Chapter-1

Introduction
Communication has been one of the greatest needs of the human race. It is essential to form social
unions, to educate the young, and to express a myriad of emotions and needs. Good communication
is central to a civilized society.
1.1 Digital communication system
Digital communication systems are communication systems where the information propagates
through the system in the form of symbols that are discrete or digital. It uses digital sequence as an
interface between the source and the channel input (and likewise between the channel output and
final destination).

Block diagram of digital communication system

1. Information Source and Input Transducer: The source of information can be analog or digital,
e.g. analog: audio or video signal, digital: like teletype signal. In digital communication the signal
produced by this source is converted into digital signal which consists of 1′s and 0′s. For this we
need a source encoder.
2. Channel Encoder: The information sequence is passed through the channel encoder. The purpose
of the channel encoder is to introduce, in controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary
information sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and
interference encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel. For example take k
bits of the information sequence and map that k bits to unique n bit sequence called code word.
3. Channel: The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for transmitting signals
from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system, this channel consists of atmosphere, for traditional
telephony, this channel is wired, there are optical channels, under water acoustic channels etc.We
further discriminate this channels on the basis of their property and characteristics, like AWGN
channel etc.
4. Channel Decoder: This sequence of numbers then passed through the channel decoder which
attempts to reconstruct the original information sequence from the knowledge of the code used by
the channel encoder and the redundancy contained in the received data
5. Source Encoder: In digital communication we convert the signal from source into digital signal
as mentioned above. The point to remember is we should like to use as few binary digits as possible
to represent the signal. In such a way this efficient representation of the source output results in little
or no redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is called information sequence
6. Source Decoder: At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to decode the
sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm. And which results in the approximate
replica of the input at the transmitter end.
Advantage of digital communication
1. Digital communication can be done over large distances though internet and other things.
2. Digital communication gives facilities like video conferencing which save a lot of time,
money and effort.
3. It is easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.
4. The digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper.
5. It can be tolerated the noise interference.
6. It can be detect and correct error easily because of channel coding.
7. Used in military application.
8. It has excellent processing techniques are available for digital signals such as data
compression, image processing, channel coding and equalization etc.

Limitation of digital communication

1) Generally, more bandwidth is required than that for analog systems.
2) Synchronization is required.
3) High power consumption (Due to various stages of conversion).
4) Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also drawbacks of digital system.
5) Introduce sampling error
6) As square wave is more affected by noise, That’s why while communicating through channel we
send sine waves but while operating on device we use square pulses.
1.2 Comparison Analog and Digital Communication

PARAMETERS ANALOG COMMUNICATION DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Definiton Analog Communication is the Digital Communication is the

technology which uses Analog technology which uses digital signal
signal for the transmission of for the transmission of information.
information.

Noise and Get affected by Noise Immune from Noise and Distortion
Distortion

Error Probability Error Probability is high due to Error Probability is low

parallax.

Hardware Hardware is complicated and less Hardware is flexible and less

flexible than digital system. complicated than Analog system.

Cost Low Cost High Cost

Bandwidth Low bandwidth requirement High bandwidth Requirement

Requirement

Power High power is required Low Power Requirement

Requirement

Portability Less Portable as the components are More portable due to compact
heavy equipments.

Modulation Used Amplitude and Angle Modulation Pulse coded Modulation or PCM,
DPCM etc.

Representation of Analog signal can be represented by Digital signal is represented by

Signal sine wave. square wave.

Signal Values Consists of continuous values Consists of discrete values

Example of Signal Analog signal comprises of voice, Digital signals are used in
sound etc. computers
1.3 Principles of Digital Communication
When we enter data into the computer via keyboard, each keyed element is encoded by the
electronics within the keyboard into an equivalent binary coded pattern, using one of the standard
coding schemes that are used for the interchange of information. To represent all characters of the
keyboard, a unique pattern of 7 or 8 bits in size is used. The use of 7 bits means that 128 different
elements can be represented, while 8 bits can represent 256 elements. A similar procedure is
followed at the receiver that decodes every received binary pattern into the corresponding character.
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more digital
devices.This transfer of data takes place via some form of transmission media (for example, coaxial
cable, fiber optics etc.)

Types of transmission

Parallel transmission
Within a computing or communication device, the distances between different subunits are too short.
Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to carry each bit of
data. There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a parallel
transfer mode. This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring each word.
• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate
communication lines.
• In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.
• All n bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another i.e.
multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.
• As shown in the fig, eight separate wires are used to transmit 8 bit data from sender to receiver.
Advantage of parallel transmission
It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single
clock pulse.
Disadvantage of parallel transmission
It is costly method of data transmission as it requires n lines to transmit n bits at the same time.

Serial Transmission
When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the separation is more
than a few kilometers, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single pair of lines. Data is
transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed time interval for each bit. This mode of
transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.
• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.
• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.
• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.
• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
• As shown in fig., suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination. Then
least significant bit (LSB) i,e. 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits. The most significant
bit (MSB) i.e. 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.
• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this
parallel data into serial data, conversion devices are used.
• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it can
be transmitted over single line.
• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval
circuitry of computer can accept it
• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.
Advantage of Serial transmission
Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of n as compared
to parallel transmission.
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall
transmission cost.
2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially one
after the other.
Types of Serial Transmission
There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous both these transmissions
use 'Bit synchronization'
Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of the
data transmission occurs.
Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a
transmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.
A) Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a letter of
the alphabet or number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.
• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.
• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A
start bit usually 0 is added to the beginning of each byte.
• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more
additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.
• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in
asynchronous transmission.
• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This idle time is also known as
Gap
• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals. This mechanism is called Asynchronous, because
at byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized. But within each byte, receiver must be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream.
Application of Asynchronous Transmission
1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape
devices. The advantage of this method is that it does not require any local storage at the
terminal or the computer as transmission takes place character by character.

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted

in short bursts. This type of transmission is used by modems.
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines are
short, asynchronous transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will not be
expensive.
2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is corrupted
during transmission, its successor and predecessor character will not be affected.
3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.
4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of
extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can be
missed or corrupted.
B) Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.
• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver by
'timing' the transmission of each bit.
• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to
separate the bit stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.
• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock frequency.
Application of Synchronous transmission
• Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers.
Advantage of Synchronous transmission
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit)
and also there is no gap between the individual data bytes.
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission
1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two ends of
line to assemble blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This leads
to increase in the cost.
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper
synchronization which makes the system complicated.
Comparison between Serial and Parallel transmission

Comparison between Asynchronous and Synchronous.

 Chapter-2
Sampling Thereom and its Basic Concept
2.1 WHAT IS SAMPLING?
Sampling may be defined as the procedure in which a sample is selected from an individual or a
group of people of certain kind for research purpose. In sampling, the population is divided into a
number of parts called sampling units.
2.2 SAMPLING THEOREM
Statement: A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back
when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency component of
message signal. i. e. fs≥2fm.fs≥2fm.
Consider a continuous time signal x(t). The spectrum of x(t) is a band limited to fm Hz i.e. the
spectrum of x(t) is zero for |ω|>ωm.
Sampling of input signal x(t) can be obtained by multiplying x(t) with an impulse train δ(t) of period
Ts. The output of multiplier is a discrete signal called sampled signal which is represented with y(t)
in the following diagrams:
ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
1. Low cost of sampling
2. Less time consuming in sampling
3. Scope of sampling is high
4. Accuracy of data is high

DISADVANTAGE OF SAMPLING
1. Chances of bias
2. Difficulties in selecting truly a representative sample
3. Need for subject specific knowledge
4. changeability of sampling units
5. impossibility of sampling

TYPES OF SAMPLING
There are three types of sampling techniques:
 Impulse sampling.
 Natural sampling.
 Flat Top sampling.

2.3 Impulse Sampling

Impulse sampling can be performed by multiplying input signal x(t) with impulse train of period
'T'. Here, the amplitude of impulse changes with respect to amplitude of input signal x(t). The
output of sampler is given by

This is called ideal sampling or impulse sampling. You cannot use this practically because
pulse width cannot be zero and the generation of impulse train is not possible practically.
2.4 Natural Sampling
Natural sampling is similar to impulse sampling, except the impulse train is replaced by pulse train
of period T. i.e. you multiply input signal x(t) to pulse train as shown below

2.5 Flat Top Sampling

During transmission, noise is introduced at top of the transmission pulse which can be easily
removed if the pulse is in the form of flat top. Here, the top of the samples are flat i.e. they have
constant amplitude. Hence, it is called as flat top sampling or practical sampling. Flat top sampling
makes use of sample and hold circuit.

Theoretically, the sampled signal can be obtained by convolution of rectangular pulse p(t) with
ideally sampled signal say yδ(t) as shown in the diagram:i.e. y(t)=p(t)×yδ(t)......(1)
Nyquist Rate
It is the minimum sampling rate at which signal can be converted into samples and can be
recovered back without distortion.
Nyquist rate fN = 2fm hz

2.6 Pulse Amplitude Modulation

Pulse amplitude modulation is a technique in which the amplitude of each pulse is controlled by the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal. It is a modulation system in which the signal is
sampled at regular intervals and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at
the instant of sampling. This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of a series of
signal pulsesPulse Amplitude Modulation Signal.

Applications of PAM
 It is used in Ethernet communication.
 It is used in many micro-controllers for generating the control signals.
 It is used in Photo-biology.
 It is used as an electronic driver for LED lighting.
Advantages
 It is the simple process for both modulation and demodulation.
 Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to construct.
 PAM can generate other pulse modulation signals and can carry the message at the same time.
Disadvantages
 Bandwidth should be large for transmission PAM modulation.
 Noise will be great.
 Pulse amplitude signal varies so power required for transmission will be more.

2.7 PULSE POSITION MODULATION

Pulse position modulation works by sending electrical, electromagnetic, or optical pulses to a
computer or other device in order to communicate simple data. It requires both devices to be
synchronized to the same clock so that when a series of pulses is sent, the device decodes the
information based on when the pulses were broadcasted. Alternately, another form of pulse position
modulation known as differential pulse position modulation, allows all signals to be encoded based
on the difference between broadcast times. This means that a receiving device only has to observe
the difference in arrival times in order to decode a transmission.

Applications
Pulse position modulation has many purposes, especially in RF (Radio Frequency) communications.
For example, pulse position modulation is used in remote controlled aircraft, cars, boats, and other
vehicles and is responsible for conveying a transmitter’s controls to a receiver. Each pulse’s position
may describe an analogue controller’s physical direction, while the number of pulses may describe
the number of possible commands that the device may receive.
Advantages
Pulse position modulation conveys simple commands that other forms of signal modulation are
either simply not made for or are too complex to use in certain situations. Because pulse position
modulation only communicates simple commands from a transmitter to a receiver, it is often used in
lightweight applications due to its low system requirements.
Disadvantages
Pulse position modulation requires that both devices are synchronized or differential pulse position
modulation is used. Also, pulse position modulation is highly sensitive to multi-pathway
interference, such as echoing, that can disrupt a transmission by altering the difference in arrival
times of each signal.

2.8 QUANTIZATION
Quantization, in mathematics and digital signal processing, is the process of mapping input values
from a large set (often a continuous set) to output values in a (countable) smaller set, often with a
finite number of elements. Rounding and truncation are typical examples of quantization processes.
Quantization is involved to some degree in nearly all digital signal processing, as the process of
representing a signal in digital form ordinarily involves rounding. Quantization also forms the core
of essentially all lossy compression algorithms.
The difference between an input value and its quantized value (such as round-off error) is referred to
as quantization error. A device or algorithmic function that performs quantization is called a
quantizer. An analog-to-digital converter is an example of a quantizer.

2.9 Quantization Error

For any system, during its functioning, there is always a difference in the values of its input and
output. The processing of the system results in an error, which is the difference of those values. The
difference between an input value and its quantized value is called a Quantization Error. A
Quantizer is a logarithmic function that performs Quantization (rounding off the value). An
analog-to-digital converter (ADC) works as a quantizer.
The following figure illustrates an example for a quantization error, indicating the difference
between the original signal and the quantized signal.

Quantization Noise

It is a type of quantization error, which usually occurs in analog audio signal, while quantizing it to
digital. For example, in music, the signals keep changing continuously, where a regularity is not
found in errors. Such errors create a wideband noise called as Quantization Noise.

2.10 Companding in PCM

The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which means that it does
both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses the data at the transmitter and
expands the same data at the receiver. The effects of noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this
technique.
There are two types of Companding techniques. They are −
A-law Companding Technique
 Uniform quantization is achieved at A = 1, where the characteristic curve is linear and no
compression is done.
 A-law has mid-rise at the origin. Hence, it contains a non-zero value.
 A-law companding is used for PCM telephone systems.
µ-law Companding Technique
 Uniform quantization is achieved at µ = 0, where the characteristic curve is linear and no
compression is done.
 µ-law has mid-tread at the origin. Hence, it contains a zero value.
 µ-law companding is used for speech and music signals.
µ-law is used in North America and Japan.
 A-Law Companding
A-law is the CCITT recommended companding standard used across Europe. Limiting the
linear sample values to 12 magnitude bits, the A-law compression is defined by Equation 1, where A
is the compression parameter (A=87.7 in Europe), and x is the normalized integer to be compressed.

µ-law companding
The United States and Japan use µ-law companding. Limiting the linear sample values to 13
magnitude bits, the µ-law compression is defined by Equation 2, where m is the compression
parameter (m =255 in the U.S. and Japan) and x is the normalized integer to be compressed.
The encoding and decoding process for µ-law is similar to that of A-law. There are,
however, a few notable differences: 1) µ-law encoders typically operate on linear 13-bit magnitude
data, as opposed to 12-bit magnitude data with A-law, 2) before chord determination a bias value of
33 is added to the absolute value of the linear input data to simplify the chord and step calculations,
3) the definition of the sign bit is reversed, and 4) the inversion pattern is applied to all bits in the
8bit code. Table 3 illustrates a µ-law encoding table. The sign bit of the linear input data is omitted
from the table. The sign bit (S) for the 8-bit code is set to 1 if the input sample is positive, and is set
to 0 if the input sample is negative.
2.11 Differential Pulse Code Modulation
If the redundancy is reduced, then the overall bit rate will decrease and the number of bits required to
transmit one sample will also reduce. This type of digital pulse modulation technique is called
differential pulse code modulation. The DPCM works on the principle of prediction. The value of the
present sample is predicted from the previous samples. The prediction may not be exact, but it is
very close to the actual sample value.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation Transmitter

The sampled signal is denoted by x(nTs) and the predicted signal is indicated by x^(nTs). The
comparator finds out the difference between the actual sample value x(nTs) and the predicted value
x^(nTs). This is called signal error and it is denoted as e(nTs)
e(nTs)= x(nTs)- x^( nTs) …….(1)
Here the predicted value x^(nTs) is produced by using a prediction filter(signal processing filter).
The quantizer output signal eq(nTs) and the previous prediction is added and given as input to the
prediction filter, this signal is denoted by xq(nTs). This makes the prediction closer to the actually
sampled signal. The quantized error signal eq(nTs) is very small and can be encoded by using a
small number of bits. Thus the number of bits per sample is reduced in DPCM.

Differential Pulse Code Modulation Receiver

In order to reconstruct the received digital signal, the DPCM receiver (shown in below figure)
consists of a decoder and prediction filter. In the absenteeism of noise, the encoded receiver input
will be the same as the encoded transmitter output.

As we discussed above, the predictor undertakes a value, based on the previous outputs. The input
given to the decoder is processed and that output is summed up with the output of the predictor, to
obtain a better output. That means here first of all the decoder will reconstruct the quantized form of
original signal. Therefore the signal at the receiver differs from the actual signal by quantization
error q(nTs), which is introduced permanently in the reconstructed signal.
Applications of DPCM
The DPCM technique mainly used Speech, image and audio signal compression. The DPCM
conducted on signals with the correlation between successive samples leads to good compression
ratios. In images, there is a correlation between the neighbouring pixels, in video signals, the
correlation is between the same pixels in consecutive frames and inside frames (which is same as
correlation inside the image).
This method is suitable for real Time applications. To understand the efficiency of this method of
medical compression and real-time application of medical imaging such as telemedicine and online
diagnosis. Therefore, it can be efficient for lossless compression and implementation for lossless or
near-lossless medical image compression.
2.12 Delta modulation
A delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal
conversion technique used for transmission of voice information where quality is not of primary
importance. DM is the simplest form of differential pulse-code modulation (DPCM) where the
difference between successive samples are encoded into n-bit data streams. In delta modulation, the
transmitted data are reduced to a 1-bit data stream. Its main features are:
 The analog signal is approximated with a series of segments.
 Each segment of the approximated signal is compared to the preceding bits and the successive
bits are determined by this comparison.
 Only the change of information is sent, that is, only an increase or decrease of the signal
amplitude from the previous sample is sent whereas a no-change condition causes the modulated
signal to remain at the same 0 or 1 state of the previous sample.
To achieve high signal-to-noise ratio, delta modulation must use oversampling techniques, that is,
the analog signal is sampled at a rate several times higher than the Nyquist rate

2.13 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly
switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom sequence known to both
transmitter and receiver. It is used as a multiple access method in the code division multiple access
(CDMA) scheme frequency-hopping code division multiple access (FH-CDMA).
Each available frequency band is divided into sub-frequencies. Signals rapidly change ("hop")
among these in a predetermined order. Interference at a specific frequency will only affect the signal
during that short interval. FHSS can, however, cause interference with adjacent direct-sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS) systems.
Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), a specific type of FHSS, is used in
Bluetooth wireless data transfer.