10,500; a second one pays its 75 employees an average
monthly salary of P12,720; and, a third company pays its 92
employees an average monthly salary of P11,300. What is the
average salary per employee in the three companies?

Lesson 2: The Median

A. Learning Outcomes

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 At the end of the lesson you can:

1. familiarize the median

2. apply concepts related to this topic
3. solve problems on median

B. Time Allotment 3 hours

C. Discussion

The median is another measure of central tendency. It is a

value that divides an array into two equal parts. So, it is that point
in a set of variates above which are an equal number of cases as
there are below it. The data must be arranged from highest to
lowest or vice – versa.

1. Median for Ungrouped Data

To find the median, it is necessary to arrange all the items in

a distribution in either ascending or descending order and pick out
the middle item with its corresponding value.

 Remember this
1. When the set of data values is odd in number, the median
is the middle n either from the highest or from the lowest
of the distribution.
2. When n is even, the median is the average between the
two middle values.

For example, consider these numbers: 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
39, 40, 41 and 42. Since n is odd, the middlemost is the
median which is 38.

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 Suppose the numbers were 35, 36, 37, 38, 38, 38, 40, 41
and42. The median would still be 38 since it is the middle
item in the set of values.

However, if the set of data is even in number, take the

arithmetic mean of these two middle items to find the median
value.

35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42

Since n is even, there are 2 middle value, 38 & 39

38 + 39 77
Median = = = 38.5
2 2

This case is true when the variable being considered is

viewed as a discrete variable. If the variable is viewed as
continuous, the median is calculated by the method used in
calculating the median from grouped data in the form of
frequency distribution. For such, the formula ( Edwards,
1996 ) below is applied.

Md=L+
[ 0.5 n−fc
fm
c
]
where:

Md - median
L - exact lower limit of the class interval
containing the median
fc - sum of all frequencies below L
fm - frequency of the class interval containing
the median
n - number of cases
c - class interval

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 Consider this example:

42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 34

Construct a table for the computation of the median

Scores Frequency Cumulative Frequency

42 3 34
41 1 31
40 5 30
39 2 25
38 8 23
37 7 15
36 3 8
35 4 5
34 1 1

n = 34

To calculate the median

1. Compute the cumulative frequencies ( copy the lower most

frequency of 1, then cross add to the next higher
frequency of 4. The sum of it is written on the cumulative
frequency column, becomes 5, and so on );
2. Multiply the total number of cases of 0.5, so 34 * 0.05 =
17.0;
3. Determine where m2 score or the median lies. This is the
smallest cumulative frequency where n2 lies. In our
example the 17th score is 23, which is across the class 38.

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 So, this class contains the median. The exact lower limit of
this class is 37.5, which is L in the formula;
4. Determine the cumulative frequency of the class
immediately below the median class, 38. In the example, it
is 37, which corresponds to a cumulative frequency 15.
This is fc;
5. Determine the frequency of the median class 38. This is 8,
which is fm;
6. Determine the interval size, c. In our example, it is only 1
since the scores are not grouped in categories;
7. Substitute all values needed in the formula;

Md=L+
[
0.5 n−fc
fm
c
]
Md=37.5+
[
17−15
8
1
]
Md = 37.5
2. Median for Grouped Data

 Consider this example

Class Interval Frequency, f Cumulative

Frequency

57 – 59 1 40
54 – 56 2 39
51 – 53 6 37
48 – 50 4 31
45 – 47 5 27
42 – 44 7 22
39 – 41 2 15
36 – 38 3 13
33 – 35 5 10
30 – 32 3 5
27 – 29 2 2

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The step involved in computing the median from grouped data are
as follows:
1. Determine the value, which divides the distribution into two
equal parts. So, consider the “less than” cumulative
frequency. For the foregoing data, N*0.5 = 40*0.5 = 20
2. The 20th score is in the cumulative frequency 22. So the
median class is 42 – 44.
3. The exact lower limit of 42 – 44 is 41.5. This if L.
4. The frequency of the median class or fm = 7
5. The cumulative frequency below the median class of fc is 15.
6. The size of the interval or c = 3
7. Substitute the computed values in the formula

Md=L+
[ 0.5 n−fc
fm
c
]
Md=41.5+
[]
5
7
3

Md = 43.64
3. Properties of the Median

1. The median is that point in an arranged set of variates above

which are an equal number of cases as there are below it. So,
it is a point in a distribution such that 50% or ½ of the cases
are below it and 50% or ½ are above it.
2. The median is an ordinal statistic since its calculation is
based on the ordinal properties of the data being analyzed.
3. The median is not amenable to further computations.
4. The median is not affected by extreme values since it is a
positional measure. The highest value in a distribution does
not enter into the computation of the median.

To illustrate it as a positional measure, consider the

distributions below:
Distribution A 5 7 8 12 14 15 19

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 Distribution B 5 7 8 12 14 35 39

5. In an open – ended distribution, the median is the most

reliable measure of central tendency that can be computed.
6. The medians of different distributions cannot be combined to
give the median of the combined distributions.

D. Activities/ Exercises

1. “Let’s Go Fishing”
Using the same set of number
cards of Activity 2 in Lesson 1,
draw the second 20 cards by the
use of an improvised hook and
compute the median. Record your
activity. You may play music for the
background.

E. Evaluation/ Post Test

1. The following sales ( in thousand pesos ) of a department

store were recorded during a 15 – day period
30 20 24
36 27 26
35 32 25
28 40 29
24 25 27

Calculate the median sale. After knowing the median, can you
tell if the scores are normally distributed?

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Lesson 3: The Mode

A. Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson you can:
1. familiarize the mode
2. apply concepts related to this topic
3. solve problems on mode

B. Time Allotment 3 hours

C. Discussion

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 The mode is a value in the data set, which occurs most
frequently. It is the “most fashionable” value or most popular or
commonest score and the simplest measure of central tendency.
Denoted by Mo, it can be determined for both qualitative and
quantitative data. It can be easily determined by inspection .

1. Crude Mode

Distributions may have one or more modes. A distribution

that has only one mode is unimodal; that with two modes is
bimodal; with three is trimodal and so on. That with two or more
modes is also called multi –modal.
Distribution A below is unimodal (38 mode), Distribution B is
bimodal (36 and 38 are the modes), and the Distribution C is
trimodal (35, 36, and 38). These are the three modes.

Distribution A 34, 35, 36, 38, 38, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42
Distribution B 34, 35, 36, 36, 37, 38, 38, 39, 40, 41
Distribution C 34, 35, 35, 36, 36, 37, 38, 38, 39, 40

2. True Mode

This can be estimated from the mean and the median. The
formula used is
Mo = 3 Md – 2 M
Using the answers of the previous example for Mean and
Median, the modal value is

True Mode, Mo = 3 ( 43. 64 ) – 2 ( 42.93 )

= 130.92 – 85.86
= 45.06

3. Properties of the Mode

1. The mode is used for nominal data. Its computation

depends on the frequency of occurrence.

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 2. It indicates roughly the center of concentration of a
distribution.
3. The mode is a very unstable value. It can change
radically if the method of rounding data is changed.
4. It is appropriate to use the mode as a measure of
central tendency if the distribution is bimodal.

D. Activities/Exercises

1. “Let’s Go Fishing”
Using the same set of number cards of
Activity 2 in Lesson 1, draw the last 50
cards by the use of an improvised hook
and identify the mode. Record your
activity. You may play music for the
background.

E. Evaluation/ Post – Test

1. The number of rice harvests in kilograms in a certain number

of years are 220, 212, 180, 230, 220, 230, 195 and 180. What
is the common weight of harvest?

F. References

Basilio, Faith B., et. al. ( 2003 ). Fundamental Statistics. Trinitas

Publishing, Inc.

Cabero, Jonathan B., et. al. ( 2013 ). Business Statistics. Anvil

Publishing, Inc.
Prime Educational Consultancy.( 2013 ). A Reviewer for the
Licensure Examination for Teachers by Philippine Normal
University. FCA Printhouse

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 https://medium.com/@honeysuckleseaweed/inductive-and-
deductive-reasoning-913bcf9bb598

hppts://ecmiindmath.org/2015/06/09/theoretical-and-numerical-
investigation-of-nonlinear-mathematical-models/amp/

https://investigations.terc.edu/the-curriculum/

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RbJaRjA7gM&hcb=1

Congratulations for completing this

module!

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Student’s Information

Name:
Program:
Year and Section:
Contact No.:
E-mail address:
Facebook Account:
Messenger Account:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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 Vision 2020
WPU: the leading knowledge center for
sustainable
development of West Philippines and
beyond.

Mission
WPU commits to develop quality human
resource and green technologies for a dynamic
economy and sustainable
development through relevant instruction,
research and extension services.

Core Values (3CT)

Culture of Excellence
Commitment
Creativity
Teamwork

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WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)