1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Physical fitness means may things to different people. Some believe that
being physically fit means being muscular and being able to lift heavy weights.
Others believe that to be fit is to be perceived as slim. To some others, being
physically fit is being able to endure the physical demands of daily living. These
common perceptions about physical fitness have provided many investigators
with great enthusiasm to conduct research regarding its health and performance
related components. Basic in their research is to find out the anatomical and
physiological effects associated with exercise. Of particular interest are the
scientific principles and the applications of exercise protocols in developing the
organ systems of the body.

Currently, there are many approaches used to develop one’s fitness.

However, there is no single approach that will develop all aspects associated
with it. It will require a variety of approaches to achieve an optimal level of
fitness.

In recent years, exercise physiologists have explored other activities aside

from engaging oneself in exercise and recreational sports. These activities
involve efforts of low intensity such as attending to household chores like
gardening, floor sweeping, washing clothes, etc. as alternative forms of exercise
to reduce the risk of degenerative diseases. This recent findings has provided
another surprising information regarding the traditional notion that
fitness could only be achieved only through a regimented exercise program.

In the local setting, physical fitness has gain wide support not only in the
school system but also in both public and private sectors of society. This
overwhelming success is perhaps attributed to the significant contribution of the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) and the trimedia – radio,
television and news print to espouse the health benefits associated with active
engagement in sports and exercise.

However, much is still to be done. Based on local data, mass-based

program on physical fitness is not effectively implemented since there are a
number of logistical and human resource problems in the field. Although the
current scenario is commonly observed in the school system throughout the
country, the growing demand of the youth and the elderly to engage in a variety
of movement activities has been positively addressed in the mainstream of health
and local government units.
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Activity Sheet No. 1

PHYSICAL FITNESS TEST

Fitness Testing Date: _______

Personal Profile

Name: ______________________ Professor: ____________________

Course: _____________________ Yr. & Sec.: ____________________
Age: ________ Sex: ________

Health/Fitness Profile

Weight: ______ (kg. /lbs.) Exercise Pulse Rate _____ (bpm)

Height: ______ (in. /cms.) Recovery PR 1 (30 secs.) _____ (bpm)
Resting Pulse Rate ______ (bpm) Recovery PR 2 (30 secs.) _____ (bpm)

Medical Record*:
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
*Record any diagnosed chronic illness/sickness/postural deviation obtained in the last 12 months.

Fitness Test Pre-test Scores Fitness Category**

Step Test
Sit-up
Push-up
Vertical Jump
Sit and Reach
Body Mass Index
**Please refer to Appendix A for corresponding Fitness Category.

Test Instructions:

1. Accomplish the necessary information in the activity sheet.

2. Students who have current health problem should seek medical approval
before going through the fitness tests.
3. Warm-up activities must be performed prior taking the fitness tests.
4. Specific directions for each fitness test are shown on pagers 46-47.
5. To determine one’s body mass index (BMI), use the BMI Calculator on
page 61.
6. Shade the corresponding fitness category based on one’s fitness score I
the pre-test fitness web on page 68 (Appendix E-1).
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CHAPTER 2

THE HUMAN SKELETON, MUSCLES, HEART & BLOOD

VESSELS
The HUMAN SKELETON

The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones which may be divided
into two main groups.

1. Axial skeleton which is composed of the:

1.1. Skull – cranium (head) and the face
1.2. Hyoid, and the
1.3. Trunk – vertebral column, sternum (chest bone) & the ribs; and

2. Appendicular skeleton
2.1. Upper extremity
 Clavicle and scapula (shoulder girdle)
 Humerus (upper arm bone)
 Ulna and Radius (lower arm bones)
 Carpals and Metacarpals (hands)
 Phalanges (fingers) and
2.2. Lower extremity
 Pelvis (hip bone)
 Femur (thigh bone)
 Patella (knee bone)
 Tibia and Fibula (leg bones)
 Tarsals and Metatarsals (feet)
 Phalanges (toes)

The following are the functions of the skeletal bones

1. They protect and support the internal organs in the body.
2. They give shape to the entire human body.
3. They serve as attachments for the skeletal muscles for movement.
4. They form joints which serve as levers for movement.

In relation to fitness, bones weaken when an individual lives an active or

sedentary life. Exercise strengths the bones by improving the blood flow to its
cells.

Figure 1 shows the different skeletal parts of the body. It is important to

know these parts to facilitate our discussion in the succeeding chapters of the
manual.
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Figure 1. The Human Skeleton – front view

 5

Figure 2. The Human Skeleton – side view.

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The MUSCLES

Muscles are composed of thousands of fibers or cells which serve as their

structural units. They are grouped into three classes namely:

1. Skeletal Muscles (Striated or Voluntary Muscles)

2. Cardiac Muscles (Heart Muscles)
3. Smooth Muscles (Unstriated, Visceral or Involuntary Muscles)

Skeletal muscles make it possible for humans to move. These muscles

are capable of performing wide variety of movement depending on the type of
joint and muscles involved. Muscles that decrease joint angles are called flexor
muscles while muscles that increase joint angles are called extensor muscles.
There are over 400 voluntary skeletal muscles which comprise between 40-50%
of the total body weight (Fox, 1987). They are attached to the bones by tough
connective tissues called tendons.

The skeletal muscles perform at least four (4) distinct functions:

1. They give special shape to the different parts of the body.
2. They produce locomotor movement
3. They serve for postural support.
4. They produce heat during periods of clod stress.

It is important to note that in a strength building exercise, muscles do not

increase in number but rather they increase in fiber bulk and the cross-sectional
area of the muscle group. Accordingly, each muscle fiber is surrounded by a
tough, thin elastic sheath called sacrolemma which thickens or develops as a
result of strength training exercise. Within a period of 6-8 weeks, muscles
increase in size (hypertrophy) and strength as each individual muscle fiber
physiologically adapt to the resistance.

Figures 3 & 4 shows the skeletal muscles that are often used in fitness
exercise.

Cardiac muscle pertains to the heart muscle. This muscle is involuntary

and innervated by the autonomic nervous system. Its main function is to pump
out blood to supply oxygen and nutrients to the different parts of the body.

Visceral muscles are smooth muscle fibers which are found in the walls
of internal or visceral organs such as intestines of the digestive system. These
fibers are generally considered involuntary since they receive their innervations
through the autonomic nervous system.
 7

Figure 3. The Muscles of the body – front view.

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Figure 4. The Muscles of the body – back view.

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The HEART and BLOOD VESSELS

The human heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood to the different
parts of the body. Like any other muscles, the heart is dependent on the constant
supply of oxygen to sustain its activity. This is made possible by two types of
circulation – pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

Figure 5 shows the anatomy of the human heart

Figure 5. The Human Heart

 10

In pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood is brought to the lungs to

be oxygenated. Blood is pumped out from the right atrium to the right ventricle
situated at the right side of the heart, and goes to the lungs via pulmonary artery.
In the lungs, oxygen is loaded into the blood while carbon dioxide is released.
The oxygenated blood, this time goes back to the left side of the heart via
pulmonary vein for systemic circulation.

Systemic circulation happens when the oxygenated blood is pumped out

from the left atrium to the left ventricle passing through a large artery called aorta
to supply the different parts of the body with oxygen and essential nutrients.
Through the veins, the de-oxygenated blood goes back to the heart via inferior
and superior vena cava to be oxygenated in the pulmonary circulation.

let’s trace how the blood becomes oxygenated in the pulmonary

circulation and later becomes de-oxygenated after it has been used by the body
in the systemic circulation. The by-product of the de-oxygenated blood is carbon
dioxide. Diagram 1 shows the Pulmonary and Systematic circulation in the body.

Pulmonary Circulation Heart

Right Atrium Vena Cava (Superior/Inferior)

Right Ventricle Veins

Pulmonary Valve Whole Body

Pulmonary Artery Aorta

Lungs Left Ventricle

Pulmonary Veins Left Atrium

Heart Systemic Circulation

Diagram 1. The Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations in the body.

 11

The blood vessels serve as pathways for the blood to circulate

throughout the body. They include arteries, veins and capillaries. Arteries bring
the blood away from the heart to supply oxygen to the different parts of the body.
Arteries branch off to form small blood vessels called arterioles which eventually
carry the blood and nutrients into smaller vessels called capillaries. These
capillaries are the smallest and the most numerous of the blood vessels. All the
exchanges of oxygen and carbon dioxide take place across the capillary beds.
Finally, from the capillary beds, blood passes through small venous vessel called
venules which increase in size to become veins which bring the blood back to
the heart.

The blood is composed primarily of plasma and red blood cells. Plasma
is a variety of fluid that contains salt, protein, and nutrients such as glucose.
Suspended in the plasma are red blood cells that allow blood to effectively
transport oxygen. These red blood cells contain high concentration of red
pigment protein called hemoglobin which take up oxygen in the lungs and
release it to tissue throughout the body.
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CHAPTER 3

POSTURE and POSTURAL DEVIATIONS

Correct posture is the proper alignment of body segments in relation to

different body positions. Misalignment of these body segments results in
postural deviation.

The value of posture screening is highly imperative if sound fitness

practices are to be applied. In many fitness programs, this area is often
overlooked by physical educators and fitness trainers. Usually, exercises are
prescribed to a client without first determining whether or not some of these
exercises will be beneficial to the individual. For instance, push-up which appears
to be one of the most common strength exercises is often performed in many
physical education classes. However, the exercise is contradicted to individuals
who are suffering from functional lordosis. In performing the exercise, there is a
tendency for the lumbar vertebrae to hyperextend especially when the abdominal
region is heavy and weak. There is greater risk that lordosis may be enhanced.

Consequently, if one of the goals of fitness exercise is to improve body

posture, then it is important that the individual must know what exercises may be
less effective or contradicted to perform with regard to postural deviations.

Postural deviations are influenced by a number of factors. They include:

 Poor nutrition
 Improper routinary posture
 Poor daily habits
 Occupational practices
 Congenital deformities
 Lack of physical exercise

Let’s identify a number of deviations that are most common among

students in the school setting:
1. Forward Head
2. Round Shoulders
3. Winged Scapulae
4. Round Back
5. Kyphosis
6. Lordosis
7. Kypholordosis
8. Scoliosis
9. Genu Varum (Bowlegs)
10. Genu Valgum (Knocked Knees)
11. Pes Planus (Flat Foot)
 13

Forward Head is characterized by the head and neck extended forward.

The deviation is often associated with kyphosis.

Suggested Exercises for Forward Head

1. Chin to Shoulder Touch

Position: Standing or sitting
Exercise: Maintain head erect. Very slowly
turn head to the left and touch
chin to shoulder. Hold position
form 15-20 seconds. Then slowly
turn head to the right and touch
chin to shoulder. Hold position
form 15-20 seconds. Repeat the
exercise 6 times.

2. Head Press
Position: Sitting, hands placed light at the
back of the head, upper arms
parallel to the ground.
Exercise: press head against resistance of
the hands for 10 seconds. Relax
Figure 6. Forward Head for 5 seconds. Repeat the
exercise 6 times.

3. Neck Bend
Position: Sitting
Exercise: Keep head erect. Slowly bend
neck to the left and attempt to
touch left shoulder with ear. Hold
position for 15-20 seconds.
Slowly move head to the right
and attempt to touch right
shoulder with ear. Hold position
for 15-20 seconds. Repeat the
exercise 6 times.

Round Shoulder is deviation of the shoulder girdle where the scapulae

are abducted and shoulders are oriented forward. The chest is flat and usually
the pectoral muscles are shortened while the longitudinal back muscles are
lengthened.
 14

Suggested Exercises for Round Shoulder

1. Chest Stretch
Position: Sitting or Standing
Exercise: Clasp hand over the lower back
and pinch the shoulder blades
together while arms are
extended. Hold position for 15-20
seconds. Relax for 5 seconds.
Repeat the exercise 6-10 times.

2. Chest Raiser
Position: Prone lying with finger tips at side
of the neck.
Exercise: Slowly raise elbows, head and
Figure 7. Round Shoulder chest from the mat. Hold the
position for 3-5 seconds. Repeat
the exercise 6-10 times

Winged Scapulae is characterized by prominence in the borders of the

scapulae. Both scapulae may be abducted due to weakness of middle trapezius
of tightness of the pectorals.

Suggested Exercises for Winged Scapulae

1. Chest Raiser 1
Position: Prone lying, arms extended
sideward
Exercise: Raised head (chin in), shoulders
and arms from mat. Hold for 3-5
seconds. Relax for 5 seconds.
Repeat the exercise 6 times.

2. Chest Raiser 2
Position: Prone lying, arms extended
overhead.
Exercise: Raise arms, head and chest as
high as possible from mat. Hold
for 3-5 seconds. Relax for 5
Figure 8. Winged Scapulae
seconds. Repeat the exercise 5
times.
 15

3. Chest Raiser 3
Position: Prone lying, tip of the fingers
touching ears.
Exercise: Raise arms from mat and hold
position for 3-5 seconds. Repeat
the exercise 6 times.

Round Back is characterized by an increased curve in the back region

extending from the lumbar to the upper portion of the back. The head and
shoulders are forward while the chest is flattened. Usually the pectoral muscles
are shortened.

Suggested Exercises for Round Back

1. Upper Trunk Raise 1

Position: Prone lying, arms in reverse
“T”.
Exercise: Raise upper trunk and arms
from the mat. Hold position for
3-5 seconds. Repeat exercise
6-12 times.

2. Upper Trunk Raise 2

Position: Prone lying, arms extended
sideward.
Exercise: Raise upper trunk and arms
from the mat. Hold position for
3-5 seconds. Repeat exercise
6-12 times.

3. Prone Lying
Position: Prone lying, arms extended
overhead.
Exercise: Raise upper trunk and arms
from the mat. Hold position for
Figure 9. Round Back 3-5 seconds. Repeat exercise
6-12 times.

Kyphosis is a postural deviation characterized by over curvature of the

thoracic vertebrae. The chest is flat with round shoulders and forward head
generally accompany this deviation
 16

Suggested Exercises for Kyphosis

1. Wall Leaning
Position: Stand 15-18 inches from the
wall.
Exercise: Slowly bend the elbows as the
body leans towards the wall
from the ankles. Keep back
straight position. Perform the
exercise 5-10 times.

2. Chest Stretch
Position: Cross sitting with hands
clasped behind lower back.
Exercise: Pinch shoulder blades
together to bend trunk
Figure 10. Kyphosis forward. Relax for 5 seconds.
Repeat the exercise 6-10
times.

Lordosis is a postural deviation where there is over curvature of the

lumbar vertebrae. Individuals who have lordosis usually suffer from low back pain
before the end of the day. This is due to the stress imposed on the lower back as
the entire weight of the appendicular body as well as the upper extremity is
carried by the lumbar region.

Suggested Exercises for Lordosis

1. Knee Pull
Position: Hook lying-supine position, arms
at the side with knees apart.
Exercise: bring knees close to chest, hands
grasp about the knees. Hold
position for 30-60 seconds. Bring
down feet to hook lying position
to relax. Repeat the exercise 5-
10 times.

2. Sit and Reach

Position: Sitting on the floor, thighs open
Exercise: Bend forward to touch floor.
Knees may bend slightly. Hold
position for 30-60 seconds.
Figure 11. Lordosis Perform the exercise 6-10 times.
 17

3. Sitting Round Bend

Position: Cross sitting, finger tips at the
side of the neck.
Exercise: Bend forward, bringing head
close to the floor. Hold the
position for 30 seconds.
Repeat the exercise 6-10
times.

Kypholordosis is observed when there is over curvature of the lumbar vertebrae

increased.

Suggested Exercises for Kypholordosis

1. Supine Arm Raise

Position: Supine positions with knees
bent and arms in reverse “T”
Exercise: Press lower back to the mat
contracting the gluteal and
abdominal muscles.
Simultaneously move arms
along the mat to an overhead
position until the thumbs and
finger touch. Repeat the
exercise 10-12 times.

2. Wall Arm Raise

Position: Standing with heels about 3
inches from the wall, arms in
reverse “T”
Exercise: Lean against wall allowing the
whole back and pelvis to
touch it. Slowly move arms
along the wall to a diagonal
position allowing the hands to
meet together above head.
Figure 12. Kypholordosis Hold position for 30-30
second. Slowly put arms back
to reverse “T” position.
Repeat the exercise 5-10
times

Scoliosis is the lateral curvature of the vertebral column. The deformity

could either be a single curve or a compound curve. Single curve involves the
entire spine known as “C” or inverted “C” scoliosis. The compound curve
consists of two or more curved involving the cervical, thoratic and the lumbar
 18

portions of the vertebral column. The double curve is known as the “S”
scoliosis. A scoliosis, even though mild at first, may develop to such extent as to
disfigure the body an affect the health of the individual if not addressed at an
early stage. Scoliosis may either be functional or structural. Functional
scoliosis is a type of deviation that is usually improved voluntarily by the
individual and the condition is generally corrected through proper exercise. But it
may further develop into a structural curve. Structural scoliosis, on the other
hand, is characterized by the changes in the bones and tissues of the vertebral
column. The curve cannot be straightened voluntarily. That is why the individual
may be required to employ a more drastic approach such as the use of brace or
surgical procedures.

Suggested Exercises for Scoliosis

1. Lying Arm Stretch

Position: Long lying, right arm at the side,
left arm extended.
Exercise: Stretch left arm as far as
possible, simultaneously extend
right arm toward the ankle. Hold
position for 30-60 seconds.
Reverse arm position and repeat
exercise to other side. Perform
the exercise 10-12 times.

2. Prone Body Stretch

Position: Prone lying, arms extended
overhead.
Exercise: Raise arms as far as possible
from the mat. Hold position for 5-
10 seconds. Repeat the exercise
10-12 times.

3. Prone Trunk Lift

Position: Prone lying, finger behind ears.
Figure 13. Scoliosis Exercise: Slowly lift trunk slightly from the
floor, slowly bending trunk to the
left, holding position for 3-5
seconds before returning to
center position. Exercise is
repeated to the right side
returning center position and
lowering the trunk to the floor.
Repeat the exercise 5 times.
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Genu Varum or bow legs is a deformity of the lower extremity wherein the
knees are separated when the feet are joined together.

Suggested Exercises for Genu Varum

1. Inward Thigh Push

Position: Sitting on chair, distance of feet
more than shoulder width. Hands
holding side of each thigh.
Exercise: Slowly push thighs inward to
meet at center. Hold position for
30-60 seconds. Repeat exercise
6-10 times.

2. Knee Push Inward

Position: Kneeling on left knee, right leg
extended sideward, hands placed
on waist line.
Exercise: Slowly push right leg inward
Figure 14. Genu Varum toward the ground. Hold position
for 30 seconds. Exercise is
repeated on the other side.
Kneeling on right knee, left leg is
extended. Exercise is performed
6 times.

Genu Valgum or knock knees is observed when the knees are drawn
together and the feet become separated.

Suggested Exercises for Genu Valgum

1. Sitting Knee Push

Position: Semi cross legs sitting position
with hands placed on the side of
knees.
Exercise: Slowly push knees toward floor.
Hold position for 30-60 seconds.
Relax and repeat exercise 6-10
times.

Figure 15. Genu Valgum

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2. Groin Stretch
Position: Semi squat position, trunk bends
at hip level with hands holding
the inside of the ankle. Feet wide
apart for balance.
Exercise: Elbows push knees outward
holding position for 30 seconds.
Exercise is repeated 6-10 times.

Pes Planus or flatfoot is a decreased longitudinal arch of the foot. The

depression of the arch is usually accompanied by a pronation and abduction of
the foot which makes it weak and inefficient. The weight of the body is carried by
the inner side of the foot instead of the foot toward the outer border, placing
strain upon the muscles and ligaments of the inside foot.

Suggested Exercises for Pes Planus

1. Sole Ball
Position: Sitting on chair, small ball placed
between feet.
Exercise: Using soles of feet roll the ball
back and forth for 5-10 minutes.

2. Pencil Transfer
Position: Sitting on stool, feet parallel and
slightly apart, pencil on floor in
front of feet.
Exercise: Flex toes of the right foot and
pick up the pencil. Raise left foot
from mat and grasp the pencil
with flexed toes of the left foot
from the right foot. Repeat
transferring pencil back to the
other foot. Repeat the whole
exercise 5-10 times.
Figure 16. Pes Planus
3. Foot Ball Rolling
Position: Sitting, feet parallel and slightly
apart, small ball in front of the
foot.
Exercise: Mound the region of traverse
arch of the foot over the ball and
roll back and forth under the foot
for 5-10 minutes. Repeat
exercise with the other foot.
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Activity Sheet No. 2

POSTURE SCREENING

Name: _______________________________________________________
Date: _____________________ Year & Section: _____________________

Instruction: Check the appropriate box per postural deviation.

STATUS
POSUTURAL DEVIATION
Mild Severe None

Forward Head

Round Shoulders

Winged Scapulae

Round Back

Kyphosis

Lordosis

Kypholordosis

Scoliosis

Genu Varum (Bowlegs)

Genu Valgum (Knock Knees)

Pes Planus (Flat FooT)

Remarks
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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CHAPTER 4

PHYSICAL FITNESS
Physical Fitness is the capacity of the individual to accomplish his/her
regular daily activities without undue fatigue and still has an ample amount of
reserved energy to enjoy leisure and meet emergencies.

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

1. Health Related Components

1.1. Flexibility
1.2. Cardiovascular Endurance
1.3. Muscular Strength
1.4. Muscular Endurance
1.5. Body Composition

2. Performance Related Components

2.2. Agility
2.3. Balance
2.4. Coordination
2.5. Power
2.6. Speed

FLEXIBILITY

The ability of the muscles and joints to go through the full range of motion.
It involves four basic movements, namely:
a) Flexion – bending a body segment;
b) Extension – straightening a body segment;
c) Abduction – moving a limb away from the body; and
d) Abduction – moving a limb toward the body.

Body flexibility is achieved through stretching specific segments of the

body. To achieve good body flexibility, exercise should be performed daily. For
very tight muscle-joint area, it is highly recommended that flexibility exercises be
done at least twice a day.

Types of Stretching
 Passive Assisted stretching
 Static Stretching
 Ballistic Stretching
 Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)
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Passive Assisted Stretching involves relaxing a specific body part and just
allowing the partner to move the limb of the stretcher to gain a new range of
movement. Done without caution, this type of stretching may cause muscle injury
because assisting the stretcher cannot adequately determine the sensation of the
latter. Thus, the risk of injury associated with overstretching a specific muscle
group is high for this type of stretching.

Figure 17. Passive stretching with partner – hamstring stretch.

Static Stretching involves slowly stretching a segment of the body to the

farthest point and holding that position for a certain period of time. Usually
performed without a partner, each stretch is easy and pain-free. Once the
stretcher has achieved its full range of movement and begins to feel a mild
discomfort (muscle tension) in the body part being stretched, the position is held
statically. The risk of injury associated with this type of stretching is very minimal.

Figure 18. Static stretching – seated hamstring stretch.

 24

Ballistic Stretching involves a sudden

bouncing or jerking rhythmic movement of a
specific part of the body. In ballistic stretching,
the stretcher does not know how far the soft
tissue structures can extend during the
exercise, thus, the probability of muscles
becomes apparent. In many cases, this type of
stretching causes muscle soreness.

Figure 19. Ballistic stretching – forward

bending done in rapid
movement

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) involves the hold-relax (HR)

approach to stretching. During the hold-relax, the partner attempts to move the
limb at its lengthened range of motion and isometrically resists the partner’s
attempt to move the limb into a deeper stretch. Then, the stretcher relaxes the
limb and the partner slowly moves the segment into a new range. PNF is
generally used of range of motion is extremely limited and generally used if range
of motion is extremely limited and if active movement causes pain.

Figure 20. PNF hold-relax hamstring stretch.

Fitness Benefits of Flexibility Exercise

1. Increased range of muscle joint motion;
2. Reduced muscle stiffness and increased body relaxation;
3. Improved bold circulation in specific body segment;
4. Reduced incidence of injury during a major sport event; and
5. Reduced risk of cardiovascular problems in exercise.
 25

The Stretch Reflex

In general, the extensibility of the muscles and connective tissues are
decreased due to inactivity. However, flexibility can be improved if the exercise is
performed on a daily basis. With regard to muscle extensibility, research has
shown that it takes about 20 to 40 seconds before the joint muscle becomes
fully relaxed (Michell, 1995). This phenomenon is explained by the stretch reflex.
It is an automatic response that protects the muscles and joints from injury due to
overstretching or excessive strain.

Opinions on how long a stretch should be held vary among experts.

However, recent researched would indicate that a full 60 seconds will provide
the most benefit that could be derived from a flexibility exercise program. By
holding the stretch for 60 seconds, the stretcher can be assured that tight
muscle, tendons and ligaments are being stretched slowly with a minimal chance
of injury. However, it has been found that benefits can also be gained with
stretched between 10 and 30 seconds.

The best known “NO PAIN, NO GAIN” dictum in flexibility exercise may
not be truly functional since stretching the muscle until it hurts only increases the
chance of prompting the stretch reflex, thus causing muscle strain.

Types of Stretch Reflex

1. Myotatic Stretch Reflex

It is a type of stretch reflex that is primarily mediated by the muscle
spindle cells which monitor that changes in muscle length and speed of
those changes. When a muscle lengthens too fast, as in the case of
ballistic stretching the spindle cells are stimulated and reflexively cause
the muscles to contract, resisting the muscles to lengthen and thereby
preventing the overstretching of a muscle joint.

2. Inverse Stretch Reflex

Within 20-40 seconds after
stretching a specific body part, the
muscle begins to relax and allows the
stretcher to deepen its stretch. This is
achieved through the inverse stretch
reflex (also called autogenic inhibition)
in which the golgi tendon organs (GTOs)
fire to inhibit muscle contraction.

Figure 21. Muscle spindle cells and

golgi tendon muscles
 26

CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE

The capacity of the heart, blood vessels and lungs to adapt to physical
exertion for a prolonged duration.

Physiological Benefits of Cardiovascular Training

1. Decreased resting heart rate;

2. Decreased recovery time from a bout of exercise;
3. Increased blood volume and red blood cells to transport oxygen
throughout the body;
4. Stronger heart muscles allowing it to eject more blood (stroke volume)
with each heart beat. If this occurs, the heart can rest longer between
beats;
5. Increased number of capillaries for each for efficient exchange of oxygen,
carbon dioxide and nutrients between blood and body cells;
6. Decreased rate of respiration;
7. Increased aerobic capacity which allows the body cells to utilize oxygen
for better work efficiency; and
8. Prevents and/or reduces the risk of developing coronary heart disease.

The Training Heart Rate

Before there could be any physiological benefit that could be derived from
a cardiovascular exercise program, heart rate must reach a certain target level.
There are two ways by which the exercise heart rate may be determined.

1. Karvonen’s Formula (1957)

THR= RHR + 0.6 (MHR – PA – RHR)

Where: THR = Training Heart Rate

RHR = Resting Heart Rate
PA = Present Age
MHR = Maximum Heart Rate

Resting Heart Rate is obtained either by getting the pulse at the carotid
area of the neck or though the radial artery of the lower forearm. The number of
beats is counted for a specific number of seconds and multiplied by 6, 4 or 2 to
obtain RHR.
 27

For instance: RHR for 10 seconds = Number of Beats x 6

RHR for 15 seconds = Number of Beats x 4
RHR for 30 seconds = Number of Beats x 2

Maximum Heart Rate is a theoretical figure in human physiology where

the heart can contract and relax at its maximum per minute. This is only possible
among newly born babies where it can reach a maximal rate of 220 beats. This
figure is now constantly used in determining the THR. The 0.6 is a training
intensity. In physiological terms, cardiovascular endurance may be developed if
training stress is at least 60% of one’s maximal heart rate. The training intensity
may reach up to 90% depending on the type of activity and training requirement
involved.
Once the individual has adapted to the THR, intensity may be increased from
60% to 65% or 70% following the principle of progression.

Thus, if RHR = 80; PA = 20; MHR = 220

THR = 80 + 0.6 (220 – 20 – 80)
THR = 152 beats per minute (BPM)

Thus, 152 BPM, serves as the training heart rate (target zone) at 60%
level of intensity. This heart rate must be maintained for at least 20-30 minutes
per aerobic training session, 3 times per week until the athlete is able to
comfortably adapt to the training load. Afterwhich, training intensity may be
increased to 65% or 70%.

2. THR = (MHR – PA X 0.60)

If PA = 20
THR = (220 – 20 x 0.6)
THR = 120 bpm

In terms of the THR, Karvonen’s formula appears to be more intensed

compared to the second formula. The former is often used by more advanced
athletes in their training program. For beginners, it is recommended that the
second formula be used since the initial training heart rate is relatively low
compared to Karvonen’s formula. This will allow the individual to gradually
adapt to the intensity associated with cardiovascular training.
 28

General Principles of Exercise

1. Overload: Refers to the observation that a body system must be

exercised at a level beyond which it is presently accustomed. A specific
body system gradually adapts to this overload until it reaches a state
where adaptation is no longer observed. By and large, training consists of
systemically exposing selected physiological systems to intensities of work
that exceed those to which the system is already adapted.

Closely associated with the principle of overload is the element of

progression. The exercise program must systematically progress so that
the appropriate physiological systems continue to be overloaded. It is
important to note however, the excessive overload could lead to
exhaustion (burn-out), injury or impaired performance.

Components of Overload

Intensity : Refers to the degree of difficulty of an exercise session.

In general, training intensity ranges from 60% to 90%.

Duration : Refers to how long a specific activity or an exercise

session will last.

Frequency : Refers to the number of sessions per given amount of

time. As a general rule, at least three (3) exercises sessions (non-
consecutive days) per week as required to achieve the
physiological benefits associated with exercise.

2. Specificity : The principle states that benefits associated with the training
stimulus can only be achieved when it duplicates the movements and
energy systems involved in the exercises. In other words, training effects
are highly specific to the particular physiological systems overloaded, to
the particular muscles used, and more specifically to the particular muscle
fibers recruited to perform the work (Fox, et al. 1975; Pate et al. 1978).

3. Individuality : No two individuals are exactly alike. All individuals have

different performances, fitness attributes, lifestyles, nutritional preferences,
and they respond to exercise and its physical and social environments in
their own unique way. It is essential that the exercise program caters to
these individual needs and preferences.

4. Recovery : It refers to the amount of time the body should be allowed to

rest and recover from fatigue before the next activity begins. For instance,
explosive type activities which last for 5-10 seconds (such as 100 m track
races) will require at least 2-3 minutes to completely restore the utilized
ATP energy source in the muscle. Likewise, in an exercise program, the
 29

body should be given at least 24 hours to rest in between training days to

allow the muscles and other physiological systems to recover from the
immediate effects of training.

5. Reversibility : The principle simply states that if an individual stops to

exercise, the body returns to its initial level of fitness.

MUSCULAR STRENGHT and MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

Muscular Strength is the capacity of a group of muscle to exert one

maximal effort against a resistance. When muscles are capable of exerting effort
against a resistance for a prolonged period of time, muscular endurance is
demonstrated.

Major Categories of Strength Training

1. Static Strength Training : Involves muscles that do not change in length

during contraction. The best example is isometric contraction. The
exercise provides maximum contraction of muscles, however, there is no
observed movement nor change in length of muscle or angle of a joint.

Accordingly, if a maximum
gains in strength are to be
expected in an isometric training
exercise, it is suggested that at
least 5-10 maximal contractions
held for about 5 seconds must be
performed (Muller & Rohmert,
1963). A 5-day training per week
is also suggested to produce
significant improvement in
strength for a particular muscle
segment. An example of
isometric exercise is pushing
both palms against each other at
the chest level.
Figure 22. Isometric contraction
of pectoral muscles

In general, isometric exercises are very useful among patients who

are restricted to stay in bed for a certain period of time. Individuals who do
not have time to go to fitness centers or engage in a regular fitness routine
may perform isometric exercises to maintain muscular strength.
 30

Disadvantage of Isometric Exercises

 Strength gains occur only at the position held during muscle contraction
and less at other joints.
 This type of exercise does not improve the cardiovascular endurance of
an individual.
 It increases the pressure in the chest cavity, causing reduced blood flow to
the heart, lungs and brain.

2. Dynamic Strength Training : Involves muscles that change in length

during an exercise. These are two types: (a) isotonic contraction and (b)
isokinetic contraction.

Isotonic contraction is a type of contraction that involves alternate

shortening (concentric) and lengthening (eccentric) of muscles. The
muscles contract against a resistance while the load remains constant.
Isotonic exercises generally produce strength gains throughout the full
range of movement. Progress in strength gains is easy to evaluate. In
addition, the training exercises can duplicate a variety of sports skills that
are used during competition.

There are two basic approaches used to develop muscular strength

through isotonic exercises:

Calisthenics exercises are

exercises that make use of a body
segment or the entire body weight as a
form of resistance. Push-ups, pull-ups,
sit-ups, chin-ups, bar dips are common
examples of calisthenics exercises.

Figure 23. Calisthenics exercise – push up.

The use of free weights is

another approach to develop muscular
strength. Dumbbells and barbells with
plates of varying weights are the regular
free weight training equipment that are
used in strength training. Arm curl,
bench press, military press, leg press
are some specific examples of weight
training exercises.

Figure 24. Bench press using free weights.

 31

Disadvantages of Isotonic Weight Training Exercises

 The equipment is cumbersome.
 Exercise produces muscle soreness and risk of injury is greater than
isometric & isokinetic exercises.

Isokinetic contraction is similar

to isotonic contraction but the muscles
are exposed to fixed machines with
varying degrees of resistance.
Throughout the range of movement,
resistance is equal to the force applied.
Nautilus, Universal and Cybex machines
are currently the best and safest training
equipment that provide variable
resistance. Compared to free weights,
the use of these machines are often
endorsed by fitness trainors since they
reduce the risk of muscle and joint
injury.
Figure 25. Variable resistance
training machine

Disadvantages of Isokinetic Exercises

 Use of equipment is very expensive and limited.
 Research is still incomplete with regard to improvement of motor patterns.

Fitness Benefits of Strength Training

1. Increased muscle strength
2. Increased muscle size or muscle hypertrophy
3. Reduced risk of injury
4. Improved joint flexibility
5. Improved physical capacity to perform work or exercise
6. Improved sports performance
7. Increased resting metabolism

The Muscle Fiber

Muscles are living tissue composed of thousands of contractile fibers of

cells which serve as structural units. Anatomically, there are two basic types of
muscle fibers which are structurally and chemically equipped to perform work for
long and short periods of time.

1. Slow Twitch Fibers (Type I) and

2. Fast Twitch Fibers (Type II B and A)
 32

Slow twitch muscle fibers (also called the red muscle fibers) are typically
smaller and produce low maximum tension for longer periods of time. In other
words, these fibers are associated with greater endurance since they have
greater capillarization, which enhance their ability to extract and utilize oxygen.

Fast twitch muscle fibers – Type II B (also called white muscle fibers) are
typically larger and produce higher levels of force (strength and explosive type)
for shorter periods of time. Due to the larger diameter of motor neurons which
stimulate these fibers, response to stimulation becomes faster, allowing more
rapid generation of force. On the other hand, Type II A have mechanical
properties similar to Type II B but with higher concentration of oxidative enzymes,
making it more resistant to fatigue. In addition, Type II A fibers are also red in
color but are fast twitch in mechanical properties.

Inspite of the functional adaptations of muscles to training, the

composition of muscle fibers in terms of percentage of slow and fast twitch fibers
cannot be altered since this is genetically determined. Thus, limits of muscles
performance may be determined by its inherent characteristics. However, it is
important to stress that the quality of the muscle fibers can be enhanced through
proper training.

Weight Training Guidelines

1. Determining the Weight

To determine the weight of resistance for a strength training
program, one must find an approximate (heavy) weight that he/she can lift
successfully at 1 repetition maximum (RM) in full range of movement. The
training intensity is determined by getting at least 50% of the initial
resistance. This is a trial & error approach. For example, if an individual
can perform a bicep curl using a weight of 100 pounds in 1 RM, then 50
pounds will serve as initial weight of resistance at 50% training intensity.

2. Order of Exercise
Strength training exercise must involve all major muscle groups,
beginning with larger muscles followed by medium and smaller muscle
groups. It is also important to pair up the exercises, working with opposing
muscle groups in succession. The American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM, 1994) recommends that the work out should follow this sequence.

a. hips and thighs f. arms

b. legs g. midsection
c. upper back h. lower back
d. shoulders i. sides
e. chest j. neck
 33

3. Number of Sets
A set is composed of 8-12 repetitions per exercise bout. For
beginners in a weight training program, one to three sets may be
performed depending on how intensive the training session requires.
Recently, research has shown that almost similar results in strength gain
are obtained with one, two or three sets of resistance exercises.

4. Number of Repetitions
For beginners, number of repetitions should systematically increase
from 8-12 per exercises.
For more experienced individuals, Yessis (1994) provides some
repetition guidelines that can be used during training.

1–4 Repetitions for pure strength. No increase in muscle mass

1–9 Repetitions for strength together with muscle mass.
10 – 15 Repetitions for muscular strength, muscular endurance &
muscle mass.
16 – 30 Repetitions for muscular endurance with minimal increase
in muscular strength or mass.
31 – 50 Repetitions for muscular endurance, no mass.
51 – 100 Repetitions for muscular endurance, cardiovascular
endurance, no strength increase, a possible loss of fat &
mass.

5. Speed
In weight training, moderate to slow exercise speeds are safer and
more effective in developing strength compared with fast exercise speeds.
In additions, it allows a longer period of muscle tension and higher level of
muscle force. Lift movement for 2 seconds and lowering movement for 4
seconds are standard training procedures in a weight resistance program.

6. Breathing
Breathing normally while performing the exercise is highly
emphasized. Holding one’s breath will build internal pressure.
Simultaneously, external pressure is also created thus, limiting the blood
flow to the brain which may result to feelings of light-headedness and high
blood pressure. As a rule, exhale while lifting the weight and inhale while
lowering the weight.

7. Frequency
To allow the stressed muscle tissues to undergo repair from the
trauma of exercise, three days a week within 42-72 hours rest between
exercise sessions are highly recommended. More recently, research has
indicated that two strength workouts a week is 75% as productive as three
strength workouts per week.
 34

8. Progression
Strength development depends on progressive resistance exercise
that gradually places stress on the specific muscles. In other words, the
amount of weight should be increased gradually only when the individual
is ready.

In general, it is time to increase the weight of the resistance when the

individual is able to perform the maximum number of sets and maximum number
of repetitions comfortably for two consecutive training workouts. Thus, if the
individual is able to perform 3 sets of 12 repetitions without getting fatigued in two
consecutive workouts, then the weight of resistance could be increased by
another 5%. This will ensure a systematic gain in strength with a lowest risk of
muscle injury.

It should be noted that whenever the weight of the resistance is increased,

the number of repetitions should be decreased. If not, technique may likely suffer
and the individual will force him/herself towards the end of the set, thus
increasing the risk of injuring the muscle joints.

Energy Systems

Energy is provided in the muscle in the form of adesnosine

trophosphate (ATP). Small amount of ATP in the muscle is sufficient enough to
provide a short outburst of muscular effort as golf swing and throwing events.

For activities that require repeated muscular contractions such as running

and cycling, ATP supply must be constantly replenished from other fuel sources
in the muscle.

Generally, there are three (3) various mechanisms by which muscles

obtain their energy sources. These are:

1. High Energy Phosphate Compounds : An energy supply obtained from

substance in the muscle without needed for oxygen. The available ATP in
the muscle together with another high energy substance called creatine
phosphate provides energy for 5-10 seconds of activity. These energy
sources are usually utilized in 100 meter track races and short dashes of a
soccer goal keeper. They are quickly rebuilt after an effort, to about 50%
of the energy supply within 30 seconds later, and is completely restored
within 2-3 minutes.
 35

2. Anaerobic Glycolysis : When a maximal effort goes beyond the extent of

the phosphate energy system, energy is provided from glycogen that is
stored in the muscle. Anaerobic energy released from glycogen produces
lactic acid, which results in feeling of fatigue. Continuous activities which
lead to exhaustion in 45-60 seconds result in maximal values for lactic
acid accumulation. This energy supply is often used in 400 meter track
races and 100 meter swimming events.

It requires as long as 45-60 minutes before the lactic acid is

removed from the body before the athlete recovers from fatigue. Thus,
during competition, the individual should not be required to complete two
efforts of this nature unless a one hour rest interval is given between
events. Interestingly, Lactic acid is removed more quickly if the athlete
continues some light exercises rather than taking a complete rest.
However, the level of effort must be decreased and must be no more than
40-50% of maximum effort. In terms of heart rate, this would be about
102-130 beats per minute.

3. Aerobic Energy Supply : Fuel sources that provide ATP for muscular
contraction during activities of longer duration require oxygen. Oxygen is
used to release energy from glycogen, fats and some protein stored in the
muscle. The aerobic energy system is for activities which last for than a
minute or so. In activities that last more than 2 minutes, it is the capacity of
the aerobic system that limits the workout. Thus, the longer the activity
continues, the more adequate aerobic energy supply is required.

In terms of total energy production, this system is by far the most

important. It is used exclusively at rest and during moderate forms of
continuous activity. It serves to replenish the other energy systems when
they are exhausted.

BODY COMPOSITION

It refers to the proportion between fat weight and total body weight. It is
determined by the amount of fat and lean tissue in the body.

In recent years, body composition has gained wide acceptance in exercise

science as one of the components of health related fitness. Its inclusion was
earlier opposed since supporters believe that fitness is for everyone, including
the slim and the overweight. In addition, being fat has some genetic
predisposition which may be quite difficult to alter.
 36

On the other hand, those who stress the inclusion of body composition
component of fitness point out that being over-fat or obese is the issue and not
being overweight as determined by the height-weight tables. It was further
argued that obesity has reached an alarming stage not only among the middle-
aged population but also in the cross section of the youth population. In addition,
obesity has been found to contribute to many health problems such as coronary
heart disease (CHD) and other degenerative diseases.

Body composition may be measured by several indirect procedures.

These vary widely in their complexity and accuracy. They include: measurement
of body density by weighing the individual under water, body density from weight
and body volume, anthropometric measurements, x-rays, ultrasonic, and skinfold
calipers. The simplest is by using the Body Mass Index (BMI) calculator (refer to
Appendix B). Normal BMI index ranges between 20-25 for men while for women
it is between 19 and 24. Weight that exceeds this range indicates that the
individual is either overweight or obese. On the other hand, weight that is below
the index range indicates that the individual is underweight.

Nomogram for Determining the Relative Percent Body Fat in Men

(Based in body weight & waist circumference – Wilmore, 1986)
 37

Acceptable Percent Body Fat for Decreased Health Risk*

Male: 25% or less

Female: 32% or less

Acceptable Percent Body Fat for Optimal Fitness Performance*

Male: 15% or less

Female: 23% or less
*Fitness for Life (Allsen, 1993).

Nomogram for Determining the Relative Percent Body Fat in Women

(Based on hip circumference & height – Wilmore, 1986)
 38

Determining One’s Percent Body Fat Based on the Nomogram

1. Measure’s one’s weight in ponds (for men); hip circumference in inches (for
women)
2. Measures the circumference of lower abdominal area in inches (for men), height
in inches (for women).
3. To obtain one’s percent fat, use a ruler and connect one’s weight & the
circumference of the lower abdominal area (for men); hip girth & height (for
women).
Example: (Men) (Women)
Weight : 120 lbs Hip Girth : 34 inches
Abdominal Girth: 30 in Height : 64 inches
Percent Fat : 17.5% Percent Fat : 21%

In the above example, both male and female fall within the acceptable
percent body fat for decreased health risk. One may still want to target a lower
percent body fat for optimal fitness level if the individual is involved in a highly
competitive sport.

Determining Target Weight Based on Percent Body Fat

1. CFW = CBW x PBF (based on the Nomogram) 3. TPBF = 1.0 (constant) – TPF
2. CLW = CBW – CFW 4. ETW = CLW ÷ TPBF

Where: CFW = Current Fat Weight CLW = Current Lean Weight

CBW = Current Body Weight TPBF = Target % Body Fat
PBF = Percent Body Fat ETW =Estimated Target Weight

For example: Current Body Weight = 160 lbs 1. 29 = 160 x.18

Percentage Body Fat = 18% of .18 2. 131 = 160 - 29
Gender = Male 3. 85 = 1.0 – 15% (target % fat)
4. 154 lbs. = 131 ÷ .85

Thus, for a male individual who weight 160 lbs., he has to lose 6
lbs. in order to increase the probability of performing better in fitness and
sport activities.

Somatotypes

Somatotyping or body typing is a system of classifying an individual

according to the shape of the body. It was developed by Sheldon during the
1940’s and 1950’. He noted that the physique of the body may be categorized
into three distinct types: (a) Ectomorph, (b) Mesomorph, and (c) Endomorph.

An ectomorph body type is characterized as lean and small body built

with greater surface area to mass ratio. Bone size is relatively small with slender
limbs and low muscle mass.
 39

A mesomorphic body type has relative predominance of muscle. The

bones are usually large and heavy with massive limbs, thus contributing to
greater weight than the ectomorphic body type.

And endomorphic body type is characterized by a relative predominance

of soft roundness and large digestive viscera. There is a greater percent of body
fat than lean body mass.

https://www.shape.com/healthy-eating/national-healthy-weight-week-self-
satisfaction-key

Figure 26. Somatotypes – ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph

Somatotypes are of special interest to fitness enthusiasts and athletes. It

helps the individual understand the extent of weight reduction or weight gain
he/she expects to achieve given all well-defined exercise program. Thus, one of
the factors that affect weight gain or weight loss aside from exercise and a
regulated diet is the somatotype. Among athletes, somatotype is highly
correlated to excellent sport performance depending on the type of sport event.
For instance, it has been found that among track & field athletes, physical
characteristics of those successful in shot put differ from those successful in
marathon. This suggests that for one sport event, a specific body type may
dictate one’s superior performance than another.

AGILITY
 40

It is the ability of the individual to quickly shift or chance direction of the

body from one point to another. Agility is a multi-faceted skill. It involves speed
and coordination which allows rapid control of movement as the chance in the
direction of the body occurs. Strength, power, reaction, flexibility, mental
alertness, and concentration area all contributory factors that improve agility. In
general, improvement on any of these factors would bring about a parallel
increase in agility.

In relation to major activities, agility may be enhances through lateral

movement repetitions, obstacle courses, sudden stop and pivots and possible
variations of basic forward, backward, side/shoulder roll movements.

BALANCE

It is the ability of the individual to maintain equilibrium in relation to

changes in body position. Balance can be categorized into static and dynamic
balance. Static Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position
such as standing on one foot or on a balance beam. Dynamic Balance is the
ability to maintain one’s equilibrium while the body is in motion. Walking on a
balance beam is an example of this type of balance.

COORDINATION

It is the harmonious working relationship between the skeletal muscles

and nerves in one aspect of movement. Training in neuromuscular coordination
is demonstrated in all training activities associated with exercise and sport
programs especially in speed work activities, drills, skills, etc…

POWER

It is the ability to perform one explosive muscular effort in a short period of

time. It is a product of strength and speed as seen in many sport activities such s
track & field and weight lifting.

SPEED

It is the ability to perform task or move from one point to another in the
shortest possible time. It is also the time spent finishing or completing a
performance after the initial movement has been made. Speed is influenced by
reaction time. It is the elapsed when a “go” signal has been made in relation to
the first motor response to the stimulus.
 41

CHAPTER 5

THE EXERCISE PROGRAM

There at least four (4) phases of the fitness exercise program, namely;

Warm-up exercise,
Flexibility exercise,
Strength and endurance exercise, and
Cool-down exercise

Warm-up Exercise or sometimes called limbering up is always the initial

phase of any exercise program. It is a light physical activity aimed at increasing
the body temperature to allow a gradual increase in the blood flow to the
muscles, ligaments and tendons. Blood capillaries are opened up to allow
oxygenated blood to supply the muscles for contraction. Consequently,
individuals who directly engage in vigorous activity without first warming up often
experience muscle cramps or get injured. In general, the function of warm-up
exercises is to prepare the body for a more intense physical activity such as
strengthening and endurance exercises.

Normally, the warm-up takes about 5-10 minutes. A good indicator if the
individual is already warmed-up is the onset of a light sweat.

General body warm-up may include:

 Stationary Jogging
 Light Jogging
 Brisk Walking
 Slow Rope Skipping
 Stair Climbing

Benefits of Warm-up
1. Increased range of motion
2. Improved coordination and movement efficiency
3. Decreased risk of injury
4. Increased power output available from muscles
5. Increased energy, thus less energy is derived from anaerobic sources
which produce lactic acid responsible for onset of fatigue.
 42

Flexibility Exercise involves stretching all major muscle groups of the

body with special attention to the specific muscles that are used in daily physical
activities. It may be performed for at least 10 minutes or more depending on the
individual’s level of flexibility.

Currently, the most acceptable and most effective stretching method is

static stretching. Each movement is performed in slow pace which allows the
muscles and other connective tissues surrounding the joint to stretch far enough
to its full range. In addition, the risk of muscle injury is minimal since the stretcher
is the best judge to determine the extent of the stretch during a specific exercise.

In general, there is no hard and fast rule as to the number of repetitions

that must be performed. This is because each segment of the body will require
different number of repetitions, depending on its current state. For instance, if the
stretcher is able to perform the sitting toe touch with almost no effort at all, the
number of repetitions may be reduced for maintenance purposes.

On the other hand, if another stretcher tries to perform the same task
(sitting toe-touch) and is experiencing tightness in the area of the hamstrings
before he is able touch and achieves a higher degree of flexibility.

(Please see Appendix C for illustrations)

Frequency: For very limited flexibility in a specific body segment

exercises should be done 2 times daily.
Intensity: for average level of flexibility, 5-7 times per week.
Duration: 30-60 seconds per exercise.

Neck Exercise Muscles Involved

 Neck Bend Roll Exercise Neck Muscles

Shoulder Exercise
 Underside Side Cuff Stretch Side Cuff
 Front Cuff Stretch Front Cuff
 Back Cuff Stretch Back Cuff

Trunk Exercise
 Shoulder and Side Stretch Lastissimus & Upper Back
 Cross-legged Curl Back Extensors
 Seated Curl Low Back Extensors
 Knee Chest Curl Low Back Extensors
 43

 Seated Twist Trunk Trunk Rotators

 Leg Cross-Over Trunk Rotators & Gluteus
 Chair Stretch Pectoral Muscles
 Chest Stretch Pectoral Muscles
 Lower Back-Hip Stretch Latissimus Dorsi & Lower Back

Hip Exercise
 Lunge (Front & Side) Hip (Front & Side)
 Sitting Toe Touch Back of Hip
 Butterfly Stretch Inner Hip
 Lying Knee Pull Hip Flexors, Hamstring & Lower Back

Thigh Exercise
 Seated Pretzel Outside of Thigh
 Kneeling Thigh Stretch Quadriceps
 Modified Stork Stand Quadriceps
 Wall Split Hamstring & Inner Thigh
 Seated Pike Stretch Hamstrings
 Seated Hamstring Stretch Hamstrings
 Groin Stretch Inner Thigh

Leg Exercise
 Calf Stretch Calves & Achilles Tendon
 Modified Hurdle Stretch Gastrocnemius, Soleus
 Raised Leg Stretch Gastrocnemius, Achilles Tendon

Ankle Exercise
 Ankle Circles Ankle Muscles

Full Body
 Lying Full Body Stretch

Less Effective/Contraindicated Exercises

There are some exercises that have been very popular in the past.
Recently, however, there exercises have been found to be harmful and
contraindicated with regard to one’s fitness. Research has shown that these
common exercises either damage the soft tissue structures of the body or
develop cervical and lumbar disc problems. In general, problems associated with
these exercises involve hyper flexion of a joint, overarching the back or neck,
sudden flexion and rigid bobbing while stretching and poor body alignment.
 44

The following exercises are considered contraindicated and should be

avoided during exercise training: (Please refer to Appendix C for illustrations)

Neck Affected Body Segment

 Full Neck Circle (360⁰ Head Roll) Neck
 Shoulder Stand Shoulder & Upper Back
 Yoga Plough Neck & Upper Back

Trunk
 Back Bend Lower Back
 Back Arching Abdominal Stretch Lower Back
 Full Waist Circle Lower Back
 Wrestler’s Bridge Neck and Lower Back
 Donkey Kick Lower Back, Shoulder & Neck
 Standing Toe Touch Lower Back, Knees & Hamstrings

Lower Extremity
 Hurdle Stretch Groin & Knees
 Lying Quad Stretch Knee and Lower Back
 Double Leg Lying Quad Stretch Knees and Lower Back
 Hero Knees and Lower Back
 Ballsitic Ballet Bar Stretch Sciatics
 One Leg Quad Stretch Knee

Test on Flexibility : SIT and REACH

Purpose: To measure flexibility of the trunk (lower back, hips and hamstrings).
Directions:
1. A tape measure with a 15-inch mark is taped on the floor.
2. Student assumes sitting position on the floor.
3. Legs are extended in front, knees locked and heels touching the near edge
of the testing line (15-inch mark) about 10-1 inches apart.
4. Students slowly stretches the trunk forward and reaches as far as possible
on the tape measure using both hands (one hand over the other) and holds
the position until the score is obtained.
5. Each student is allowed a maximum of 3 trials.
*Please refer to Appendix A to determine the equivalent fitness score category.
Note: It is important to warm-up before taking of the fitness test.

Strength and Endurance Exercises

The strength exercise program may combine both calisthenics and weight
training activities. Calisthenics exercises using the weight of the body are very
practical and inexpensive especially if there is no available weight training
equipment in school. In addition, only a minimal space is required to perform the
exercises.
 45

On its initial phase, the number of exercise repetitions and sets may be
determined by the individual and may vary depending on the current fitness level
of the former.

As a rule of thumb, the strength program must follow the general

principles of exercise as articulated in Chapter 4.

The following are the suggested callisthenic exercises that develop the
major muscles of the body. (Please refer to Appendix C-1 for illustrations)

Callisthenic Exercise Muscles Being Developed

Abdominal Curl Rectus Abdominis

Push-up Triceps & Pectoral
Heel Raise Gastrocnemius, Soleous
Abdominal Twist Internal & External Oblique Muscles
Chin up Biceps, Latissimus Doral, Teres Major
Half Squats Quadriceps
Chest up Latissimus Dorsi¸Gluteal Maximus, Hamstring

Here are some basic weight training activities that develop the major
muscles of the body. (Please refer to Appendix C-2 for illustrations)

Weight Training Exercise Muscles Being Developed

Arm Curl Biceps Brachii

Knee Curl Hamstrings
Heel Raise Gastrocnemius, Soleous
Bench Press Pectorals, Deltoids, Serratus Anterior, Tricepts
Half Squat Quadricepts, Gluteus Maximus, Hamstrings
Pull Down Lat Machine Latissimus Dorsi
Leg Press Quadriceps, Hamstrings, Gluteus
Knee Extension Quadriceps
Bent Arm Pull Over Triceps, Pectorals, Latissimus
Lateral Arm Raise Deltoids, Trapezius
Upright Rowing Deltoids, Supraspinatus, Beceps Branchii,
Serratus Anterior, Trapezius

Contraindicated Strength Exercises

Exercise Affected Body Segment

Arched Push-up Lower Back

Straight Leg Sit-up Lower Back
Double Leg Lift Lower Back
Full Squat Knees
Duck Walk Knees
 46

Exercise Affected Body Segment

Burpee Lower Back

Swan Stance Upper & Lower Back
Treadmill Lower Back
Side Bend Twist Upper & Lower Back
Sit-up with Hands Behind Neck Neck

Test for Strength : PUSH-UP*

Purpose: To measure the strength of the arms & the shoulder girdle.
Directions:
1. Start in a standard “up” position for a full push up with one’s weight on toes
and hands.
2. Lower oneself to the floor until the chest touches it, keeping the back
straight all throughout the test. Raise the body to an “up” position.
3. Count the number of push-ups in one trail only. No rest in between push-
ups is allowed.

Test for Strength : SIT-UP*

Purpose: To measure the strength of the abdominal muscles.

Directions:
1. Lie on one’s back with arm across the chest.
2. Knees are bent about 90⁰ with both feet flat and no more than18 inches in
front of the buttocks.
3. Raise the head and shoulder until the trunk reaches about 30-40⁰ angle with
the exercise surface, then return to starting position.
4. Perform as many sit-ups as possible in 1 minute for one trial only.

Test for Strength : LEG POWER*

Purpose: To measure the strength of the thigh (quadriceps) & leg (calf) muscles
Directions:
1. With chalked fingertips, stand facing the wall with both arms extended
overhead and feet & chin touching the wall.
2. Mark the wall where fingertips touch the tape or chalkboard.
3. Stand at a right angle to the taped wall.
4. Take a deep squat position with knees bent at 45⁰ and trunk bent forward
30-45⁰.
5. Jump, touching the tape of chalkboard at the highest point as you can.
6. Record the difference between the prejump touch mark and the postjump
touch mark.

*Please refer to Appendix A to determine the equivalent fitness score category.

 47

Cardiovascular Endurance Training Activities

Frequency: 3-5 days per week

Intensity: 60%-90% maximum heart rate
Duration: 20-60 minutes of continuous aerobic activity

1. Continuous Running: It is a long distance run performed in a relaxed low

intensity level. This is usually done at the early phase of the
cardiovascular exercise program where efforts range from 30 minutes to 2
hours.

2. Fartlek: A type of endurance training which involves effort varying

intensity and duration interspersed within a generally relaxed framework of
easy running or cycling. It reduces the stress of a structured session in
which specific targets are attempted. It enables the individual to train as
his/her body feels. A typical fartlek running sessions involve an hour of
continuous activity of alternate fast and slow running often carried out over
varied countryside.

3. Aerobic Dancing: An activity made up of vigorous routines set to music. It

incorporates various dance forms such as folk, ballet, modern, jazz, etc…
and utilizes the same basic principles of aerobic training program. It also
utilizes large muscle groups to stress the cardiovascular and respiratory
systems. Dance aerobic exercises involve 3 categories: warm-up, aerobic
routines, and cool down which last for at least 30 minutes.

4. Rope Skipping: Skipping rope for at least 10 minutes for 5 days per week
improves cardiovascular efficiency (Baker, 1967). Other effects of rope
skipping are improved jumping ability, balance, agility and coordination. It
is also effective in reducing body weight especially in trimming the hips,
thighs and legs.

Test for Strength : FIVE-MINUTE STEP TEST*

Purpose: To measure cardio respiratory endurance.

Directions:
1. Determine the resting heart rate 5 minutes before the step test.
2. Step onto bench with one foot (1 sec) & then the other foot (1 sec). Bring
down one foot (1 sec) & then the other foot (1 sec) in a four count
sequence. [Height of bench is 40 cm. for men & 33 cm. for women].
3. After completing the five minutes of exercise, remaining standing. After a
15-second rest, take one’s pulse rate by counting the no. of beats for 15
seconds. Use the forefinger & the middle finger to obtain the pulse at the
lower portion of the forearm (radical artery).
*Please refer to Appendix A to determine the equivalent fitness score category.
 48

Other activities that develop cardiovascular endurance include:

 Prolonged Brisk walking
 Stationary Bicycling/Cycling
 Continuous Swimming
 Rowing

Cool Down Exercises serve to gradually taper off the body from the
stress of exercise. It is as important as warming up because it keeps the blood
circulating around the body to prevent the individual from experiencing some
form of dizziness.

Phases of Cool Down

1. Body Cool Down: Involves an activity that will allow the heart rate to
gradually return to its normal rate. This phase of training helps prevent
sudden changes in cardiovascular systems that can cause
lightheadedness or even fainting.

Cooling down creates a pressure against the veins of the

circulatory system to permit the blood flow in one direction going to the
heart. Without cooling down, there is a possibility that the blood will
pool around the lower extremity, depriving the brain of blood and
oxygen. Thus, individuals who suddenly stop from vigorous activity
experience dizziness or even pass out.

An indicator that an individual has cooled down is when profuse

sweating has stopped and heat rate has dropped to less than 100
beats per minute. At least 5 minutes be allowed to walking or jogging
to give the body the opportunity to recover from cardiovascular and/or
muscular endurance training.

2. Cool Down Stretch: Involves stretched specific body parts for 5-10
minutes to prevent muscles from tightening too quickly. It also
minimizes muscle discomfort and helps in maintaining body flexibility.

Benefits of Cooling Down

1. Improved performance
2. Improved muscle joint flexibility
3. Decreased cardiovascular problem
4. Decreased incidence of muscle joint injury
 49

CHAPTER 6

NUTRITION
Food is an edible substance that is composed of essential nutrients
needed by the body for its existence. These nutrients are the building blocks
needed for growth, reproduction, maintenance and repair of body tissues. There
are six (6) basic types of essential nutrients. These are carbohydrates, fat,
protein, vitamins, minerals and water.

1. Carbohydrates

It is a primary energy source for the muscles and the brain. It can be used
directly, or it can be converted into glycogen and stored in the liver or muscle or
changed into fat and deposited in the adipose tissues when the supply is not
immediately needed for energy. They also help control the breakdown of protein
and protect the body against toxins. About 60% of the calories consumed by the
come from simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides) and complex
(polysaccharides) carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates provide strength and endurance during exercise in a way

no other nutrients can. Its depletion is associated with onset of fatigue. Thus, in
order to ensure the repletion of carbohydrates (stored glycogen), its intake
should be equivalent to that expended during training.

Contrary to popular belief, carbohydrates are not fattening. What makes it

fattening is when it is added with doses of fat such as butted on bread, cream on
potatoes, mayonnaise on fries, etc.

Sources:
Simple Carbohydrates: Soft drinks, candies, fruits, honey, table
sugar, jams, cakes, glucose

Complex Carbohydrates: Rice, bread, noodles, crackers, potato,

pasta, cereals

2. Fats

These are secondary source of fuel and are concentrated stored energy
(calories). The body needs fat for growth and repair of tissues. In addition, the
stored fat serves as insulator to help maintain regular body temperature. It also
provide cushion to the vital organs of the body.
 50

In low-level activities such as standing, sitting, lying down, muscles

primarily burn fats for energy. During light to moderate aerobic exercises, such
as jogging and brisk walking, about 50%-60% of stored fats are burned to fuel
the muscles for energy.

Sources: Butter, visible fats from meats, mayonnaise, nuts

Cholesterol: It is a complex waxy substance that is an essential

component of the walls of the body cell. It is carried around the body in the
blood stream by lipoprotein to which lipids or fats are attached. The total
amount of cholesterol contributes to hardening of arteries and this build-up
limits blood flow to the heart muscles which causes heart attack.
Approximately, 15% of all blood cholesterol comes from the food we
consume. Interestingly, most of the cholesterol made by the body is
produced mainly in the liver. Thus, regardless of the amount of fat
contained in the diet, the body continues to make some cholesterol. As a
result, excess level of cholesterol may be deposited in the blood vessels
while the rest are eliminated. There is evidence to suggest that a lot of
saturated fat in the diet encourages the liver to produce large amount of
cholesterol.

The type of lipoprotein on which cholesterol is circulated throughout

the body is important in influencing the risk of coronary artery disease
(CAD). Most cholesterol in the blood contains the low density lipoprotein
(LDL). It is also called LDL cholesterol or “bad cholesterol” since it has
been observed that the higher LDL level, the higher the risk of CAD.

The other cholesterol in the blood is the high density lipoprotein

(HDL). It is called the HDL cholesterol or the “good cholesterol” since it
appears to protect an individual against the risk of heart attack. Thus, the
higher the HDL level, the better. Consequently, research has shown that
eating unsaturated fat and a regular exercise program has been found to
increase the level of HDL cholesterol.

Animal fats such as butted, visible fat in meat and fish, and
mayonnaise tend to be saturated while vegetable fats such as corn oil,
olive oil, peanut oil are generally unsaturated and less harmful to
consume.

3. Protein

It is an essential nutrient for building and repairing muscles, red blood

cells (RBC), hair and other tissues and also for synthesizing hormones.
 51

Nutritionists suggest that about 15% of the calorie intake should come from
protein rich foods.

Protein is a poor source of energy and excess of it does not build up more
muscles. In fact, too much intake of protein brings strain to the kidneys.

Sources: Pork, beef, chicken, fish, egg, milk, cheese, beans

Daily Calorie Requirements

Carbohydrates 60-70%
Fats 20-25%
Protein 10-15%

4. Vitamins

These are chemical substances that the body needs to process other
nutrients. Currently, these are 13 essential vitamins which function as metabolic
catalysts to regulate biochemical reactions within the body. Specifically, they help
regulate the nervous system and help from genetic materials, red blood cells and
hormones. However, they are not a source of energy. Since the body is unable to
manufacture its own vitamins, one has to obtain them from a variety of food.
(Please refer to Appendix D)

Adequate vitamins are needed by the body to function optimality but an

excess offers no competitive edge. In fact, vitamin supplements are not
necessary if one eats balanced diet. To date, there is no performance evidence
to suggest that vitamin supplements enhance performance increase strength or
endurance, build muscles, provide energy or prevent injuries or illness.

5. Minerals

These inorganic substance that the body needs for forming bones, teeth,
blood cells, for assisting chemical reaction of cells and for regulating body fluids.
Similar to vitamins, they do not provide energy. Essential minerals include
calcium, iron, potassium, sodium, zinc, phosphorus, magnesium, iodine. Trace
minerals require smaller quantity each day. (Please refer to Appendix D).

6. Water

An essential substance that stabilizes body temperature. It carries food

nutrients to and waste away from cells, and is needed by the cells for normal
functioning. Similar to vitamins and minerals, water is not a source of energy.
Examples of watery foods include lettuce, tomato, cucumber, orange and
bananas.
 52

Prior to an exercise session, it is important to rehydrate since water is lost

in urine, skin and lungs. Thirst is not a good indicator of fluid replacement
because an individual may be near exhaustion but may not even feel thirsty.
Thus, it is important that replacement of fluid may be a conscious effort.

Physiologically, the effects of dehydration are as follows:

 Fatigue
 Deteriorated Performance
 Elevated Body Temperature
 Reduced Urinary Volume
 Lowered Body Temperature
 Increased Pulse Rate

Before and during hard session, a cup of water (8-10 ounces) should be
taken frequently (every 15-20 minutes). Right after training, loss of fluid must be
immediately replaced. As a rule, an individual must drink 2 glasses of water for
every pound lost or 4 glasses for every 1000 calories spent. A 2% loss in body
weight may reduce work capacity by 10%-15% of one’s maximum potential. So
far, cold water is still the best fluid to consume especially during hot weather
because it empties the stomach faster than a warmer fluid (about 50% in 20
minutes compared to ¼ of warmer water in about the length of time – Costill,
1974).

The simplest way to determine whether or not, body fluid is adequately

replaced during training is to find out the color and quantity of urine. If the color is
very dark and scanty, it is an indication that metabolic wastes are highly
concentrated and there is a need to replenish more fluids. If urine appears dark
due to vitamin supplements, the volume of urine would be a better indicator than
color.

Calorie Content of Nutrient

1 gram of carbohydrate = 4 calories

1 gram of protein = 4 calories
1 gram of salt = 9 calories
Vitamins = 0 calories
Minerals = 0 calories
Water = 0 calories
 53

Physical Activity Table

Activity Energy Requirement
Bed Rest 27.5
Sedentary 30.0
Light 35.0
Moderate 40.0

Approximate Calories Consumed per 15 Minutes

Sitting position activity 20-25 Calories

Standing up position with lightweight activity 27-40 Calories
Sweeping, light gardening, carpentry, walking moderately fast 43-60 Calories
Heavy work, bowling, golfing, skating, walking fast 65-85 Calories
Swimming, tennis, running, dancing, skiing, football 85 & more Calories

To Determine the Total Energy Requirement (TER)

1. Determine the Estimated Target Weight (ETW) in kilogram.

2. Using the Physical Activity Table, determine the type of activity and the
corresponding energy requirement.
3. Multiply ETW and the corresponding energy requirement value.

For example:
1. ETW = 66kg.
2. Moderate Activity = 40.0
3. TER = 66 X 40 = 2640 calories

To Determine the % of Nutrient based on the 2,640 Calories:

Carbohydrates = 60% of 2,640

= 1584 Carbohydrate Calories divided by 4
= 369 grams

Fats = 25% OF 2,640

= 660 Fat Calories divided by 9
= 73 grams

Protein = 15% of 2, 640

= 396 Protein Calories divided by 4
= 99 grams
 54

Dietary Fiber – A part of a plant cell that cannot be digester

Important roles of fiber in the diet:

 Promotes regular bowel movement;
 Lowers blood cholesterol; and
 Prevents colon cancer

Sources of Fiber include:

 Cereals - All bran, fruit, wheat;
 Legumes - Beans, peas;
 Vegetables - Peas, corn, potato, lettuce, mushrooms
 Grain - Cooked rice, wheat bread, spaghetti, white rice
 Fruits - Prunes, apple with skin, banana, peach, grapes

Type of Meat Hours required for complete

Digestion of Food
Large Meat 3-4
Small Meat 2-3
Blended or Liquid Foods 1-2
Light Snacks 1 or less

In general, one must eat a variety of food since no particular food provides
the basic nutrient in it. Each food provides a special nutrient in itself. In addition,
it is preferable that natural and lightly processed foods can be consumed as often
as possible than the highly processes ones. (eg. whole wheat rather than white
bread, baked potato rather than chips).

It is also highly recommended

that one must learn how to eat slowly.
Research has indicated that it takes
about 20 minutes for the hypothalamus
of the brain to receive the signal that
one is already satiated. Thus,
regardless of the volume of food that
has been consumed during the 20
minute period, the satiety center does
not move any faster.
 55

Activity Sheet No. 3

PERSONAL FITNESS PLAN

I. Demographic Profile

Name: ________________________________ Date: _____________________

Year & Section: ______________________ Sex: __________ Age: __________
Resting Pulse Rate: _______________ Recovery Pulse Rate: ______________
Height: _________ Weight: _________ BMI: ________ Body Type: __________

II. Medical Record:

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

III. Exercise Program

Frequency: _________ Exercise Schedule: ______________
Duration: ___________ Total No. of Mins. /Session: ________

Phases of Exercise Number of Number of Sets Time

Repetitions Allotment
1. Warm-up Exercises

2. Flexibility Exercises
 56

Phases of Exercise Number of Number of Sets Time

Repetitions Allotment
3. Strength & Endurance
Exercises

4. Cool Down Exercises

Remarks:

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
 57

Activity Sheet No. 4

PERSONAL FITNESS TEST

Fitness Testing Date: ______________

Personal Profile

Name: ____________________________ Professor: _____________________

Course: ______________________ Year & Section: ______________________
Age: __________ Sex: __________

Health/Fitness Profile

Weight: __________ (kg./lbs.) Exercise Pulse Rate: ______(bpm)

Height: __________ (in./cms.) Recovery PR 1 (30 secs.) ______(bpm)
Resting Pulse Rate _______ (bpm) Recovery PR 2 (30 secs.) ______(bpm)

Medical Record*:

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
*Record any diagnosed chronic illness/sickness/postural obtained in the last 12 months.

Fitness Test Post-test Score Fitness Category**

Step Test
Sit-up
Push-up
Vertical Jump
Sit and Reach
Body Mass Index
**Please refer to Appendix A for corresponding Fitness Category.

Test Instructions:

1. Accomplish the necessary information in the activity sheet.

2. Students who have current health problem should seek medial approval
before going through the fitness test.
3. Warm-up activities must be performed prior taking the fitness tests.
4. Specific directions for each fitness test are shown on pages 46-47.
5. To determine one’s body mass index (BMI), use the BMI Calculator on
page 61.
6. Shade the corresponding fitness category based on one’s fitness score in
the post-test fitness web on page 69 (Appendix E-2).
 58

APPENDIX A
FITNESS TEST STANDARDS

SIT-UP TEST

Age Fitness Category

Years Superior Excellent Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
Male
15-29 55+ 51-55 48-50 42-47 36-41 17-35 0-17
30-39 48+ 44-47 39-43 33-38 27-32 13-26 0-13

Female
17-29 47+ 43-47 36-42 33-35 29-32 14-28 0-14
30-39 45+ 41-45 35-40 29-34 23-28 11-22 0-11
*Source: Cooper Institute for Aerobic Research, Dallas, Texas.

PUSH-UP TEST

Age Fitness Category

Years Superior Excellent Very Good Good Average Poor Very Poor
Standard
Push-up
15-29 54+ 51-54 45-50 35-44 25-34 20-24 15-19
30-39 44+ 41-44 35-40 25-34 20-24 15-19 8-14

Modified
Push-up
17-29 48+ 46-48 34-45 17-33 10-16 6-9 0-5
30-39 38+ 33-37 25-33 12-24 8-11 4-7 0-3
*Source: Dynamics of Fitness Through Physical Activity by Polloch, et.al., 1978.

VERTICAL JUMP TEST SIT & REACH TEST

Difference between
Fitness Fitness
Prejump and Postjump Score
Category Category
Touch Marks
7 inches Very Poor 11 or less Very Poor
10 inches Poor 12-13 Poor
16 inches Average 14-16 Average
18 inches Good 17-19 Good
20 inches Very God 20-21 Very God
22 inches Excellent 22-23 Excellent
24+ inches Superior 24 or more Superior
*Source: Dynamics of Fitness by McGlynn, 1996 Source: Fitness for Life by Allsen, 1993
 59

STEP TEST
Fitness Index for Men (Step Test)

Fitness score

45 33 33 33 33 33 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
44 34 34 34 34 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33
43 35 35 35 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34
42 36 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 34 34
41 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 26 35 35
40 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 36 36 36 36 36
39 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 37 37
38 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 38 38
37 41 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 39 39
36 42 42 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40
35 43 43 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 41
34 44 44 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43
33 46 45 45 45 45 45 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
32 47 47 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 45 46
31 48 48 48 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
30 50 49 49 49 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48
29 52 51 51 51 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50
28 53 53 53 53 52 52 52 52 52 52 51 51 51
27 55 55 55 54 54 54 54 54 54 53 53 53 52
26 57 57 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 55 55 54 54
25 59 59 58 58 58 58 58 58 58 56 56 55 55
24 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 59 59 58 58 57
23 62 62 61 61 61 61 61 60 60 60 59
22 64 64 63 63 63 63 62 62 61 61
21 66 66 65 65 65 64 64 64 62
20 68 68 67 67 67 66 66 65

Body
Weight 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
 60

Fitness Index for Women (Step Test)

Fitness score

45 29 29 29
44 30 30 30 30 30
43 31 31 31 31 31 31
42 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
41 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33
40 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34
39 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35
38 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 37
36 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38 38
35 38 38 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39
34 39 39 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
33 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41
32 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42
31 42 42 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43
30 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
29 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
28 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 47 47 47
27 46 46 47 48 48 49 49 49 49 49
26 47 48 49 50 50 51 51 51 51
25 49 50 51 52 52 53 53
24 51 52 53 54 54 56
23 53 54 55 56 56 57
Body
Weight 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
 61

Age-Adjusted Fitness Scores (Step Test)

Enter fitness score

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
15 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 53
20 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51
25 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
30 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
35 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
40 26 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

45 25 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46
50 24 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
55 23 24 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 40 41 42 43
60 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 37 38 39 40 41 42
65 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 38 39 40

Enter fitness score

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72

15 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 74 75 76
20 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
25 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
30 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
35 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
40 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
45 47 48 49 50 51 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 65 66
50 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 58 59 61 61 62 63 64
55 44 45 46 46 47 48 59 50 51 52 53 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 59 60 61 62
60 42 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 51 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 57 58 59 60
65 41 42 42 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 50 51 52 53 54 54 55 56 57 58
 62

Fitness Rating of Men & Women (Step Test)

Physical fitness rating-men

(Use age-adjusted score from table 4.4)
Nearest
Age
15 57+ 56-52 51-47 46-42 41-37 36-32 31-
20 56+ 55-51 50-46 45-41 40-35 35-31 30-
25 55+ 54-50 49-45 44-40 39-34 34-30 29-
30 54+ 53-49 48-44 43-39 38-33 33-29 28-
35 53+ 52-48 47-43 42-38 37-32 32-28 27-
40 52+ 51-47 46-42 41-37 36-31 31-27 26-
45 51+ 50-46 45-41 40-36 35-30 30-26 25-
50 50+ 49-45 44-40 39-35 34-29 29-25 24-
55 49+ 48-44 43-39 38-34 33-28 28-24 23-
60 48+ 47-43 42-38 37-33 32-27 27-23 22-
65 47+ 48-42 41-37 36-32 31-26 26-22 21-

Superior Excellent Very Good Good Average Poor Very

Poor
Fitness level

Physical fitness rating-women

(Use age-adjusted score from table 4.4)
Nearest
Age

15 54+ 53-49 48-44 43-39 38-34 33-29 28-

20 53+ 52-48 47-43 42-38 37-33 32-28 27-
25 52+ 51-47 46-42 41-37 36-32 31-27 26-
30 51+ 50-46 45-41 40-36 35-31 30-27 25-
35 50+ 49-45 44-40 39-35 34-30 29-26 24-
40 49+ 48-44 43-39 38-34 33-29 28-25 23-
45 48+ 47-43 42-38 37-33 32-28 27-24 22-
50 47+ 46-42 41-37 36-32 31-27 26-23 21-
55 46+ 45-41 40-36 35-31 30-26 25-22 20-
60 45+ 44-40 39-35 34-30 29-25 24-21 19-
65 44+ 43-39 38-34 33-29 28-24 23-20 18-

Superior Excellent Very Good Good Average Poor Very

Good
Fitness level
 63

COVERSION TABLE
Person’s Height

Inches Meters Inches Meters

50 1.27 64 1.62
51 1.30 65 1.65
52 1.32 66 1.68
53 1.35 67 1.70
54 1.37 68 1.73
55 1.40 69 1.75
56 1.42 70 1.78
57 1.45 71 1.80
58 1.47 72 1.83
59 1.50 73 1.85
60 1.52 74 1.88
61 1.54 75 1.90
62 1.57 76 1.93
63 1.60 77 1.95

Person’s Weight

Pounds Kilograms Pounds Kilograms Pounds Kilograms

90 40.91 127 57.73 164 74.54

91 41.36 128 58.18 165 75.00
92 41.82 129 58.64 166 75.45
93 42.27 130 59.09 167 75.91
94 42.73 131 59.54 168 76.36
95 43.18 132 60.00 169 76.82
96 43.64 133 60.45 170 77.27
97 44.09 134 60.91 171 77.73
98 44.54 135 61.36 172 78.18
99 45.00 136 61.82 173 78.64
100 45.45 137 62.27 174 79.09
101 45.91 138 62.73 175 79.54
102 46.36 139 63.18 176 80.00
103 46.82 140 63.64 177 80.45
104 47.27 141 64.09 178 80.91
105 47.73 142 64.54 179 81.36
106 48.18 143 65.00 180 81.82
107 48.64 144 65.45 181 82.27
108 49.09 145 65.91 182 82.73
109 49.54 146 66.36 183 83.18
110 50.00 147 66.82 184 83.64
111 50.45 148 67.27 185 84.09
112 50.91 149 67.73 186 85.54
113 51.36 150 68.18 187 85.00
114 51.82 151 68.64 188 85.45
115 52.27 152 69.09 189 85.91
116 52.73 153 69.54 190 86.36
117 53.18 154 70.00 191 86.82
118 53.64 155 70.45 192 87.27
119 54.09 156 70.91 193 87.73
120 54.54 157 71.36 194 88.18
 64

121 55.00 158 71.82 195 88.64

122 55.45 159 72.27 196 89.09
123 55.91 160 72.73 197 89.54
124 56.36 161 73.18 198 90.00
125 56.82 162 73.64 199 90.45
126 57.27 163 74.09 200 90.91