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Learning the bash Shell Unix Shell Programming Third
Edition Cameron Newham Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Cameron Newham
ISBN(s): 9780596009656, 0596009658
Edition: Third Edition
File Details: PDF, 1.63 MB
Year: 2005
Language: english
1
Learning the bash Shell,
3rd Edition
Table of Contents

2
Preface
bash Versions
Summary of bash Features
Intended Audience
Code Examples
Chapter Summary
Conventions Used in This Handbook
We'd Like to Hear from You
Using Code Examples
Safari Enabled
Acknowledgments for the First Edition
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
Acknowledgments for the Third Edition

1. bash Basics

3
1.1. What Is a Shell?
1.2. Scope of This Book
1.3. History of UNIX Shells
1.3.1. The Bourne Again Shell
1.3.2. Features of bash

1.4. Getting bash

1.5. Interactive Shell Use
1.5.1. Commands, Arguments, and Options

1.6. Files
1.6.1. Directories
1.6.2. Filenames, Wildcards, and Pathname
Expansion
1.6.3. Brace Expansion

1.7. Input and Output

1.7.1. Standard I/O
1.7.2. I/O Redirection
1.7.3. Pipelines

1.8. Background Jobs

1.8.1. Background I/O
1.8.2. Background Jobs and Priorities

1.9. Special Characters and Quoting

1.9.1. Quoting
1.9.2. Backslash-Escaping
1.9.3. Quoting Quotation Marks
1.9.4. Continuing Lines
1.9.5. Control Keys

4
 1.10. Help

2. Command-Line Editing
2.1. Enabling Command-Line Editing
2.2. The History List
2.3. emacs Editing Mode
2.3.1. Basic Commands
2.3.2. Word Commands
2.3.3. Line Commands
2.3.4. Moving Around in the History List
2.3.5. Textual Completion
2.3.6. Miscellaneous Commands

2.4. vi Editing Mode

2.4.1. Simple Control Mode Commands
2.4.2. Entering and Changing Text
2.4.3. Deletion Commands
2.4.4. Moving Around in the History List
2.4.5. Character-Finding Commands
2.4.6. Textual Completion
2.4.7. Miscellaneous Commands

2.5. The fc Command

2.6. History Expansion
2.7. readline
2.7.1. The readline Startup File
2.7.2. Key Bindings Using bind

2.8. Keyboard Habits

3. Customizing Your Environment

5
 3.1. The .bash_profile, .bash_logout, and .bashrc
Files
3.2. Aliases
3.3. Options
3.3.1. shopt

3.4. Shell Variables

3.4.1. Variables and Quoting
3.4.2. Built-In Variables

3.5. Customization and Subprocesses

3.5.1. Environment Variables
3.5.2. The Environment File

3.6. Customization Hints

4. Basic Shell Programming

6
 4.1. Shell Scripts and Functions
4.1.1. Functions

4.2. Shell Variables

4.2.1. Positional Parameters
4.2.2. Local Variables in Functions
4.2.3. Quoting with $@ and $*
4.2.4. More on Variable Syntax

4.3. String Operators

4.3.1. Syntax of String Operators
4.3.2. Patterns and Pattern Matching
4.3.3. Length Operator
4.3.4. Extended Pattern Matching

4.4. Command Substitution

4.5. Advanced Examples: pushd and popd

5. Flow Control
5.1. if/else
5.1.1. Exit Status
5.1.2. Return
5.1.3. Combinations of Exit Statuses
5.1.4. Condition Tests
5.1.5. Integer Conditionals

5.2. for
5.3. case
5.4. select
5.5. while and until

6. Command-Line Options and Typed Variables

7
 6.1. Command-Line Options
6.1.1. shift
6.1.2. Options with Arguments
6.1.3. getopts

6.2. Typed Variables

6.3. Integer Variables and Arithmetic
6.3.1. Arithmetic Conditionals
6.3.2. Arithmetic Variables and Assignment
6.3.3. Arithmetic for Loops

6.4. Arrays

7. Input/Output and Command-Line Processing

7.1. I/O Redirectors
7.1.1. Here-documents
7.1.2. File Descriptors

7.2. String I/O

7.2.1. echo
7.2.2. printf
7.2.3. read

7.3. Command-Line Processing

7.3.1. Quoting
7.3.2. command, builtin, and enable
7.3.3. eval

8. Process Handling

8
 8.1. Process IDs and Job Numbers
8.2. Job Control
8.2.1. Foreground and Background
8.2.2. Suspending a Job

8.3. Signals
8.3.1. Control-Key Signals
8.3.2. kill
8.3.3. ps

8.4. trap
8.4.1. Traps and Functions
8.4.2. Process ID Variables and Temporary
Files
8.4.3. Ignoring Signals
8.4.4. disown
8.4.5. Resetting Traps

8.5. Coroutines
8.5.1. wait
8.5.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Coroutines
8.5.3. Parallelization

8.6. Subshells
8.6.1. Subshell Inheritance
8.6.2. Nested Subshells

8.7. Process Substitution

9. Debugging Shell Programs

9
 9.1. Basic Debugging Aids
9.1.1. Set Options
9.1.2. Fake Signals
9.1.3. Debugging Variables

9.2. A bash Debugger

9.2.1. Structure of the Debugger
9.2.2. The Preamble
9.2.3. Debugger Functions
9.2.4. A Sample bashdb Session
9.2.5. Exercises

10. bash Administration

10.1. Installing bash as the Standard Shell
10.1.1. POSIX Mode
10.1.2. Command-Line Options

10.2. Environment Customization

10.2.1. umask
10.2.2. ulimit
10.2.3. Types of Global Customization

10.3. System Security Features

10.3.1. Restricted Shell
10.3.2. A System Break-In Scenario
10.3.3. Privileged Mode

11. Shell Scripting

10
 11.1. What's That Do?
11.1.1. Comments
11.1.2. Variables and Constants

11.2. Starting Up
11.3. Potential Problems
11.4. Don't Use bash

12. bash for Your System

12.1. Obtaining bash
12.2. Unpacking the Archive
12.3. What's in the Archive
12.3.1. Documentation
12.3.2. Configuring and Building bash
12.3.3. Testing bash
12.3.4. Potential Problems
12.3.5. Installing bash as a Login Shell
12.3.6. Examples

12.4. Who Do I Turn to?

12.4.1. Asking Questions
12.4.2. Reporting Bugs

A. Related Shells

11
 A.1. The Bourne Shell
A.2. The IEEE 1003.2 POSIX Shell Standard
A.3. The Korn Shell
A.4. pdksh
A.5. zsh
A.6. Shell Clones and Unix-like Platforms
A.6.1. Cygwin
A.6.2. DJGPP
A.6.3. MKS Toolkit
A.6.4. AT&T UWIN

B. Reference Lists
B.1. Invocation
B.2. Prompt String Customizations
B.3. Built-In Commands and Reserved Words
B.4. Built-In Shell Variables
B.5. Test Operators
B.6. set Options
B.7. shopt Options
B.8. I/O Redirection
B.9. emacs Mode Commands
B.10. vi Control Mode Commands

C. Loadable Built-Ins
D. Programmable Completion

12
Learning the bash Shell,
3rd Edition
Cameron Newham
Copyright © 2009 O'Reilly Media, Inc.

O'Reilly Media, Inc.

13
Preface
The first thing users of the UNIX or Linux operating
systems come face to face with is the shell. "Shell" is the
UNIX term for a user interface to the system—something
that lets you communicate with the computer via the
keyboard and the display. Shells are just separate
programs that encapsulate the system, and, as such, there
are many to choose from.

Systems are usually set up with a "standard" shell that

new users adopt without question. However, some of
these standard shells are rather old and lack many
features of the newer shells. This is a shame, because
shells have a large bearing on your working environment.
Since changing shells is as easy as changing hats, there is
no reason not to change to the latest and greatest in shell
technology.

Of the many shells to choose from, this book introduces

the Bourne Again shell (bash for short), a modern
general-purpose shell. Other useful modern shells are the
Korn shell (ksh) and the "Tenex C shell" (tcsh); both are
also the subjects of O'Reilly handbooks.

14
bash Versions
This book is relevant to all versions of bash, although
older versions lack some of the features of the most
recent version.[1] You can easily find out which version
you are using by typing echo $BASH_VERSION. The
earliest public version of bash was 1.0, and the most
recent is 3.0 (released in July 2004). If you have an older
version, you might like to upgrade to the latest one.
Chapter 12 shows you how to go about it.

[1]
Throughout this book we have clearly marked with
footnotes the features that are not present in the earlier
versions.

15
Summary of bash
Features
bash is a backward-compatible evolutionary successor to
the Bourne shell that includes most of the C shell's major
advantages as well as features from the Korn shell and a
few new features of its own. Features appropriated from
the C shell include:

• Directory manipulation, with the pushd, popd,

and dirs commands.

• Job control, including the fg and bg commands

and the ability to stop jobs with CTRL-Z.

• Brace expansion, for generating arbitrary strings.

• Tilde expansion, a shorthand way to refer to

directories.

• Aliases, which allow you to define shorthand

names for commands or command lines.

• Command history, which lets you recall

previously entered commands.

bash's major new features include:

16
• Command-line editing, allowing you to use vi- or
emacs-style editing commands on your command
lines.

• Key bindings that allow you to set up customized

editing key sequences.

• Integrated programming features: the

functionality of several external UNIX
commands, including test, expr, getopt, and echo,
has been integrated into the shell itself, enabling
common programming tasks to be done more
cleanly and efficiently.

• Control structures, especially the select construct,

which enables easy menu generation.

• New options and variables that give you more

ways to customize your environment.

• One dimensional arrays that allow easy

referencing and manipulation of lists of data.

• Dynamic loading of built-ins, plus the ability to

write your own and load them into the running
shell.

17
Intended Audience
This book is designed to address casual UNIX and Linux
users who are just above the "raw beginner" level. You
should be familiar with the process of logging in, entering
commands, and doing simple things with files. Although
Chapter 1 reviews concepts such as the tree-like file and
directory scheme, you may find that it moves too quickly
if you're a complete neophyte. In that case, we
recommend the O'Reilly handbook, Learning the UNIX
Operating System, by Jerry Peek, Grace Todino, and John
Strang.

If you're an experienced user, you may wish to skip

Chapter 1 altogether. But if your experience is with the C
shell, you may find that Chapter 1 reveals a few subtle
differences between the bash and C shells.

No matter what your level of experience is, you will

undoubtedly learn many things in this book that will
make you a more productive bash user—from major
features down to details at the "nook-and-cranny" level
that you may not have been aware of.

If you are interested in shell programming (writing shell

scripts and functions that automate everyday tasks or
serve as system utilities), you should also find this book
useful. However, we have deliberately avoided drawing a
strong distinction between interactive shell use (entering

18
commands during a login session) and shell
programming. We see shell programming as a natural,
inevitable outgrowth of increasing experience as a user.

Accordingly, each chapter depends on those previous to

it, and although the first three chapters are oriented
toward interactive use only, subsequent chapters describe
interactive, user-oriented features in addition to
programming concepts.

This book aims to show you that writing useful shell

programs doesn't require a computing degree. Even if you
are completely new to computing, there is no reason why
you shouldn't be able to harness the power of bash within
a short time.

Toward that end, we decided not to spend too much time

on features of exclusive interest to low-level systems
programmers. Concepts like file descriptors and special
file types might only confuse the casual user, and
anyway, we figure those of you who understand such
things are smart enough to extrapolate the necessary
information from our cursory discussions.

19
Code Examples
This book is full of examples of shell commands and
programs designed to be useful in your everyday life as a
user, not just to illustrate the feature being explained. In
Chapter 4 and onwards, we include various programming
problems, which we call tasks, that illustrate particular
shell programming concepts. Some tasks have solutions
that are refined in subsequent chapters. The later chapters
also include programming exercises, many of which build
on the tasks in the chapter.

Feel free to use any code you see in this book and to pass
it along to friends and colleagues. We especially
encourage you to modify and enhance it yourself.

If you want to try examples but you don't use bash as

your login shell, you must put the following line at the
top of each shell script:

#!/bin/bash

If bash isn't installed as the file /bin/bash, substitute its

pathname in the above.

20
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
which there is no determinable element of shape and which yet possess an internal crystalline structure
which the microscope with polarized light may be able to reveal.
256. Staining Silt Particles.—The finer silts and clays before microscopic examination should be
colored or stained. The methods used in staining bacteria may be employed for the clay particles.
Evaporation to dryness with a solution of magenta will often impart a color to the clay particles which
is not removed by subsequent suspension in water. The harder and larger silt particles are not easily
stained, especially if they be firm and undecomposed. On the other hand, if the particles be broken and
seamed, and well decomposed, the stain will be taken up and held firmly in the capillary fissures.
Valuable indications are thus obtained respecting the nature of the silt particles. Particles of mica,
chlorite and talc are easily distinguished in this way from the firmer and less decomposed quartz grains.
The staining of the particles after ignition and treatment with acids gives better results than the direct
treatment. Particles of carbonate which are stained with difficulty before ignition take the stain easily
afterwards on account of the decomposition produced by the loss of carbon dioxid. This is the case also
with particles containing water of composition or crystallization.
257. Cleavage of Soil Particles.—A microscopic examination of the cleavage of soil particles may
be useful in determining their mineral origin. The course followed by cleavage lines and their mutual
position is dependent on the direction in which the separation of the mineral fragment takes place. The
character of the microscopic fragments produced by crushing a soil particle is determined primarily by
the system of crystallization to which it belongs. Perhaps the most distinguishing cleavage marks in soil
particles will be found in fragments of mica and orthoclase. These characteristic forms are shown in
Figs. 39 and 40. The first (Fig. 39) shows the pinacoidal cleavage in a fragment of mica. Fig. 40
illustrates the appearance of the cleavage lines in a fragment of orthoclase. Figs. 41 and 42 show the
characteristic cleavage lines in fragments of epidote and titanite.
258. Microchemical Examination of Silt.—The methods of quantitative chemical examination of
silts will be given in another part of this manual. Certain qualitative and microchemical tests, however,
are useful in identifying silt particles. For instance, any soluble iron mineral will be detected, even in
minute quantity, by the blue coloration of the solution produced by the addition of potassium
ferrocyanid. Manganese will be revealed by fusion with soda and saltpeter on platinum foil, in the
oxidizing flame, producing the well-known green coloration due to the sodium manganate formed.
More valuable indications of the character of the fragments examined are obtained by microchemical
processes. The best method of decomposing the silt particles for this purpose is by treatment with
hydrofluosilicic acid. When the particles are composed of silicates, pure hydrofluoric acid is to be
preferred.
The method of treatment is essentially that of Boricky.[165] The slide used is protected by a film of
Canada balsam, and a few of the silt particles are placed thereon, and fixed in place by slightly warming
the balsam. Each particle is then treated with a drop of hydrofluosilicic acid, care being taken not to let
the drops flow together. The acid must be pure, leaving no residue on evaporation. The acid should be
prepared by the analyst from a mixture of barium fluorid, sulfuric acid and quartz powder, or the
commercial article should be purified by distillation before using. The acid should be kept in ceresin or
gutta-percha bottles and must be applied with a ceresin or gutta-percha rod. Each particle should be as
completely dissolved as possible by the acid, and the rate of solution may be hastened by gentle
warming, provided the heat is not great enough to remove the balsam and allow the acid to attack the
glass. The bases present in the silt particles crystallize on drying as fluosilicates. In case of a too rapid
crystallization, the mass may be dissolved in a drop of water or of very dilute hydrofluosilicic acid, and
allowed to evaporate more slowly. Some fragments need more than one treatment with acid to secure
complete solution, and particles of mica may even resist repeated applications. In such a case the
decomposition may be made in a platinum crucible with hydrofluoric acid, adding afterwards an excess
of hydrofluosilicic acid and evaporating to dryness. The crystals may then be dissolved in a little water
and a drop of the solution allowed to crystallize on the slide.
259. Special Reactions.—The number of microchemical reactions is very great, but there will be
given here only some of the more important for silt identification.
Sodium.—Sodium mineral fragments dissolved in hydrofluosilicic acid and dried give the
combinations shown in Fig. 43. With sodium and aluminum the forms shown in Figs. 44 and 45 are
obtained. With an increasing amount of lime in the mineral, the crystals tend to become longer. For
microscopic work it is not advisable to try to produce the tetrahedral crystals of the double uranium
sodium acetate because the commercial uranium acetate often contains sodium and even the pure article
will often take up sodium from the bottles.
Potassium.—Fragments containing potash give isotropic clear cubes, or octahedra of low refracting
power, or combinations of these forms with each other and with rhombic dodecahedra. These crystals
have the composition K₂SiF₆. Their forms are shown[166] in Figs. 46 and 47. In case much sodium be
present, the first crystals obtained may be strongly double refractive rhombohedra, but on dissolving in
water and allowing to recrystallize, the normal forms will be obtained. If the crystals be dissolved in
hydrochloric or sulfuric acids, and treated with platinum chlorid, the characteristic yellow octahedral
crystals of K₂PtCl₆ will be obtained. Ammonium and cesium compounds also give this reaction.
Lithium.—When fragments containing lithium are treated with the solvent mentioned, monoclinic
crystals are produced on drying. These crystals dissolved in sulfuric acid and freed from calcium sulfate
by treatment with potassium carbonate give aggregates of lithium carbonate resembling a snowflake. At
a high temperature lithium solutions treated with sodium phosphate give spindle-shaped crystals of
lithium phosphate. The double lithium aluminum silicofluorid is shown in Fig. 48. The ease with which
traces of lithium may be detected by the spectroscope renders unnecessary any further description of its
microchemical reactions.
Calcium.—Nearly all mineral particles, save quartz grains, contain calcium. When these particles are
dissolved by treatment with hydrofluosilicic acid, they form on drying hydrated monoclinic crystals of
calcium silicofluorid (CaSiF₆ + 2H₂O). These crystals assume many forms, some of which are shown in
Figs. 49 and 50. These crystals are easily decomposed by sulfuric acid, the well-known long prismatic
crystals of gypsum taking their place. On treatment of silt particles containing lime with hydrofluoric
and sulfuric acids, only a part of the lime passes into solution if the content thereof be large. Where but
little lime is present and the sulfuric acid is in large excess, all the lime passes into solution and the
characteristic gypsum crystals appear as in Fig. 51.
Magnesium.—Rhombohedral crystals of magnesium silicofluorid separate from the solution of
particles containing magnesium in hydrofluosilicic acid. They have the composition MgSiF₆6H₂O and
their common forms are shown in Fig. 52. Quite characteristic also are the crystals of struvite
(NH₄MgPO₄ + 6H₂O), which are produced in a very dilute solution of the magnesium compound first
obtained by carefully adding ammonium hydroxid and chlorid until a faint alkaline reaction is produced,
and then placing a drop of dilute sodium phosphate at the edge of the solution. The crystals should be
allowed to form slowly in the cold. Their form is shown in Fig. 54.
 Figure 38. Photomicrographs of Silt Particles.

No. Diameter in mm. Name. Magnification. Diameters.

1 1.0–0.5 coarse sand ×10
2 0.5–0.25 medium sand ×10
3 0.25–0.1 fine sand ×10
4 0.1–0.05 very fine sand ×30
5 0.05–0.01 silt ×30
6 0.01–0.005 fine silt ×150
7 0.005–0.0001 clay ×150
Figures 39–42, show examples of the various degrees of perfection and relative positions of cleavage lines.
Figure 39, illustrates pinacoidal cleavage in mica from granite. Magnified thirty diameters.
Figure 40. A cleavage of orthoclase from augite syenite magnified twenty-seven diameters.
Figure 41. Cleavage of epidote magnified sixty diameters.
Figure 42. Cleavage of titanite magnified seventy-five diameters.
Figure 43. Sodium fluosilicate crystals magnified seventy-two diameters.
Figure 44. The same with aluminum fluosilicate magnified twenty-seven diameters.

Taken from Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie.

Figure 45. Sodium and aluminum silicofluorid crystals magnified 100, 140 and 160 diameters.
Figure 46. Potassium silicofluorid crystals magnified 130 diameters.
Figure 47. Another preparation of the same magnified 140 diameters.
Figure 48. Lithium and aluminum silicofluorid crystals magnified 100 diameters.
Figure 49. Calcium silicofluorid crystals magnified 45 diameters.
Figure 50. Another preparation of the same magnified 42 diameters.
 Figure 51. Calcium sulfate crystals magnified twenty diameters.
Figure 52. Magnesium silicofluorid crystals magnified thirty diameters.
Figure 53. Cesium aluminum sulfate crystals magnified twenty diameters.
Figure 54. Ammonium magnesium phosphate crystals magnified ten diameters.
Figure 55. The same crystallized from dilute solution magnified thirty diameters.
Figure 56. Ammonium phosphomolybdate crystals magnified 140 diameters.

Barium.—From solution of barium bearing minerals in hydrofluosilicic acid fragments, no

characteristic crystals, are obtained. Treated with hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids the barium is left as
sulfate. If this salt be dissolved in boiling oil of vitriol and a drop of the solution placed on the slide, a
mixture of rectangular tablets and St. Andrew’s cross-shaped growths will be separated before any
crystals of gypsum which may be present appear. When strontium is present, the barium sulfate residue
obtained by treatment with hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids should be fused with sodium and potassium
carbonate, washed with water until the sulfuric acid is removed, the residue dissolved in hydrochloric or
nitric acids, and the solution treated with potassium chromate. Pale yellow crystals of barium chromate
are thus obtained, which resemble in form those secured by dissolving the barium sulfate in oil of vitriol.
Strontium is not precipitated by this treatment. If potassium ferrocyanid be used instead of barium
chromate with the hydrochloric acid solution, crystals of barium potassium ferrocyanid are formed of a
bright yellow color and rhombohedric shape.
 Strontium.—From a hydrofluosilicic acid solution, strontium crystallizes in columns or tablets of the
monoclinic system as strontium silicofluorid, SrSiF₆. On treating these with sulfuric acid, rhombic plates
of strontium sulfate are formed, which serve to distinguish this element from calcium. On treatment of
the particles of the original mineral with hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids, the strontium remains in the
insoluble residue. When this residue is treated with boiling oil of vitriol, rhombic plates of celestine are
separated. If the residues above mentioned be dissolved by fusion with the alkaline carbonates, washed
with water, dissolved in hydrochloric acid and treated with oxalic acid, octahedral crystals of strontium
oxalate are formed.
Iron.—Mineral particles containing iron give crystals, when treated as is first described above, which
are fully isomorphous with those obtained from magnesium. By moistening the crystalline mass with
potassium ferrocyanid, the presence of iron is at once revealed by the blue coloration produced.
Aluminum.—No crystals containing aluminum are formed from the mineral particles containing this
substance when dissolved in the solvent already mentioned. If, however, the gelatinous mass be
dissolved in a little sulfuric acid and a fragment of a cesium salt added, beautiful crystals of cesium alum
are obtained, illustrated in Fig. 53.
Phosphorus.—When a mineral fragment containing phosphorus is treated according to the usual
analytical methods for securing the ammonium magnesium phosphate, crystals are obtained of the form
shown in Figs. 54 and 55. A phosphatic fragment of silt may be identified when soluble by treatment
with nitric acid and ammonium molybdate. On slowly drying, rhombohedral crystals are produced,
yellow by reflected, and green by transmitted light. Their form is shown in Fig. 56.
260. Petrographic Examination of Silt Particles.—The larger silt particles and the minute
fragments of minerals in the soil can best be studied in thin sections. For this purpose the following
plan, proposed by Thoulet, may be used. Mix the soil minerals in considerable proportion—Thoulet
recommends ten per cent, but a greater percentage is often better—with zinc oxid and make into a paste
with sodium silicate. The paste should be worked to the consistence of putty and then rolled into little
tablets about one-eighth of an inch thick and an inch in diameter. After drying a day or two without
heating, the tablets become hard enough to mount and grind like rock sections. These tablets are
mounted in Canada balsam on glass slides and ground as thin as possible with fine emery on the turn-
table or glass plate, as rock sections are treated. As these tablets are not as strong as rock sections
usually are, they require care in this treatment. Some of the grains also are apt to be torn out in the
process of grinding and to compensate for this loss a number of slides should be prepared with each lot
of soil minerals. When this operation has been successful, the optical properties of the various minerals
can be studied as in rock sections.
As the iron oxid contained in the soils obscures the transparency of the minerals, it is well to treat a
portion of the material under examination with hot hydrochloric acid for a short time to remove this
oxid and then prepare slides with the cleansed material and compare results with the untreated. As the
acid will dissolve phosphates and carbonates, and will partly or wholly decompose some other minerals,
the operator must be guided by his judgment in its use.
261. Machine for Making Mineral Sections.—A convenient apparatus for this purpose has been
described by Williams[167] and is represented in Fig. 57. It is supported on a substantial table provided
underneath with electric batteries and a motor for driving the cutting disks seen on the top. The table is
three feet six inches square and two feet nine inches high.
The grinding apparatus consists of two circular disks of solid copper, nine inches in diameter, and
three-eighths inch thick, which may be used alternately as different grades of emery are required. They
are attached either by a screw or square socket to a vertical iron spindle which revolves smoothly in a
conical bearing. The grinding disk is surrounded when in use by a large cylindrical pan of tin, which is
not shown in the cut, which has an opening in its center to allow of the passage of the spindle.
The sawing apparatus consists of a horizontal countershaft placed on a different part of the table and
connected with the motor by a separate belt. It carries at one end a vertical wheel of solid emery, and at
the other an attachment, level-table and guide for the diamond-saw. A small water-can with spout, not
shown in the cut, is suspended over the edge of the table to keep the saw wet when it is in use.
The machine is very conveniently driven by a storage battery when street circuits cannot be drawn on.
For the details of making mineral sections, the works on petrography may be consulted.
262. Separation of Silt Particles by Specific Gravity Solutions.—In silt separates the specific
gravity of the different mineral particles present may vary from graphite (1.9–2.3) to hematite (5.2–5–
3).
 The following list gives the specific gravities of some
of the more common minerals which may be met with
in soils:

Figure 57.

Machine for Making Mineral Sections.

Gypsum 2.31
Albite 2.56–2.63
Quartz 2.65
Talc 2.74
Chlorite 2.78
Muscovite 2.85
Calcite 2.5–2.78
Dolomite 2.90
Tourmaline 2.94–3.3
Biotite 3.01
Apatite 3.16
Pyroxenes 3.22–3.5
Epidote 3.39
Titanium Minerals 3.48–4.75
Iron oxids 5.2–5.3

The finest particles of silt are separated by gravity with great difficulty, inasmuch as they tend to
remain suspended in the solutions for an indefinite period. With the coarser silts, however, useful data
are often obtained by this method. The separation is preceded by extraction of the particles with
hydrochloric acid to remove encrusted soluble matter, and by ignition to destroy any traces of organic
matter. Those mineral matters which are soluble in acid or are changed by ignition must, of course, be
sought for in separate portions of the silt,
263. Thoulet’s Solution.[168]—The standard solution is of such a density that particles of 2.65
specific gravity-will just float thereon, using for this purpose a solution of about 2.7 specific gravity. The
solution from which the above standard is prepared is made as follows:
One part of potassium iodid is weighed and placed in a beaker and one and one-quarter part of
mercuric iodid is placed on top of it. Then water is added in the proportion of ten cubic centimeters to
100 grams of the mixture, and after some time (twelve to twenty-four hours), with occasional stirring,
the salts will nearly completely dissolve. Filter from the undissolved residue and evaporate in a porcelain
dish until crystals form on the surface of the liquid. Allow to cool, pour off the liquid from the crystals
and evaporate the liquid for another crop. The first solution, after cooling, has a specific gravity between
3.10 and 3.20, the second a specific gravity of 3.28, practically the limit of density of the solution. The
solution of 2.7 specific gravity and other densities are made by cautiously adding a few drops of water at
a time and ascertaining the specific gravity by the Westphal balance or other convenient method.
The strong solution, according to Goldschmidt,[169] may be prepared directly by using potassium iodid
and mercuric iodid in the ratio of 1 : 1.24. Twenty-five cubic centimeters of water, 210 grams of
potassium iodid, and 280 grams of mercuric iodid afford a solution of 3.196 specific gravity at 15°, on
which fluorspar fragments will float.
264. Klein’s Separating Liquid.—A solution of cadmium borotungstate, of the composition
2H₂O,2CdO,B₂O₃,9WO₃ + 16H₂O, has been proposed by Klein[170] for separating silt particles. This salt
is obtained by dissolving pure sodium tungstate in five times its weight of water, adding one and a half
parts of boric acid and boiling until, complete solution takes place. On cooling; the borax is separated in
crystalline form. The mother-liquor after the removal of the crystals is carefully concentrated by boiling.
By stirring the cold solution, there is a further separation of sodium borate and polyborate. This
operation is continued until glass will float on the mother-liquor. The salt in solution then has the
following composition: 4Na₂O,12WO₃,B₂O₃. To this boiling concentrated solution, is added a boiling
saturated solution of barium chlorid, in the proportion of one part of the chlorid to three parts of the
original double tungstate. An abundant pulverulent precipitate is formed, making the whole mass
mushy. The mass is filtered under pressure and well-washed with hot water. The residue is then
suspended in hot water containing one part in ten of hydrochloric acid of 1.18 specific gravity. It is then
evaporated to dryness in the presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid and decomposed, by which
process hydrated tungstic acid is separated. The boiling mass is taken up with water and the boiling
continued for two hours with occasional addition of water to take the place of that evaporated, and the
tungstic acid separated by filtration.
From the solution, beautiful quadratic crystals separate having the composition
9WO₃,B₂O₃,2BaO₂H₂ + 18H₂O. These are purified by several recrystallizations and freed from any
scales of boric acid by washing with alcohol. Any reducing action, revealed by a violet coloration of the
crystals, can be avoided by adding a few drops of nitric acid. From a boiling solution of these crystals, the
cadmium salt desired is obtained by treatment with the proper amount of cadmium sulfate solution to
precipitate the barium. The barium sulfate is separated by filtration. The cadmium borotungstate is
soluble in less than ten parts by weight of water. From this solution it is obtained in pure form by
evaporation under a vacuum, or by carefully concentrating on a water-bath and cooling. A saturated
solution of these crystals at 15° has a bright yellow color and a specific gravity of 3.28.
If a dilute solution of the above salt be carefully evaporated on a water-bath, any violet color which
may be present disappears when the specific gravity reaches 2.7. If the evaporation be continued until a
crystal of augite will float on the hot liquid, crystals may be obtained on cooling which, dissolved in as
little water as possible, make a solution which will almost support olivine. If the two solutions be united,
the specific gravity of the mixture is 3.30–3.36. The highest attainable specific gravity; viz., 3.6, is
produced by continuing the evaporation on a water-bath until the liquid will support olivine, and then
allowing to stand in a closed place for twenty-four hours. The crystals of cadmium borotungstate thus
obtained are freed as much as possible from the mother-liquor by drainage and then melted at about 75°
in their own water of crystallization. A liquid is thus obtained on which spinel will float. The same
concentration may also be obtained by careful heating on a water-bath. At its highest specific gravity this
solution has an oily consistence and this renders its practical use in the separation of fine particles
somewhat restricted. By filtering the liquor when a crystalline crust begins to form during evaporation, a
cold solution of 3.360–3.365 specific gravity is obtained which is found practically useful. It has a higher
specific gravity than Thoulet’s mixture, is not injurious to any of the mineral particles, not even of iron
with which it is brought into contact, but the trouble of preparing it is far greater than that of the
mixture of mercuric and potassium iodids.
265. Rohrbach’s Solution.—The solution of barium mercuric iodid recommended by Rohrbach[171]
for this purpose was originally prepared by Suchsin. The solution must be rapidly prepared on account
of the tendency of the barium salt to decomposition. The solution is prepared by weighing rapidly 100
grams of barium and 130 grams of mercuric iodid, mixing the two salts well in a dry flask and adding
twenty cubic centimeters of water. The mixture is raised to a temperature of 150°–200° on an oil-bath.
The formation and solution of the double salt are promoted by constant stirring.
After solution, the liquor is boiled for a few minutes and then evaporated on a water-bath until it will
bear a crystal of epidote. On cooling, a small quantity of a yellow double salt is separated by
crystallization and the resulting mother-liquor is dense enough to carry a fragment of topaz. Inasmuch
as the liquor is filtered with difficulty, the clear mother-liquor should be separated by decantation after
standing for several days. This solution has the disadvantage of not being dilutable with water, the
addition of which causes a separation of red mercuric iodid. Were this solution not so easily
decomposed, it would prove of high value in silt separation.
266. Braun’s Separating Liquid.—In many respects the separatory solution proposed by
Braun[172] is superior to those already mentioned. It is the commercial methylene iodid, CH₂I₂, which
has at 16° a specific gravity of 3.32, at 5° of 3.35, and at 25° of 3.31. It is a strongly refractive liquid
having a refractive index of 1.7466 for the yellow ray.
As a separating medium the liquid is open to two objections; viz., first, it cannot be diluted with water
and, second, it turns brown on heating or on long exposure to the sunlight.
When dilution is necessary, it should be accomplished with benzene or xylene. To bring the diluted
liquor again to its maximum density, the benzene must be removed by evaporation, which causes a
considerable loss in the liquid. When this substance becomes opaque, the transparency may be restored
by removing the separated iodin by shaking with potash lye, washing with pure water, drying by the
addition of pieces of calcium chlorid and filtering. The same result may also be reached by freezing and
separating the liquid portion. The frozen portion on melting will have the density of the original liquid.
267. Method of Bréon.—Instead of a solution of a salt, Bréon[173] has proposed to use salts in a
fused state for separating mineral particles. Lead and zinc chlorids may be used for this purpose in a
melted state, having the specific gravities of 5.0 and 2.4, respectively. By mixing the molten salts in
different proportions, any desired specific gravity between the extremes mentioned may be secured. The
fusion is accomplished at 400° in a test-tube. The silt is added gradually with constant stirring until a
sharp separation is secured between the sinking and floating particles. After cooling, the tube is broken,
the two parts separated, and the silt recovered by dissolving the mixed salts in hot water containing a
little nitric acid. Only the coarser silts can be separated by this method. Fused silver nitrate, melting
point 198°, specific gravity 4.1, has also been used for separation.
268. The Separation.—Forty cubic centimeters of the solution in the Thoulet process are placed in
the separatory tube A, Fig. 58, together with from one to two grams of the silt and the stopper F inserted.
The tube G is connected with a vacuum apparatus by means of which any air particles adhering to the
mineral fragments are removed. The silt which sinks in the solution is removed after G has been
disconnected by opening the cock C and sucking through B at I. The cock C is closed and the separated
particles washed into a beaker at H after opening D. Water is next added to the materials left in A in
quantities previously determined to secure a given specific gravity and thus a second, a third, etc.,
separation secured. An intimate mixture of the solutions in A can be effected by closing D, opening C,
and blowing through B in such a way that no liquid is allowed to pass through C.
 The quantity of water to be added in each case to
secure a given specific gravity is determined by the
formula v₁ = v(D − d)
d − 1 , in which v is the volume of the
solution, D its specific gravity, and d and v₁ the
specific gravity desired and volume of the water to be
added.
Example.—Let the specific gravity of the original
solution be 3.2, its volume thirty cubic centimeters,
and the desired specific gravity of the new solution
2.85.
Then v₁ = 30(3.2 − 2.85)
2.85 − 1 = 5.68.
The desired specific gravity is therefore secured by
adding 5.68 cubic centimeters of water, which is
easily accomplished by means of the graduations on
the tube.
According to Rosenbusch,[174] the calculated specific
gravity as made above is not wholly reliable on
account of the contraction which takes place. An Fig. 58.
empirical process is rather to be commended which
consists in introducing a fragment of mineral of Thoulet’s
Separating
known or desired specific gravity and then adding Apparatus.
water drop by drop until the fragment remains
suspended in the mixture. Should too much water be
added, the necessary increase in density can be secured by adding a
little of the strong solution.
269. Method of Packard.—A separatory funnel, according to
Packard,[175] may be safely used to hold the solution while separation
is going on. As the lighter minerals form the bulk of soils, the heavier
constituting only a small percentage, it is well to use a wide funnel
holding as much as one-half liter for quantitative separations,
because a large quantity of soil, say 100 grams, is necessary from
which to recover the small quantity of heavy particles satisfactorily.
The soil is introduced into the solution contained in the funnel,
agitated, stirred with a glass rod, and allowed to stand some time.
This operation may be repeated as often as desired. Separation is not
absolute by this operation, the heavy and light particles being
sometimes so united that they sink or float together according as one
or the other preponderates. There are also particles having so nearly
the same specific gravity as the solution that they remain indifferent
to its action in any position. After separation has been effected, the
heavy portion is drawn off through the stop-cock of the funnel and
the lighter is skimmed off the top. Both must be thoroughly washed
from the adhering heavy solution for further examination with the
microscope, and by chemical, microchemical, and blow-pipe tests.
One who has familiarized himself with the appearance of minerals in
minute fragments under the microscope, in ordinary and polarized
light, will be able to determine some minerals in that way. But for
certain identification it is necessary to ascertain their optical
properties as is done in the case of the minerals in thin sections of
rocks.
Illustration.—The following example from the work of Packard will
serve to illustrate the results of separating a soil by the specific
gravity method:
One hundred grams of soil, residual clay from the Trenton
limestone, were placed in the Thoulet’s solution contained in the
large separatory funnel. The heavy portion, after washing and drying,
weighed 0.6886 gram, or 0.69 per cent. Of this, the magnet removed
0.1635 gram, or 0.16 per cent. This heavy material consisted of
rounded yellowish and brown grains up to twenty-five millimeters in
diameter, mingled with lustrous angular black grains which were
seen under the microscope to be cubes with striated faces, cubes
penetrating each other and aggregations of cubes. Combinations of
cubes with octahedra and instances of the pentagonal dodecahedron
were also observed. These forms, characteristic of pyrites, were also
seen in the fine sand obtained as a residue on elutriating the same
soil. As these crystals dissolved in hydrochloric acid, giving a strong
iron solution, they were regarded as pseudomorphs of iron oxid after
pyrites. The yellowish grains on treatment with acid left a grayish
residue which contained some grains of quartz but was not wholly
quartz. The lighter portion of the soil, over ninety-nine per cent,
which floated in the Thoulet’s solution of 2.8 was next examined. It
was colored red by the iron oxid which coated and adhered to the
other minerals. It contained all the quartz, the feldspars if present,
and the other minerals whose specific gravity is less than 2.8. It was
examined by the microscope and found to consist largely of irregular
grains of a mineral which acted on polarized light, obscured
somewhat by the iron oxid, and was apparently quartz; and another
mineral which was yellowish-brown in color and seemed to be dull
and not transparent. Besides there was a large quantity of
indistinguishable amorphous material. To clean these minerals the
material was treated with hydrochloric acid to remove the iron oxid
and other matter soluble in acid, when the quartz grains appeared
transparent and gave interference colors in polarized light. But
mingled with these were grains of the other mineral which now
appeared grayish, dull, and without action on polarized light. The
character of this mineral substance could only be determined by
chemical analysis.
270. Harada’s Apparatus.—Although it has been affirmed by
some analysts that in the subsidence of small particles it is advisable
that the containing vessels have parallel sides, yet in the method just
given, and in those about to be described, good results are obtained
in a funnel or pear-shaped holder.
In the apparatus of Harada,[176] Fig. 59, the separating
vessel a is made of thick glass furnished with a glass
stopper above and a glass stop-cock h below. The
separating liquid and silt are placed in the pear-shaped
vessel a, the stopper inserted, and the whole well-shaken.
As soon as a ring of clear liquid is seen between the
sinking and floating silt, the lower end of the apparatus is
brought near the bottom of a conical glass b, the cock h
opened and the heavy silt allowed to fall out. Very little of
the liquor will flow out because of the air pressure.
Should an air bubble enter the apparatus and be held at
the stop-cock, it should be made to ascend by gently
Figure 59. tapping. When all the heavy silt has passed into the
conical glass, the cock h is closed and some water poured
Harada’s
Apparatus.
over the solution and silt in b. The separatory apparatus
is now raised until the beveled end of it is in the water
layer, when the water at once rises to h and thus washes
all the silt particles adhering to the glass into b. The liquid in a may
then be diluted by inverting the apparatus, adding the required
amount of water through h, again shaken after closing h, and another
separation secured as before.
 This apparatus is somewhat easier to manipulate than Thoulet’s
but does not admit of the same quantitative dilution of the
separating liquid.
271. Apparatus of
Brögger.—All silt
separations in narrow
tubes are open to the
objection of permitting
more or less
flocculation. Some of
the lighter particles are
thus carried down by
the heavier, and, on the
other hand, some of the
heavier float with the
lighter. This disturbing
Fig. 60 a. Fig. 60 b. Fig. 60 c.
action Brögger[177] seeks
to avoid by the Brögger’s Apparatus.
following device, Fig.
60, a, b, c. The length of
the apparatus is forty-six centimeters, and its greatest diameter 3.5
centimeters. The opening in the large stop-cock A is the same
diameter as that of the apparatus at that point. The cubical content of
the apparatus with A open and B closed is about seventy-five cubic
centimeters. In conducting the separation the cock B is closed, the
separating liquid and silt introduced, A being open, the stopper K
inserted and the whole well-shaken. In the first separation, the silt S,
lying over B is contaminated with some of the lighter particles S′₂,
while the lighter particles above A, S₂, are mixed with some of the
heavier particles, S′₁. After closing A the apparatus is again well-
shaken and inverted as in Fig. 60 b. The two parts of the silt will now
undergo another separation as indicated. The apparatus is now
carefully inclined as in c, when the various grades of silt will flow in
the directions indicated by the arrows, but without mixing, passing
each other on opposite sides of the apparatus. When the movement
is complete, A is carefully opened, the apparatus still being held as in
c, and the light silt formerly between A and B will flow above A, while
the heavy silt above A will flow down and join the silt collected over
B. This operation may be repeated until a perfect separation is
effected. Finally B is opened and the heavy silt collected in a beaker,
and the lighter silt then removed from the upper part of the
apparatus.

Figure 61.

Apparatus of Wülfing.

272. Method of Wülfing.—A somewhat more convenient

method of purifying the silt segregates and freeing them of
mechanically occluded particles of differing specific gravities has
been proposed by Wülfing.[178] An elliptical ring of heavy glass tubing
carries glass stop-cocks A and B, Fig. 61, at the two extremities of the
ellipse, each arm of which is provided with a lateral glass-stoppered
neck. The perforation in the stop-cocks has the same diameter as the
sides of the ellipse. The apparatus has an interior cubical content of
about forty cubic centimeters. Thirty cubic centimeters of the
separating fluid are introduced through one of the lateral apertures
and brought to the same height in the two arms by opening the cock
B. The silt is then introduced in equal quantities into each of the
arms. The stoppers having been inserted, the whole is well-shaken.
At the beginning of the separation, the apparatus being held in
position 1, the lighter soil above and the heavier soil below are
somewhat mixed by reason of flocculation and mechanical
entanglement. At this point B is opened and the apparatus placed in
the inclined position 2. The heavier particles S + l, on the right arm,
are thus united with the same class of particles in the left arm
making 2S + 2l. This operation is hastened by opening A and
allowing the higher column of liquid in the right arm to pass into the
left. The liquid in the left arm is allowed to rise to A. After all of S + l
in the right arm has passed into the left B is closed, the apparatus
then placed back in position 1 and inclined in the opposite direction
until L + s in the top of the left arm has been transferred to the L + s
in the top of the right, and the same quantity of liquid is found in
each arm. The operation is then repeated and this continued until all
S + s is found in the bottom of the left arm and all L + l in the top of
the right arm.
273. Separation with a Magnet.—Particles of magnetic iron
oxid are easily separated from the fine soil particles by means of a
magnet. A strong bar or horseshoe magnet may be used. Electro-
magnets are rarely necessary except for the separation of particles of
feeble magnetic power. Particles of iron which may be found would
owe their origin to the mortars in which the soil had been pulverized,
or they might come from a recently crushed meteorite. Some
minerals, as limonite, after ignition are attracted by the magnet and
it is advisable to subject a part of the sample to this treatment. The
best method of separation consists in spreading the particles evenly
on paper and gradually bringing the magnetic particles to one side by
moving the magnet underneath.
274. Color and Transparency.—But little can be learned from
the color and transparency of the smallest silt particles, but these
properties in the larger grains have considerable diagnostic value.
Many minerals of distinct color appear wholly colorless in
petrographic sections or in silt particles, as for instance, highly-
colored quartz. On the other hand, even the smallest particle of
chlorite will show its distinctive tint. The colors in some minerals are
due to occluded matter not essential to their structure, and these
foreign bodies would naturally escape when the crystal mass is
reduced to an almost impalpable powder.
275. Value of Silt Analyses.—As in the case of chemical
analyses a silt analysis of a soil which is not typical or representative
has little value. On the other hand, a systematic separation of soils
into classes of particles can not fail to reveal a definite
correspondence of mechanical composition to soil properties. The
production of a crop is the result of certain functions, chief among
which are temperature, moisture, and plant food. In a given soil the
temperature is markedly affected by its physical state. It has been
demonstrated in previous paragraphs that the circulation of moisture
in the soil and its capacity to be held therein are chiefly functions of
the state of aggregation of the soil itself. The availability of plant food
in a soil is not measured by its quantity alone, but rather by its state
of subdivision. It is not therefore a matter of surprise that the fertility
of a soil is found, caetèris paribus, to be commensurate to a certain
limit with the percentage of fine silt and clay which it contains. It is
true that two soils quite different in fertility, may have approximately
the same silt percentages, but in such a case it is demonstrable that
even in the poorer soil the measure of fertility is largely the
percentage of fine particles and not its actual content of plant food.
In other words, almost all soils, even the poorest, have still large
quantities of plant food, but these stores, owing to certain physical
conditions, are not accessible to the rootlets of plants. An illustration
of this is seen in the use of concentrated fertilizers. It might seem
absurd to suppose that the addition of 100 pounds of sodium nitrate
would prove useful to a plat containing already many tons of
nitrogen; but the nitrate is at once available and its beneficial
influences are easily seen.
The full value of silt analysis will only be appreciated when many
typical soils from widely separated areas are carefully studied in
respect of their chemical and physical constitution and the character
of the crops which they produce.
 AUTHORITIES CITED IN PART FOURTH.
121. Annual Report, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1887.
122. American Journal of Science, March 1879, p. 205.
123. Bulletin, No. 4, United States Weather Bureau, p. 19.
124. Chemical News, Vol. 30, August 7, 1874, p. 57.
125. American Journal of Science, Vol. 29, 1885, p. 1.
126. American Journal of Science, Vol. 37, (1889), p. 122.
127. Proceedings National Academy of Science, Baltimore Meeting, 1892.
128. Manuscript communication to author.
129. Division of Chemistry, Bulletin 38, p. 200.
130. Anleitung zur Wissenschaftlichen Bodenuntersuchung, S. 23.
131. Die Landwirtschaftlichen Versuchs-Stationen, Band 38, Ss. 309, et seq.
132. Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, Band 15, S. 3025.
133. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1886, pp.
141, et seq.
134. König, Untersuchung Landwirtschaftlich und Gewerblich Wichtiger
Stoffe, S. 7.
135. Wahnschaffe, Anleitung zur Wissenschaftlichen Bodenuntersuchung, S.
25.
136. Vid. 15, S. 24.
137. König, op. cit. 14, S. 13.
138. Tenth Census of the United States, Vol. 3, pp. 872–3.
139. Wahnschaffe, op. cit. 15, S. 26.
140. Le Stazioni Sperimentali Agrarie Italiane, Vol. 17, pp. 672, et seq.
141. Vid. 13.
142. Encyclopedie Chimique, Tome 4, pp. 155, et seq.
143. Annales de la Science Agronomique, 1891, Tome 1, Seconde Fasicule, pp.
250, et seq.
144. Vid. 22.
145. Petermann, L’Analyse du Sol., p. 15.
 146. Vid. 20.
147. Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Band 3, Ss. 89, et seq.
148. Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Band 5, Ss. 295, et seq.
149. Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, Tome 40, pp. 324, et
seq.
150. Journal für Landwirtschaft, Band 38, Theil 2, S. 162.
151. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1887, pp.
145, et seq.
152. Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 38, pp. 60, et seq. The figures are
from original drawings under the direction of Prof. Hilgard.
153. Op. cit. supra, pp. 65–69.
154. Op. cit. 13, p. 150.
155. Op. cit. 31, p. 152.
156. Op. cit. 31, p. 157.
157. Op. cit. 31, p. 159.
158. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 1888, p.
154.
159. Loughridge, Proceedings American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Vol. 22, p. 81.
160. Whitney, United States Weather Bureau, Bulletin No. 4.
161. Whitney, op. cit. 40.
162. Vid. 40.
163. Vid. 40.
164. Vid. Anleitung zur Mineralogischen Bodenanalyse von Franz Steinreide;
and Mikroskopische Physiographie von H. Rosenbusch.
165. Elemente einer neuen Chemisch-Mikroskopischen Mineral und
Gesteinsanalyse, 1877.
166. Rosenbusch, Mikroskopische Physiographie, Plate 11, Fig. 3. The figures
of crystals of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, etc., are taken from the
same work, Plates 10, 11, and 12.
167. Williams, American Journal of Science, February 1893, p. 203.
168. Op. cit. 46, S. 231.
169. Op. et., loc. cit. 48.
170. Op. cit. 46, S. 233.
 171. Op. cit. 46, S. 235.
172. Op. cit. 46, S. 236.
173. Op. cit. 46, S. 237.
174. Op. cit. 46, S. 232.
175. Manuscript Communication from R. L. Packard.
176. Op. cit. 46, S. 241.
177. Op. cit. 46, S. 242.
178. Op. cit. 46, S. 243.
Note.—The analyses on page 237 are by Hilgard and Loughridge
from Proceedings American Association for the Advancement of
Science, Portland Meeting, 1873.
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