Radiation Pattern:

• It is defined as a graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna, as a function of space co-

ordinates.
• It is defined for Far fields only.
• The radiation in defined spherical co-ordinates is:
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅

Field Pattern Power Pattern

It represents magnitude of electric or magnetic field. It represents the square of electric and magnetic field.

Radiation Pattern lobes:

• Radiation pattern is a portion of radiation pattern bounded by regions of weak radiation intensity.
• Major Lobe- The lobe consisting of the direction of maximum radiation.
• Minor Lobe- Major lobes represents radiation in undesired direction.
• Side Lobe- They are adjacent to major lobe and does not make an angle of 180 degrees with the major lobe.
• Back Lobe- It makes an angle of 180 degree with the major lobe

Isotropic, Directional and Omnidirectional Patterns

Isotropic Radiator Directional Antenna Omni-Directional Antenna

Radiates equally in all directions Directional antenna reflects They have non-directional
effectively in a particular pattern in any given plane
direction.
Radiation pattern of isotropic Directivity of directional Directional Pattern in
antenna is a sphere antenna is maximum Orthogonal plane.
In the diagram shown, the In the diagram shown above, In the diagram above, the
antenna placed at the center directional antenna is having antenna is radiating in x-z plane.
radiates in all direction till directivity in the y direction.
distance “r.”
Beam solid angle:

• Beam solid angle is defined as a solid angle at which all power radiated by an antenna comes out, with
maximum radiation intensity.
• Beam solid angle is also called Beam area.
• Denoted by Ω𝐴 .
• Its unit is watt.
• Mathematical Expression is:
2Π Π
Ω𝐴 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑃(𝜃, Φ)𝑑Ω watts
• Radiation intensity should be maximum and constant throughout ΩA and it should be zero elsewhere.

Radiation power density and Radiated Power:

• It is defined as the directional rate of transfer of energy per unit area of an antenna electromagnetic field.
• The instantaneous vector is:
𝜔𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 × 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡
• Instantaneous power radiated by the antenna is:
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = ∯𝑠 𝜔𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑆
• The radiation power density is:
1
𝜔 = 2 𝑅𝑒{𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ }

• Power radiated by antenna is:

1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ∯𝑠 𝑅𝑒{𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ }
2

Radiation Intensity:

• Radiation Intensity is defined as power radiated by an antenna per unit solid angle.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
Ω𝐴
• Radiation intensity is a far field parameter.
• It can be obtained by multiplying radiation power density with square of distance(r).
𝑈 = 𝜔. 𝑟 2
Beam Width:

• Beamwidth is defined as the aperture angle from where most of power is radiated.
• There are two types of beamwidths:
1. Half power beamwidth (HPBW)
a) It is defined as the angular separation in which the magnitude of radiation pattern is -3dB
from the peak of main beam.
70𝜆
b) 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = λ= wavelength, D= diameter
𝐷
2. First null beamwidth (FNBW)
a) It is defined as angular separation between the first nulls of radiation pattern.
b) FNBW = 2HPBW
Directivity:

• It is defined as the ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna to the radiation intensity
averaged over all direction.
𝑈 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
, where 𝑈𝑎𝑣𝑔(𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 4𝜋
• If direction is not specified, then direction of maximum radiation intensity is considered.

Antenna gain:

• Antenna gain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of antenna’s radiation pattern.
• Antenna gain is defined as ratio of radiation intensity in given direction of maximum radiation to radiation
intensity obtained if the power accepted by the antenna was radiated isotropically.
4𝜋 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Antenna gain = 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Antenna efficiency:

• It is defined as a ratio of power radiated by an antenna 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 to input power of supplied to an antenna 𝑃𝑖𝑛 .
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
• Antenna efficiency = 𝑃𝑖𝑛
• Efficiency of antenna explains the capability of antenna to deliver maximum power to its output with minimum
loss.

Radiation resistance:

• Radiation resistance is a hypothetical resistance which is used to express the power dissipation in it.
• Power radiated by input terminal of antenna:
1
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 2 |𝐼𝑖𝑛 |2 𝑅𝑖𝑛
• All input power isn’t radiated ideally, some power is lost:
1 1 1
|𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑖𝑛
2 𝑖𝑛
= |𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 𝑟𝑎𝑑
+ |𝐼 |2 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
2 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

Antenna Input impedance:

• Input impedance is given as:

𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴
• 𝑅𝐴 = input resistance of antenna
• 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
 • 𝑋𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡
• Input impedance of an antenna is impedance offered by an antenna at it’s input terminal.
• Input impedance is defined as a ratio of voltage to current across input terminal of antenna.

Polarization:

• Polarization of antenna is defined as orientation of electric field vector of the radiated electromagnetic wave
by the antenna.
• Polarization describes how electromagnetic waves are physically oriented in space.
• Figure shows the representation of EM wave in free space.

• If the electrical field vector is along the vertical plane and the magnetic field vector is vertically polarized.
• If the electric field vector is along the horizontal plane, then EM wave will be horizontally polarized.
• Types of polarization:
o Linear Polarization: Type of polarization in which all the waves pass similar alignment in a space i.e.
either vertical or horizontal is called Linear polarization.
o Circular polarization: Antennas are designed to radiate horizontally or vertically along all the plane in
between is called circular polarization.
o Elliptical Polarization: When two linearly polarized waves of unequal amplitude that are mutually
perpendicular to each other are combined, then elliptically polarized waves are produced.

Antenna Temperature:

• Antenna temperature (Ta) is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given
environment.
• It is dependent on its pattern and the thermal environment in which it is located.
• The noise (antenna) temperature is:

1 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇𝐴 = ∫ ∫ 𝑅(𝜃, 𝜙). 𝑇(𝜃, 𝜙) sin 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
4𝜋 0 0

Here, R is the radiation pattern and T is the temperature distribution.

Antenna Radiation efficiency:

Friis Transmission formula:

Bandwidth:

• The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which the performance of the
antenna, with respect to some characteristic, conforms to a specified standard.”
• The bandwidth can be considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of a center frequency (usually
the resonance frequency for a dipole), where the antenna characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern,
beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction, radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable
value of those at the center frequency.
• For example, a 10:1 bandwidth indicates that the upper frequency is 10 times greater than the lower. For
narrowband antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference (upper minus
lower) over the center frequency of the bandwidth. For example, a 5% bandwidth indicates that the frequency
difference of acceptable operation is 5% of the center frequency of the bandwidth.
• Associated with pattern bandwidth are gain, side lobe level, beamwidth, polarization, and beam direction while
input impedance and radiation efficiency are related to impedance bandwidth.
Directivity extended:

• For Antenna with orthogonal polarization component:

𝐷0 = 𝐷𝜃 + 𝐷ϕ
4𝜋𝑈𝜃
• 𝐷𝜃 = (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜃 +(𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜙
4𝜋𝑈𝜙
• 𝐷𝜙 = (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜃 +(𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜙
o 𝑈𝜃 = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in 𝜃 field component.
o 𝑈𝜙 = radiation intensity in a given direction contained in 𝜙 field component.
o (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜃 = radiated power in all directions contained in 𝜃 field component.
o (𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 )𝜙 = radiated power in all directions contained in 𝜙 field component.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4𝜋𝑈 4𝜋
• D0 = 𝑃 =Ω
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐴
4𝜋 4𝜋
• D0 = ≈
Ω𝐴 Θ1𝑟 Θ2𝑟
o Θ1𝑟 = half-power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other (rad)
o Θ2𝑟 = half-power beamwidth in one plane (rad)

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4𝜋(180/𝜋)2 41.253
• D0 = ≈ Θ1𝑑 Θ2𝑑
=Θ
1𝑑 Θ2𝑑
o Θ1𝑑 = half-power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other (deg)
o Θ2𝑓 = half-power beamwidth in one plane (deg)

Sample Numerical:
Antenna efficiency:

• Causes of loss:
o Reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna.
o Conduction and dielectric losses.
Antenna Gain Extended:

• Absolute/realized gain:

o If the antenna is matched to the transmission line, that is, the antenna input impedance Zin is equal to
the characteristic impedance Zc of the line (|Γ|=0) then the two gains are equal (Gre = G)
Bandwidth Extended:

• The bandwidth is defined as the rage of frequencies over which the performance of the antenna conforms to
a specific standard.
• The bandwidth can be considered a range of frequencies on either side of the frequency spectrum (usually the
resonance frequency for the dipole), where the antenna characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern,
beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction, radiation efficiency) are within acceptable value
of those at center frequency.
• Broadband- Fu/Fl
• Narrowband- ((Fu-Fl)/Fc) *100
• BW ratio = 40:1- Frequency dependent antennas

Polarization Extended:

• Linear Polarization:
o Δ𝜙 = 𝜙𝑦 − 𝜙𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3 … ..
o Only one component, or
o Two orthogonal linear components that are in time phase or 180° (or multiples of 180°) out of phase.
• Circular polarization:
o can be achieved only when magnitudes of the two components are the same and the time phase
difference between them are the odd multiples of π/2. That is

o The field must have two orthogonal linear components, and

o The two components must have the same magnitude, and
o The two components must have time phase difference of odd multiples of 90°
 • Elliptical Polarization:
o Elliptical Polarization can be attained only when the time-phase difference between the two
component is the odd multiples of π/2 and their magnitudes are not the same or when the time-phase
difference between the two components is not equal to multiple of π/2 (irrespective of their
magnitude). That is,

o The fields must have two orthogonal linear components, and

o The two components can be of the same or different magnitude.
o If the two components are not of same magnitude, the time-phase difference between the two
components must not be 0 or multiples of 180 (because then it will become linear).
o If the two components are of the same magnitude, the time-phase shift difference between the two
components must not be off multiples of 90 (because then it will be circular)

Polarization loss factor:

• The polarization of the receiving antenna would not be the same as the polarization of the incident antenna.
This is commonly known as “polarization mismatch.” The amount of power extracted by the antenna from the
incoming signal will not be maximum because of the polarization loss. Assuming that the electrical field of the
incoming wave can be written as
 • Sample Numerical:

Input Impedance extended:

Input impedance is defined as “the impedance” presented by an antenna at its terminals or the ratio of the voltage to
the current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to the magnetic fields at a
point.
 The remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal
resistance Rg of the generator, and it is given by:

The maximum power is delivered to the antenna when we

have conjugate matching:

Thus, to radiate half of the available power through Rr, you must
dissipate the other half as heat in the generator through Rg.
Antenna in Receiving Mode:

Polarization efficiency:

• The ratio of power received by antenna from a given plane wave of arbitrary polarization to the power that
would be received by the same antenna from the plane wave of arbitrary polarization to the power that would
be received by the same antenna from a plane wave of the same power flux density and direction of
propagation, whose state of polarization has been adjusted for a maximum received power. This is similar to
the PLF and it is expressed as:

Vector Effective Length:

• The Vector Effective Length (VEL) of an antenna is a fundamental parameter that describes how efficiently an
antenna converts an applied voltage or current into an electric field in a specific direction. It is particularly
important for receiving antennas, but it also plays a role in transmitting antennas.
• The vector effective length le is defined as:

• It can be written in terms of open-circuit voltage Voc induced in receiving antenna:

 Antenna equivalent areas:

1. Effective (area)aperture: the ratio of the available power at the terminals of receiving antenna to the
power flux density of a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave being polarized-
matched to the antenna.

o The effective aperture is the area which when multiplied by the incident power density gives the power
delivered to the load.

o Under conditions of maximum power transfer (conjugate matching), Rr +RL = RT and XA = -XT,

2. Scattering (area) Aperture: It is defined as the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident power
density is equal to the scattered or reradiated power. Under conjugate mechanism, which when multiplied
by incident power density gives the scattering power.

3. Loss (area)Aperture: The loss area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the incident
power density leads to the power dissipated as heat through RL. Under conjugate mechanism:

4. Capture (area)Aperture: The capture area is defined as the equivalent area, which when multiplied by the
incident power density leads to the total power captured, collected or intercepted by the antenna. Under
conjugate matching:

Capture Area = Effective area + Scattering Area + Loss Area

Aperture Efficiency:
FRIIS Transmission equation:

• The Friis transmission equation relates the power received to the power transmitted between two antenna
separated by a distance R> 2D2/𝜆, where D is the largest dimension of either antenna.

• If the input power at the terminals of the transmitting antenna is Pt, then its isotropic power density W0 at
the distance R from the antenna is

• Where et is the radiation efficiency of the transmitting antenna.

• For a non-isotropic transmitting antenna, the power density can be written as,

• For receiving antenna

• The amount of power collected by the antenna can be written as:

 • Understanding the Friis Transmission Equation allows engineers to design communication systems with
appropriate power levels, antenna gains, and signal processing techniques to ensure reliable and efficient
communication over a given distance. It also serves as a basis for more complex models and simulations used
in telecommunications engineering.

Antenna Measurements

• Advantages of far field measurement:

a) The measured field pattern is valid for any distance in the far-field region.
b) only simple transformation of the field strength according to 1/r is required.
c) If a power pattern is required, only power (amplitude) measurement is needed.
d) The result is not very sensitive to the changes in the location of the phase center of the
antennas and thus the rotation of the AUT does not cause significant measurement errors.
e) Coupling and multiple reflections between the antennas are not significant.
• Disadvantages:
a) The main disadvantage of the far-field measurements is the required large distance between
the antennas leading to large antenna ranges.
b) The distance can be too large for a measurement in an anechoic chamber or it can result in
atmospheric attenuation.
c) In these cases one needs to consider measurements in the radiating near-field region.

Sources of error in measurements:

 • At the far-field limit 2D2/λ, the phase difference between the aperture edge and center is 22.5◦. Doubling the
measurement distance halves this phase error.
• Due to the phase error, the measured gain is smaller and the side lobes are higher than in the ideal planewave
case.
• An amplitude taper of 0.25 dB is acceptable.

2. Reflections

• Reflections from surroundings produce field variations (amplitude and phase ripples) in the test zone as the
direct wave and reflected waves interfere.
• On outdoor ranges, waves are reflected from the ground and close-by objects like trees and buildings.
• In anechoic chambers, reflections come from the walls, floor, and ceiling.
• Also the reflections from the antenna support structures and multiple reflections between the antennas may
be significant.

3. Alignment Error

• Antenna measurements are three-dimensional vector field measurements. Therefore, many kinds of alignment
errors are possible.
• Careless alignment of the source antenna may increase the amplitude error of the test zone and make the
illumination asymmetrical.
• Correct source alignment is important also in the measurement of low cross-polar levels.

4. Man-made interfering signals may couple to the sensitive receiver especially on outdoor ranges.

5. At large measurement distances, the effects of the atmosphere may be considerable. Variations of the refractive
index can cause scintillation and multipath propagation. At millimeter and submillimeter wave frequencies, the
attenuation of the atmosphere is high and, thus, there may be noticeable amplitude variations during the
measurement.

6. Incorrect use of cables may cause errors. Cables which have insufficient shielding may leak and act as antennas.
Also unbalanced transmission lines can radiate as currents may flow on the outer surface of the cable.

7. Impedance mismatches between the instruments and antennas may cause errors in gain measurements.

8. Imperfections of the transmitter, receiver, and positioner cause measurement errors. However, in most
measurements these instrumentation errors are negligible.

Measurement Ranges:

• Far field- outdoor ranges

• Near field- indoor ranges – compact antennas, large millimeter and submillimeter wave antennas.
• Which range type suits best for the measurement of a certain antenna depends mainly on the physical size and
frequency of the antenna. Sometimes, the best measurement site is the environment where the antenna is
used.
• Elevated ranges:
o The basic far-field range is an elevated range
o Antennas are placed high on towers, buildings or hills to reduce the effects of environment. In most
cases, the AUT is operated as a receiving antenna.
• Slant Ranges:
o If the source antenna is near the ground and the AUT is on a tower, the range is called a slant range.
o Ground-Reflection Ranges- By proper designing two signals can be made to add constructively.

• Anechoic Chambers: It comes under indoor ranges. Anechoic chambers are developed with inside walls
covered with RF absorbent material. Anechoic chambers can be used for the far-field measurements of small
antennas. Often the end wall can be opened and the anechoic chamber may be combined with an outdoor
range. Primary material-> carbon-loaded polyurethane foam. Pyramids and wedges are widely used shapes.
Transmitters and Receivers:

• To make accurate pattern measurements, a sufficiently powerful transmitter and a good receiver is needed
• The transmitter is usually close to the source antenna. The transmitter should have a stable frequency and pure
spectrum.
• The receiver should be sensitive, narrow-band to suppress interfering signals, linear, and should have a large
dynamic range. Heterodyne receivers dedicated for antenna measurements and Vector Network Analyzer
(VNA) systems modified for antenna measurements are available for demanding measurements.
• Often there is a reference antenna at the receiving site to tune the receiver if the signal frequency drifts during
the measurement. The reference antenna provides also a phase reference.

Friis transmission equation- Gain measurement:

Two antenna method:

Three antenna method: