Year Four

Geometric Design
Highway and airport Engineering

Dr. Mohamed Mostafa Hassan

BSc., MSc., Suez Canal University, Egypt
PhD, University of Liverpool, UK

[email protected]
Geometric Design
 Outline
1. Concepts
2. Vertical Alignment
a. Fundamentals
b. Crest Vertical Curves
c. Sag Vertical Curves
d. Examples
3. Horizontal Alignment
a. Fundamentals
b. Superelevation
4. Intersections
5. Other Non-Testable Stuff
Horizontal
Alignment
 Horizontal Alignment
• Horizontal alignment for linear transportation
facilities such as highways and railways
consists of horizontal tangents, circular curves,
and possibly transition curves. In the case of
highways, transition curves are not always
used.
Horizontal alignments with and without
transition curves.
 Horizontal Alignment
• Objective:
– Geometry of directional transition to ensure:
• Safety
• Comfort
• Primary challenge
Δ
– Transition between two directions
– Horizontal curves
• Fundamentals
– Circular curves
– Superelevation
 HORIZONTAL TANGENTS
• Horizontal tangents are described in terms’ of
their lengths (as expressed in the stationing of
the job) and their directions. Directions may
be either expressed as bearings or as azimuths
and are always defined in the direction of
increasing station. Azimuths are expressed as
angles turned clockwise from due north;
bearings are expressed as angles turned either
clockwise or counterclockwise from either
north or south.
 CIRCULAR CURVES
• Horizontal curves are normally circular. Figure
in the next slide illustrates several of their
important features. Horizontal curves are also
described by radius, central angle (which is
EQUAL to the deflection angle between the
tangents), length, semi-tangent distance,
middle ordinate, external distance, and chord.
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals

T  R tan
PI
T Δ
2 E
 100
L R  L
M Δ/2
180 D PC PT

Degree of Curvature (in USA), D:

R R
 180 
100 
   18,000 Δ/2 Δ/2
D 
R  R
 Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
E: external distance
M: chord-to-curve length PI
L: Curve length T Δ
T: tangent length E
R: radius of the curve
Δ: external angle M Δ/2
D: curvature L
PC PT

 1 
E  R  1
 cos  2  R R

Δ/2 Δ/2
 
M  R1  cos 
 2
 Example
A horizontal curve is designed with a 1500
ft. radius. The tangent length is 400 ft. and
the PT station is 20+00. What are the PI
and PT stations?
• Since we know R and T we can use
• T = R tan(∆/2) to get ∆ = 29.86 degrees
• D = 5729.6/R. Therefore D = 3.82
• L = 100(∆)/D = 100(29.86)/3.82 = 781 ft.
• PC = PT – PI = 2000 – 781 = 12+18.2
• PI = PC +T = 12+18.2 + 400 = 16+18.2.

• Note: cannot find PI by subtracting T from PT!

 Superelevation
• The purpose of superelevation or banking of
curves is to counteract the centripetal
acceleration produced as a vehicle rounds a
curve. The term itself comes from railroad
practice, where the top of the rail is the profile
grade.
Superelevation

Fc

e
Wp  Ff  Fcp W 1 ft

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s W cos   sin    cos 
 gRv  gRv
Fc: centrifugal force
Ff: frictional force
W: weight of vehicle = Mg
V: speed
Rv: radius of curve
Fs: side friction factor; friction coefficient
 Superelevation
 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s W cos   sin    cos 
 gRv  gRv
Divide both sides by W cos(α) and rearrange the eq.
V2
tan   f s  1  f s tan  
gRv
2
e  fs 
V
1  f s e
gRv
Assume fs x e is
small and can be V2
neglected Rv 
g  f s  e
 (fs) Side friction factor

• The maximum side friction factor is the point

at which the tires begin to skid
• Design values of fs are chosen somewhat
below this maximum value so there is a
margin of safety
 Selection of e and fs
• Practical limits on superelevation (e):
– Climate
– Constructability
– Adjacent land use
– Maximum of 7%
• Side friction factor (fs) variations:
– Vehicle speed
– Pavement texture
– Tire condition
Side Friction Factor

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Minimum Radius Tables
Design Side Friction Factors
For Open Highways and Ramps

from the 2005 WSDOT Design Manual, M 22-01

 Design Side Friction Factors
For Low-Speed Urban Managed Access Highways

from the 2005 WSDOT Design Manual, M 22-01

Design Superelevation Rates - AASHTO
There is a different curve for each superelevation rate, this one is for 8%

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2004

Design Superelevation Rates

emax = 8%

from the 2005 WSDOT Design Manual, M 22-01

 Exercise 1
A section of SR 522 is being designed as a high-
speed divided highway. The design speed is 70
mph. Using WSDOT standards, what is the
minimum curve radius (as measured to the traveled
vehicle path) for safe vehicle operation?
 Exercise 2
• Compute the minimum radius of a circular
curve for a highway designed for 110 km/h.
The maximum superelevation rate is 12%.
Value of fs is 0.11.
 Stopping Sight Distance
 100 s SSD
SSD  Rv  s 
180 D
180SSD  Ms
s 
Rv
  90SSD 
M s  Rv 1  cos  Obstruction

  Rv  Rv

Rv   Rv  M s 
cos  
1
SSD  Δs
90   Rv 
Intersections
 INTERSECTIONS & INTERCHANGES
• Geometric Design of transportation facilities
must provide for the resolution of traffic
conflicts.
• In general, these conflicts may be classified Merging

as:

– Merging conflicts Diverging

• Occurs when vehicles enter a traffic stream
– Diverging conflicts
• Occurs when vehicles leave the traffic stream
– Weaving conflicts Weaving
• Occurs by merging then diverging
– Crossing conflicts
• Occurs when they cross paths directly

Crossing
Three Basic Ways of Resolving Crossing Conflicts

• Time-sharing Solutions
• Space-sharing Solutions
• Grade separation Solutions
 At-grade intersections
• Except for freeways, all highways have
intersections at grade, so that the intersection
area is a part of every connecting road or
street.
• In this area, crossing and turning movements
occur.
• Some intersection are channelized; to
minimize traffic accidents, speed control,
prevention of prohibited turns, refuge may be
provided for pedestrians,
General types of at-grade Intersections

Unchannelized T

Unchannelized Y

Flared T
 3-leg intersections
Y with turning roadways

Unchannelized

Channelized
 INTERCHANGES
• Are classified according to the way they
handle left-turning traffic.

INTERCHANGE CONFIGURATION
- are selected on the basis of structural cost,
right-of-way costs, and ability to serve traffic.
• An interchange is a grade-separated intersection
(one road passes over another) with ramps to
connect them. For busy roads this is a necessity to
keep traffic moving. Traffic signals are sometimes
needed to help traffic move through and between
the two facilities. Within these pages, we are going
to depict and describe some of the various
interchanges used to date. There might be some
not used in Ohio. All interchanges are designed for
the projected traffic for the region. This will make
some designs more beneficial than others with
respect to operation, right-way impacts, etc.
• A complete interchange has to provide access to and from any
direction from each facility. Full freeway to street access with a
conventional interchange requires a minimum of four ramps, to
get on and off in each direction. In Ohio, full interchanges are
required for a future design. Partial interchanges are not
allowed unless special needs are displayed (park and ride, by-
pass routes, etc.)
• An exit ramp, or off ramp, leaves the main roadway for another
road; an entrance ramp, or on ramp, enters the roadway. These
terms make the most sense when one freeway intersects a
surface street; entrance and exit are from the point of view of
the freeway.
• An interchange is a simple solution to a capacity problem.
Safety, cost, environment, development and politics can vary at
each site. Many interchanges are slight variations of a few basic
types.
 General Classes of Freeway
Interchanges
• Diamond Interchange
– Employ diamond
ramps which connect
to the cross road by
means of an at grade
intersection.
– Left turns are
accomplished by
having vehicles turn
left across traffic on
the cross road.
DIAMOND INTERCHANGE
 Cloverleaf
Interchange
 Employ loop
ramps, in which
vehicles turn left
by turning 270
degrees to the
right.
CLOVERLEAF INTERCHANGE
 Partial Cloverleaf Interchange (Parclo)
 Involves various combinations of diamond and loop
ramps.
Partial cloverleaf
Trumpet
 Trumpet Interchange
FULL DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL-Y
Roundabout
ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)

ON-RAMP (entrance to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

OFF-RAMP (exit to highway)

 HW

Report on Road interchanges: their use,

advantages and disadvantages
 Supplemental Stuff
Not Testable
• Superelevation Transition
– Runoff
– Tangent runout
• Spiral curves
 Superelevation Runoff/Runout
NOT TESTABLE

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 NOT TESTABLE

Superelevation Runoff - WSDOT

from the 2005 WSDOT Design Manual, M 22-01

 NOT TESTABLE

Spiral Curves

No Spiral

Spiral

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 NOT TESTABLE

No Spiral
 NOT TESTABLE

Spiral Curves
• WSDOT no longer uses spiral curves
• Involve complex geometry
• Require more surveying
• Are somewhat empirical
• If used, superelevation transition should occur
entirely within spiral
 NOT TESTABLE

Desirable Spiral Lengths

from AASHTO’s A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets 2001

 NOT TESTABLE

Operating vs. Design Speed

85th Percentile Speed

vs. Inferred Design Speed for
138 Rural Two-Lane Highway
Horizontal Curves

85th Percentile Speed

vs. Inferred Design Speed for
Rural Two-Lane Highway
Limited Sight Distance Crest
Vertical Curves