ST.

ANNE’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
(An ISO 9001: 2015 Certified Institution)
ANGUCHETTYPALAYAM, PANRUTI – 607 106.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME8073 UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES L T P
3 0 0
OBJECTIVE:
 To learn about various unconventional machining processes, the various process parameters and
their influence on performance and their applications

UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND MECHANICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES 9

Unconventional machining Process – Need – classification – merits, demerits and applications.
Abrasive Jet Machining – Water Jet Machining – Abrasive Water Jet Machining - Ultrasonic
Machining. (AJM, WJM, AWJM and USM). Working Principles – equipment used – Process
parameters – MRR- Applications.

UNIT II THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES 9

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) – Wire cut EDM – Working Principle-equipments-Process
Parameters-Surface Finish and MRR- electrode / Tool – Power and control Circuits-Tool Wear –
Dielectric – Flushing –– Applications. Laser Beam machining and drilling, (LBM), plasma, Arc
machining (PAM) and Electron Beam Machining (EBM). Principles – Equipment –Types - Beam
control techniques – Applications.

UNIT III CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES 9

Chemical machining and Electro-Chemical machining (CHM and ECM)- Etchants – Maskant -
techniques of applying maskants - Process Parameters – Surface finish and MRR-Applications.
Principles of ECM- equipments-Surface Roughness and MRR Electrical circuit-Process Parameters-
ECG and ECH - Applications.

UNIT IV ADVANCED NANO FINISHING PROCESSES 9

Abrasive flow machining, chemo-mechanical polishing, magnetic abrasive finishing, magneto
rheological finishing, magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing their working principles,
equipments, effect of process parameters, applications, advantages and limitations.

UNIT V RECENT TRENDS IN NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES 9

Recent developments in non-traditional machining processes, their working principles, equipments,
effect of process parameters, applications, advantages and limitations. Comparison of non-traditional
machining processes.
TOTAL PERIODS: 45
OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to
CO1 Explain the need for unconventional machining processes and its classification

CO2 Compare various thermal energy and electrical energy based unconventional
machining processes.
Summarize various chemical and electro-chemical energy based unconventional machining processes.
CO3

CO4 Explain various nano abrasives based unconventional machining processes.

CO5 Distinguish various recent trends based unconventional machining processes.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Vijay.K. Jain “Advanced Machining Processes” Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2007
2. Pandey P.C. and Shan H.S. “Modern Machining Processes” Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2007.
REFERENCES:
1. Benedict. G.F. “Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes”, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1987.
2. Mc Geough, “Advanced Methods of Machining”, Chapman and Hall, London, 1998.
3. Paul De Garmo, J.T.Black, and Ronald. A.Kohser, “Material and Processes in
Manufacturing” Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 8thEdition, New Delhi , 2001.
1
 UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION AND MECHANICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

An unconventional machining process (or non-traditional machining process) is

a special type of machining process in which there is no direct contact between the tool
and the workpiece. In unconventional machining, a form of energy is used to remove
unwanted material from a given workpiece.

Need of unconventional machining processes

In several industries, hard and brittle materials like tungsten carbide, high speed
steels, stainless steels, ceramics etc., find a variety of applications. For example, tungsten
carbide is used for making cutting tools while high speed steel is used for making gear
cutters, drills, taps, milling cutters etc.

If such materials are machined with the help of conventional machining

processes, either the tool undergoes extreme wear (while machining hard workpiece) or
the workpiece material is damaged (while machining brittle workpiece). This is because,
in conventional machining, there is a direct contact between the tool and the workpiece.
Large cutting forces are involved and material is removed in the form of chips. A huge
amount of heat is produced in the workpiece. This induces residual stresses, which
degrades the lifeand quality of the workpiece material.

Hence, conventional machining produces poor quality workpiece with poor

surface finish (if the workpiece is made of hard and brittle material). To overcome all
these drawbacks, we use unconventional machining processes to machine hard and brittle
materials. We also use unconventional machining processesto machine soft materials, in
order to get better dimensional accuracy.

Classification of unconventional machining processes:

Unconventional machining processes can be broadly classified into several types based
on four main criteria.The classification of unconventional machining processes is given
below:

1. Based on the type of energy used

1. Mechanical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes
(e.g. Abrasive JetMachining, Water Jet Machining)
2. Electrical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes
(e.g. Electrical DischargeMachining)
3. Electrochemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes
(e.g. ElectrochemicalGrinding)
4. Chemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes
(e.g. Chemical Machining)
2
 5. Thermo-electrical (or Electro-thermal) Energy based Unconventional
Machining Processes(e.g. Plasma Arc Machining)
2. Based on the source of energy
1. Current
2. Voltage
3. Hydraulic Pressure
4. Pneumatic Pressure
5. Ionized Particles
6. Light
3. Based on the medium of energy transfer
1. Electrons
2. Atmosphere
3. Ions
4. Electrolyte
5. Pressurized gas
6. Water
7. Ultrasonic waves
8. Plasma
9. Laser
10. Chemical reagent
11. Radiation
4. Based on the mechanism of material removal
1. Erosion
2. Electric Discharge
3. Shear
4. Chemical Etching
5. Vaporization
6. Melting
7. Ion Displacement
8. Blasting

3
4
1.Mechanical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes:

In these processes, unwanted material in the workpiece is removed by mechanical

erosion. The mechanical erosion can be facilitated by using any medium. For example,
in abrasive jet machining, high velocity abrasive jet is used for eroding material from the
workpiece. In water jet machining, high velocity water jet is used for cutting the
workpiece material.

The four main mechanical energy based unconventional machining processes are:

1. Abrasive Jet Machining

2. Water Jet Machining or Water Jet Cutting
3. Abrasive Water Jet Machining
4. Ultrasonic Machining

2.Electrical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes:

Here, electric spark discharge is used to cut and machine the workpiece. In
electrical energy based processes, no arc is produced (as in arc welding). Instead,
thousands of sparks are produced every second. These sparks increase the temperature
of the workpiece, melt the unwanted portions and vapourise those portions. A dielectric
fluid is used for cleaning the workpiece and facilitating a smooth spark discharge.

Processes that come under this category are:

5. Electrical Discharge Machining

6. Wire Cut Electrical Discharge Machining

3.Electrochemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes:

In these processes, unwanted portions of the workpiece are removed by

electrochemical effect. The workpiece (in contact with an electrolyte) is machined by ion
dissolution. Processes that come under this category are:

5
 1. Electrochemical Machining
2. Electrochemical Grinding
3. Electrochemical Honing

4.Chemical Energy based Unconventional Machining Processes:

Here, chemical energy is used to remove material from the workpiece.

We know that metal can be easily converted to metallic salt, if suitable reagent is used.
Chemical energybased processes exploit this principle.

Material is removed by controlled etching of the workpiece in the presence of a reagent

known as enchant.

Chemical machining, chemical milling and photochemical milling (PCM) are the
processes that come underthis category.
5. Thermo-electrical (or Electro-thermal) Energy based Unconventional Machining
Processes:

Unwanted portions of a metal can be easily removed, if it is melted or vaporized.

Thermo-electrical energy based unconventional machining processes make use of this
principle.

In these processes, electrical energy is converted to a huge amount of heat by some

means. This heat is applied on a small region of the workpiece. That particular region is
either melted or vaporised. By this way, material is removed.

The following are some of the important thermo-electrical energy based unconventional
machining processes:

1. Plasma Arc Machining

2. Electron Beam Machining
3. LASER Beam Machining
4. Ion Beam Machining

Material and Method of Machining

6
7
 PROCESS SELECTION

Based on the following points:

1. Physical Parameters
2. Shapes to be machined
3. Process Capability or Machining Characteristics
4. Economic Considerations

Physical Parameters

Shapes to be machined

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9
Process Capability or Machining Characteristics

1. Material Removal rate

2. Tolerance Maintained
3. Surface Finish
4. Depth of surface Damage
5. Power required for machining

10
 Process Economy

Advantages of UCM

 High Accuracy and surface finish in process

 Less Rejected pieces
 Increase productivity
 Tool material need not be harder than work piece material.
 Easy to machine harder and brittle materials
 There is no residual stresses in the machined material

Dis-Advantages of UCM

1. More expensive process

2. Low Material Removal Rate (MRR)
3. AJM, CHM , PAM and EBM are not commercially economical Process

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 MECHANICAL BASED MACHINING PROCESSES

ABRASIVE JET MACHINING

Abrasive Jet Machining

(AJM), is a mechanical energy
based unconventional
machining process used to
remove unwanted material from
a given work piece. The process
makes use of an abrasive jet
with high velocity, to remove
material and provide smooth
surface finish to hard metallic
work pieces.

Parts & Usages

1. Abrasive jet: It is a mixture of a gas (or air) and abrasive particles. Gas used is
carbon-di-oxide or nitrogen or compressed air. The selection of abrasive particles
depends on the hardness and Metal Removal Rate (MRR) of the workpiece. Most
commonly, aluminium oxide or silicon carbide particles are used.
2. Mixing chamber: It is used to mix the gas and abrasive particles.
3. Filter: It filters the gas before entering the compressor and mixing chamber.
4. Compressor: It pressurizes the gas.
5. Hopper: Hopper is used for feeding the abrasive powder.
6. Pressure gauges and flow regulators: They are used to control the pressure
and regulate the flowrate of abrasive jet.
7. Vibrator: It is provided below the mixing chamber. It controls the abrasive
 powder feed rate in themixing chamber.
8. Nozzle: It forces the abrasive jet over the workpiece. Nozzle is made of hard
and resistant materiallike tungsten carbide.

Working:

Dry air or gas is filtered and compressed by passing it through the filter and compressor.
A pressure gauge and a flow regulator are used to control the pressure and regulate the
flow rate of the compressed air. Compressed air is then passed into the mixing chamber.
In the mixing chamber, abrasive powder is fed. A vibrator is used to control the feed of
the abrasive powder. The abrasive powder and the compressed air are thoroughly mixed
in the chamber. The pressure of this mixture is regulated and sent to nozzle.

The nozzle increases the velocity of the mixture at the expense of its pressure. A fine
abrasive jet is renderedby the nozzle. This jet is used to remove unwanted material from
the workpiece.

Operations that can be performed using Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM):

The following are some of the operations that can be performed using Abrasive Jet
Machining:

1. Drilling
2. Boring
3. Surface finishing
4. Cutting
5. Cleaning
6. Deburring
7. Etching
8. Trimming
9. Milling

Advantages of Abrasive Jet Machining:

 Surface of the workpiece is cleaned automatically.

 Smooth surface finish can be obtained.
 Equipment cost is low.
 Hard materials and materials of high strength can be easily machined.

Disadvantages of Abrasive Jet Machining:

 Metal removal rate is low

 In certain circumstances, abrasive particles might settle over the workpiece.
 Nozzle life is less. Nozzle should be maintained periodically.
 Abrasive Jet Machining cannot be used to machine soft materials.
Process parameters

Process parameters of Abrasive Jet Maching (AJM) are factors that influence its Metal
Removal Rate (MRR). In a machining process, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) is the
volume of metal removed from a given workpiece in unit time.

Some of the important process parameters of abrasive jet machining:

1. Abrasive mass flow rate

2. Nozzle tip distance
3. Gas Pressure
4. Velocity of abrasive particles
5. Mixing ratio
6. Abrasive grain size

Abrasive mass flow rate:

Mass flow rate of the abrasive particles is a major process parameter that influences the
metal removal ratein abrasive jet machining.
In AJM, mass flow rate of the gas (or air) in abrasive jet is inversely proportional to the
mass flow rate of theabrasive particles. Due to this fact, when continuously increasing
the abrasive mass flow rate, MetalRemoval Rate (MRR) first increases to an optimum
value (because of increase in number of abrasive particles hitting the workpiece) and then
decreases. However, if the mixing ratio is kept constant, Metal Removal Rate (MRR)
uniformly increases with increase in abrasive mass flow rate.

Nozzle tip distance:

Nozzle Tip Distance (NTD) is the gap provided between the nozzle tip and the
workpiece. Up to a certain limit, Metal Removal Rate (MRR) increases with increase in
nozzle tip distance. After that limit, MRR remains constant to some extent and then
decreases. In addition to metal removal rate, nozzle tip distance influences the shape and
diameter of cut. For optimal performance, a nozzle tip distance of 0.25 to
0.75 mm is provided.

Gas pressure:

Air or gas pressure has a direct impact on metal removal rate. In abrasive jet
machining, metalremoval rate is directly proportional to air or gas pressure.

Velocity of abrasive particles:

Whenever the velocity of abrasive particles is increased, the speed at which the
abrasive particles hit the workpiece is increased. Because of this reason, in abrasive jet
machining, metal removal rate increases with increase in velocity of abrasive particles.
 Mixing ratio:

Mixing ratio is a ratio that determines the quality of the air-abrasive mixture in
Abrasive JetMachining (AJM). It is the ratio between the mass flow rate of abrasive
particles and the mass flow rate of air (or gas). When mixing ratio is increased
continuously, metal removal rate first increases to some extent and then decreases.

Abrasive grain size:

Size of the abrasive particle determines the speed at which metal is removed. If
smooth and fine surface finish is to be obtained, abrasive particle with small grain size is
used. If metal has to be removed rapidly, abrasive particle with large grain size is used.
WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

Water Jet Machining (WJM) is a

mechanical energy based non-traditional
machining process used to cut and
machine soft and non-metallic materials.
It involves the use of high velocity water
jet to smoothly cut a soft workpiece. It is
similar to Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM).

In water jet machining, high velocity

water jet is allowed to strike a given
workpiece. During this process, its
kinetic energy is converted to pressure
energy. This induces a stress on the
workpiece. When this induced stress is
high enough, unwanted particles of the
workpiece are automaticallyremoved.

Reservoir: It is used for storing water that is to be used in the machining operation.
Pump: It pumps the water from the reservoir.
Intensifier: It is connected to the pump. It pressurizes the water acquired from the pump to
a desired level.
Accumulator: It is used for temporarily storing the pressurized water. It is connected to
the flow regulatorthrough a control valve.
Control Valve: It controls the direction and pressure of pressurized water that is to be
supplied to the nozzle.
Flow regulator: It is used to regulate the flow of water.
Nozzle: It renders the pressurized water as a water jet at high velocity

Working of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

 Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.
 The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level. Usually,
the water ispressurized to 200 to 400 MPa.
 Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily
stores the pressurizedwater.
 Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve and
flow regulator.
 Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the pressure of water
under permissiblelimits.
 Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
 Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous
increase in its kineticenergy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
 When this water jet strikes the workpiece, stresses are induced. These stresses
are used to removematerial from the workpiece.
 The water used in water jet machining may or may not be used with
stabilizers. Stabilizers aresubstances that improve the quality of water jet by
preventing its fragmentation.
 For a good understanding of water jet machining, refer the schematic diagram
above.

Advantages of Water Jet Machining (WJM):

1. Water jet machining is a relatively fast process.

2. It prevents the formation of heat affected zones on the workpiece.
3. It automatically cleans the surface of the workpiece.
4. WJM has excellent precision. Tolerances of the order of ±0.005″ can be obtained.
5. It does not produce any hazardous gas.
6. It is eco-friendly.

Disadvantages of Water Jet Machining:

1. Only soft materials can be machined.

2. Very thick materials cannot be easily machined.
3. Initial investment is high.

Applications of Water Jet Machining:

1. Water jet machining is used to cut thin non-metallic sheets.

2. It is used to cut rubber, wood, ceramics and many other soft materials.
3. It is used for machining circuit boards.
4. It is used in food industry.

ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)

Principles

Working principle of Ultrasonic Machining or Ultrasonic Impact Grinding is

described with the help of a schematic diagram. The shaped tool under the actions of
mechanical vibration causes the abrasive particles dipped in slurry to be hammered on
the stationary work piece. This causes micro-indentation fracture on the material. Small
abraded particles are removed along the surface which is perpendicular to thedirection
of the tool vibration. When the material is removed a cavity of the same profile of the
tool face is formed. The abrasive particles gradually erode as the machining process
continues. As a result fresh abrasiveparticles are needed to be supplied in the machining
zone. Abrasive particles associated with the liquid are fed to the m/c zone and it ensures
the removal of the worn out grains and material.
Machining Time
The machining time of the ultrasonic grinding depends on the frequency of the
vibration, material
properties and grain size. The amplitude of the vibration may vary from 5 to 75 µm and
frequency may varyfrom 19~25 kHz. Ample static force is also required to hold the job
against the machining tool. A continues flow of abrasives suspension is also mandatory.

15
Process parameters

1. Amplitude of vibration (15 to 50 microns), Frequency of vibration (19 to 25 kHz).

2. Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions, Feed pressure
3. Abrasive size, Abrasive material ** Al203, SiC, B4C, Boron silicon Carbide, Diamond.
4. Flow strength of the work material, Flow strength of the tool material
5. Contact area of the tool, Volume concentration of
abrasive in water slurry6. Tool a. Material of tool
b. Shape
c. Amplitude of vibration
d. Frequency of vibration
e. Strength developed in tool
7. Work material -------- a. Material b. Impact strength c. Surface fatigue strength
8. Slurry -------------------- a. Abrasive – hardness, size, shape and quantity of abrasive flow
b. Liquid – Chemical property, viscosity, flow rate
c. Pressure
d. Density

Advantages of USM:

1. It can be used to drill circular or non-circular holes on very hard materials like
stones, carbides,ceramics and other brittle materials.
2. Non-conducting materials like glass, ceramics and semi precious stones can also be
machined.

Disadvantages of USM:

1. It can be proved slower than the conventional machining processes.

2. Creating deep holes is difficult because of the restricted movement of the suspension.
3. It is arduous to select the perfect tool geometry for creating hole of certain
dimension. The holes createdmay be of larger sizes because of side cutting.
4. High tool wear because of continues flow of abrasive slurry.
Applications:
1. Hard and brittle materials can be machined like tungsten carbide, diamond and glass.
These are difficult tomachine in conventional m/c-ing process.
2. Wire drawing dies of tungsten carbide can be drilled by this process.
3. Circular as well as non-circular holes can be done with straight or curved axes.
4. It has been proved successful in machining geranium, silicon quartz and synthetic ruby

18
etc.

ST. ANNE’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

( (Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

19
 ANGUCHETTYPALAYAM, PANRUTI – 607 106.

UNIT-II
THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

Introduction
EDM is a non-conventional machining technique uniquely used for cutting metals
which are not possible to cut with traditional methods. EDM only works with materials
which are electrically conductive. Delicate cavities and intricate contours which are
difficult to produce with a grinder or other machines can be done with Electrical
Discharge Machining or EDM. The cutting tool for EDM may be made of hardened
too steel, titanium carbide. EDM is also known as "Spark Machining”. Such name has
been given for the fact that it removes the metal by applying a rapid series of repetitive
electrical discharges. An electrode and the work piece are used for the conducting path
of these electrical discharges. A continuously flowing fluid is always flowing to flush
away the little amount of material that is removed. Repetitive discharge gives the work
piece a desired shape.

20
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
EDM

Working principle
of EDM As shown in
Figure, at the beginning of
EDM operation, a high
voltage is applied across
the narrow gap between the
electrode and the work
piece. This high voltage
induces an electric field in
the insulating dielectric that
is present in narrow gap
between electrode and
work piece. This cause
conducting particles
suspended in the dielectric
to concentrate at the points
of strongest electrical
field. When the potential
difference between the electrode and the work piece is sufficiently high, the dielectric
breaks down and a
transient spark discharges through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material
from the work piece surface. The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is
typically in the range of 10-6 to 10- 6 mm3.

21
Advantages of EDM

The main advantages of EDM are:

By this process, materials of any hardness can be machined;

 No burrs are left in machined surface;

 One of the main advantages of this process is that thin and fragile/brittle components

 Can be machined without distortion; Complex internal shapes can be machined

Limitations of EDM

The main limitations of this process are:

This process can only be employed in electrically conductive materials;

 Material removal rate is low and the process overall is slow compared to conventional

 Machining processes; unwanted erosion and over cutting of material can occur;

 Rough surface finish obtained, when at high rates of material removal.

Specifications

Voltage = 250 V

GAP = 0.005 – 0.05 mm

Temperature =

10000 degree

celcius Spark

occur = 10 – 30

micro seconds

Current density

= 15 – 500A

Process Parameters

1. Operating Parameters

2. Taper

22
 3. Surface finish

4. Current Density

WIRE CUT EDM (WCEDM)

Wire EDM machining (Electrical Discharge Machining) is an electro thermal production

process where a thin single strand metal wire, along with de-ionised water (used to conduct
electricity) allows the wire to cut through metal by the use of heat from electrical sparks, while
preventing rust.

A very thin wire of diameter ranging from 0.02 to 0.3 mm is used as an electrode in
wire cut EDM. It cuts the work piece with electrical discharge just like a band saw. In
this process either work piece or the wire is moved. The spark discharge phenomenon is
used for eroding the metal which is same as the conventional EDM. In wire cut EDM the
wire acts as an electrode as a result complicated shapes can be cut easily without forming
electrode. Basically the wire-cut EDM consists of a machine which has a work piece
contour movement control unit (NC tension: a power supply which supplies electrical
energy to the wire andhas a unit).

23
 It also has work piece mounting table and a wire driver section. The wire driver
section is use for moving the wire accurately at a constant tension. Another important
part is the dielectric fluid (distilled water) supplier having constant specific resistance.
Wire EDM has the following features -

o No forming electrode is necessary, Electrode wear is very negligible.

o Smooth machined surface, Tight geometrical and dimensional tolerances.
o Extremely high tolerances between punch and die. Extended die life.
o Straight holes are possible to produce, No skill is needed to run the machine.
o Machine can be operated without any regular supervision for long time at high
operating rates.

Advantages

Because of the absence of the split lines in the die, savings of the stages in the
sequential tools occurs. Itpermits more punch opening per stage.
There will no flashes on the moulded parts because the moulds with draught can
be arranged withoutvertical divisions.
To necessity for tool manufacturing and storing.
Work pieces are hardened before cutting, so no heat treatment distortion is present.
Whole work is done in one machine. So die manufacturing cycle time is short.
Lesser inspection time because of single piece construction of dies with high accuracy.

24
 Time is utilized perfectly as the wire cut EDM can cut throughout the day.
Very economical even for small batch production, Low thermally affected zone. High
surface finish.
Numbers of rejected work piece are very small.

THERMAL ENERGY BASED PROCESSES

Principle

Here the machining is done by usage of heat energy.The heat energy is focused
on a particularportion for melt & Vaporize the work material.

Example :

1. Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

2. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
3. Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)

Principle

In this, a high velocity

focused beam of electrons are
used to remove the metal from
the work piece. These
electrons are travelling at half
the velocity of light. i.e 1.6 x
108m/sec. this process is best
for micro cutting of materials.

When the high

velocity beam of electron
strike the work piece its
kinetic energy is converted
into heat. This concentrated
heat raises the temperature of
material and vaporise a small
amount of it, resulting in
removal of material from the
work piece.
Working

The main components

25
of EBM installation,shown in
Fig. are housed in a vacuum
chamber,
evacuated to about 10–4 torr. The tungsten filament cathode is heated to about 2500 to
3000°C in order to emit electrons. A measure of this effect is the emission current, the
magnitude of which varies between 20 and 100 mA. Corresponding current densities lie
between 5 and 15 A/cm2 . Emission current depends on the cathode material,
temperature, and the high voltage that is usually about 150 kV. Such a high voltage
accelerates a stream of electrons in the direction of the workpiece. After acceleration,
electrons, focused by the field, travel through a hole in the anode. The electron beam is
then refocused by a magnetic or electronic lens system so that the beam is directed under
control toward the workpiece. The electrons maintain the velocity (228 × 103 km/s)
imparted by the acceleration voltage until they strike the workpiece, over a well- defined
area, typically 0.25 mm in diameter. The kinetic energy of the electrons is then rapidly
transmitted into heat, causing a corresponding rapid increase in the temperature of the
workpiece, to well above its boiling point, thus causing material removal by evaporation.

Factors Affecting Performance of

EBM

EBM Process Parameters and Capabilities

26
Advantages
■ Drilling is possible at high rates (up to 4000 holes per second).
■ No difficulty is encountered with acute angles.
■ Drilling parameters can easily be changed during machining.
■ No limitation is imposed by work piece hardness, ductility, and surface reflectivity.
■ No mechanical distortion occurs to the work piece since there is no contact.
■ The process is capable of achieving high accuracy and repeatability of 0.1 mm for
position of holes and 5percent for the hole diameter.
■ The process produces the best surface finish compared to other processes.
■ The cost is relatively small compared to other processes used to produce very small holes.

Disadvantages
■ High capital equipment cost
■ Long production time due to the time needed to generate a vacuum
■ The presence of a thin recast layer
■ Need for auxiliary backing material

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LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

1. Spontaneous Emission

2. Stimulated Emission

28
Working

A flash light of 1000watts wound around the ruby rod as shown in figure. When
a switch is ON the light energy from the flash tube passed into the ruby rod and it triggers
the chromium atom in the rod. So the excited atoms emit photons. These photons are
reflected so many times due t the presence of mirror arrangement in the construction.
Due to this a powerful coherent beam of red light is obtained. This red light is focused
on work piece through converging lenses. So this red light heat and vaporise the pointed
metal portion in the work piece. Likewise the machining continued.
Applications of Laser
1. Laser in Metal Cutting, 2.Laser in Drilling, 3.Laser in Welding, 4.Laser in Surface
Treatment
5.Trimming,6.Blanking,7.Micromachining applications
Laser in Surface Treatment

A thin layer of cobalt alloy coating is applied on Turbine blade for heat and Wear
Resistance.
thin Ceramic coating is applied on metal Surface for heat and Wear Resistance.

It’s also used to seal the micro cracks which are usually present in hard – Chromium
electroplates

29
 Advantages of LBM

1. All Kind of metals are machined, Micro holes are possible

2. Soft materials like rubber can be machined

3. No tool wear and contact with w/p

4. Automated process, Controlling of beam is easy

Disadvantages of LBM
1. High initial Cost, 2 . Operating cost is high, 3.required skilled labours, 4.Rate of
production is low

5.Need safety equipments, 6.Life of flash lamp is low, 7.The machined holes are not
straight and round

PLASMA ARC MACHINING (OR) PLASMA JET MACHINING

Introduction

When a gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of 11000 – 28000
degree Celsius, itbecomes partially ionized it’s known as PLASMA.
PLASMA

It’s a mixture of free

electrons + partiallyionized
gas and Neutral Atoms
Working Principle

The material is
removed by directing a high
velocity jet of high
temperature (11000oC –
28000oC) ionized gas on the
work piece. This high
temperature plasma jet melts
the material of the work
piece.

In plasma machining

30
continuous arc is generated
between a hot tungsten
cathode and the water-cooled
copper anode. A gas is
introduced around the
cathode and flows through
the anode.

The temperature, in the narrow orifice around the cathode, reaches 28,000°C, which is
enough to produce a high-temperature plasma arc. Under these conditions, the metal
being machined is very rapidly melted and vaporized. The stream of ionized gases flushes
away the machining debris as a fine spray creating flow lines on the machined surface.

Types of Torches

31
 ST. ANNE’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
( (Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
ANGUCHETTYPALAYAM, PANRUTI – 607 106.

UNIT-III

CHEMICAL AND ELECTRO-CHEMICALENERGY BASED

PROCESSES

Introduction
The metal is removed from the work piece through controlled etching or
chemical attack of the workpiece material in contact with a chemical solution

CHEMICAL MACHINING PROCESS

In this method, the metal is removed by ion displacement of the work piece material
in contact with achemical solution.

Examples

1. Electro-chemical machining (ECM)

2. Electro-chemical Grinding (ECG)

3. Electro-chemical Honing (ECH)

4. Electro-chemical Deburring (ECD)

Chemical Machining

Chemical machining
(CM) is the controlled
dissolution of workpiece
material (etching) by means of
a strong chemical reagent
(etchant). In CM material is
removed from selected areas of
workpiece by immersing it in a
chemical reagents or etchants;
such as acids and alkaline
solutions. Material is removed
by microscopic
electrochemical cell action, as

32
 occurs in corrosionor chemical
dissolution of a metal. This
controlled chemical dissolution
will simultaneously etch all
exposed surfaces even though
the penetration rates of the
material removal may be only
0.0025–0.1 mm/min.
Processes in Machining

 Maskant coating
 Cleaning ,Drying
 Dipping in chemical solution
Stirring & Heating – For uptain Uniform Depth, Washing
Steps in chemical machining

Residual stress relieving: If the part to be machined has residual stresses from the
previous processing,these stresses first should be relieved in order to prevent warping after
chemical milling.

Preparing: The surfaces are degreased and cleaned thoroughly to ensure both good
adhesion of the maskingmaterial and the uniform material removal.

Masking: Masking material is applied (coating or protecting areas not to be etched).

Etching: The exposed surfaces are machined chemically with etchants.

Demasking: After machining, the parts should be washed thoroughly to prevent further
reactions with or exposure to any etchant residues. Then the rest of the masking material
is removed and the part is cleaned and inspected.

Applications:

Chemical machining is used in the aerospace industry to remove shallow layers

of material fromlarge aircraft components missile skin panels, extruded parts for airframes.

Maskants
The process essentially involves bathing the cutting areas in a corrosive chemical
known as an etchant, which reacts with the material in the area to be cut and causes
the solid material to be dissolved;inert substances known as maskants are used to protect
specific areas of the material as resists.

33
 Methods of Maskants

• Scribed and Peeled Maskants

• Photo resists Maskants

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Introduction Electrochemicalmachining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the principle of

reverse electroplating. In this process, particles travel from the anodic material (workpiece) toward
the cathodic material (machining tool). A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the deplated
material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is the female mating
image of the tool shape.
Similar to EDM, the workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for machining

34
difficult-to –machine materials. Difficult shapes can be made by this process on materials
regardless of their hardness. A schematic representation of ECM process is shown in
Figure. The ECM tool is positioned very close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high
amperage DC current is passed between the workpiece and electrode.
Advantages of ECM

 The components are not subject to either thermal or mechanical stress.

 No tool wears during ECM process.

 Fragile parts can be machined easily as there is no stress involved.

 ECM deburring can debur difficult to access areas of parts.

 High surface finish (up to 25 µm in) can be achieved by ECM process.

 Complex geometrical shapes in high-strength materials particularly in the

aerospace industry for the mass production of turbine blades, jet-engine parts and
nozzles can be machined repeatedly and accurately.

 Deep holes can be made by this process.

Limitations of ECM

 ECM is not suitable to produce sharp square corners or flat bottoms

because of the tendencyfor the electrolyte to erode away sharp profiles.

 ECM can be applied to most metals but, due to the high equipment
costs, is usually usedprimarily for highly specialised applications.

Material removal rate, MRR, in electrochemical machining

MRR = C .I. h (cm3 /min)

C: specific (material) removal rate (e.g., 0.2052 cm3 /amp-min for

nickel);

I: current (amp);

h: current efficiency (90–100%).

The rates at which metal can electrochemically remove are in proportion to the
current passed through the electrolyte and the elapsed time for that operation. Many
factors other than current influence the rate of machining. These involve electrolyte type,
rate of electrolyte flow, and some other process condition.

35
 ELECTRO-CHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)
(OR) ELECTROLYTIC GRINDING
Principle

Machining operation by
the combined action of
Electro-chemical effect
and conventional grinding
operation

90 % - Metal

removed by chemical

Action 10 % -Metal

removed by Grinding

Action

ECG also called

electrolytic grinding is
similar to ECM, except
that the cathode is an
electrically conductive
abrasive grinding wheel
instead of a tool shaped
like the contour to be
machined • Used
primarily to machine
difficultto cut alloys such
as stainless steel,
Hastelloy, Inconel,
Monel, Waspally and
tungsten carbide, heat
treated workpeices, fragile
or therm-sensitive parts,
or parts for which stress-

36
free and burr-free results are required. ECG removes metal by a combination of
electrochemical (responsible for 90% of material removal) and grinding actions. The
grinding action removes the buildup of oxide film onthe surface of the workpiece . Less
power is needed for ECG than for ECM since the machining area is smaller and the
abrasive in the wheel is removing the oxide film – current ranges from 5 to 1000A are
most common, with a voltage of 3 to 15V over an electrolyte gap of approximately
0.25mm or less and wheel speeds of 1100 to 1800m/min. Many similarities between ECG
and conventional grinding make this one of the easiest ECM based processes to both
understand and implement – grinding wheel closely resemble their conventional
counterparts with the exception that ECG wheels use an electrically conductive abrasive
bonding agent; electrolyte is introduced to the work area in the same manner that coolant
is introduced in conventional grinding.

Process parameters

ECG exhibits MRRs that are up to 10 times faster than conventional grinding on
materials harder than 60HRC; although MRRs are high, ECG cannot obtain the
tolerances achieved by conventional grinding.

The removal rate for ECG is governed by the current density, just as in ECM: as with
ECM, the higher the current density, the faster the removal rate and the better the
resulting surface finish.

Feed rates vary with different parameters, depending on the grinding method: if the feed
rate is running too slowly for the application, a large overcut will be produced that will
result in poor surface finishes and tolerances and if the feed rate is too fast, the abrasive
particles will be prematurely forced into the workpiece, resulting in excessive wheel
wear.
Advantages

 No thermal damage to workpiece

 Elimination of grinding burn , Absence of work hardening

 Long-lasting wheels – less truing

 Higher MRR;

 Single pass grinding - reduced cost of grinding;

 Absence of burrs on the finished surface; Improved surface finish with no grinding
scratches;

 Reduced pressure of work against the wheel – no distortion;

 In ECG, the ECM action is efficient

37
 
Dis advantages

 High capital cost /Higher cost of grinding wheel;

 Corrosive environment

 High preventive maintenance cost

 Tolerances achieved are low.

 Difficult to optimize due to the complexity of the process;

 Non-conductive materials cannot be machined

 Not economical for soft materials – noncompetitive removal rates compared to

conventional methodsfor readily machinable metals

 Requires disposal and filtering of electrolytes

ELECTRO-CHEMICAL HONING (ECH)

It is a process in
which it combines the
high removal
Tool consists of a
hollow stainless steel
body that has
expandable,
nonconductive honing
stones protruding from at
least three locations
around the
circumference. The
honing stones are
identical with those
used in conventional
honing operations, except that they must resist the corrosiveness of the electrolyte. The
honing stones are mounted on the tool body with a spring-loaded mechanism so that each

38
of the stones exerts equal pressure against the workpiece.

Working

At the beginning of the ECH cycle, the stones protrude only 0.075-0.127mm from
the stainless steel body, establishing the gap through which the electrolyte flows. The
electrolyte enters the tool body via a sliding inlet sleeve from which it exits into the tool-
workpiece gap through small holes in the tool body . After passing through the gap, the
electrolyte flows from the workpiece through the gap at the top andbottom of the
bore. The mechanical action of the tool is the same as with conventional honing; the tool
is rotated and reciprocated so that the stones abrade the entire length of the bore.
Electrolytes used in ECH are essentially the same as those used in ECM, although the
control of pH, composition and sludge is less critical because the abrasive action of the
stones tends to correct any resulting surface irregularities. As in ECM, the electrolytes
are recirculated and reused after passing through appropriate filtration, and the most
commonly used electrolytes are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate.
Process parameters

• Machines are available that deliver up to 6000 amp

• Current density at the workpiece can range from 12 to 47amp/cm2

• Working voltages are 6-30VDC

• The electrolyte is delivered to the work area at pressures of 0.5-1MPa

• ECH can remove materials at rates up to 100% faster than conventional honing,
the gain being morepronounced as the material hardness increases

• Machine capacities are currently able to accommodate bore lengths up to 600mm and
bore diameters from
9.5 to 150mm

Advantages

 Increased MRR particularly on hard materials

 Since most of the material is removed electrochemically, honing stone life is greatly
extended

 Burr-free operation

39
 Unlike conventional honing, no micro-scratches are left on the work surface

 Less pressure required between stones and work

 Reduced noise and distortion when honing thin walled tubes

 Cooler action leading to increased accuracy with less material damage

 As with all ECM-based processes, ECH imparts no residual stresses in the work
piece

 Capable of achieving surface finishes of 0.05µ and dimensional accuracies of

±0.012mm

Disadvantages

• More number of equipments used

• Cost of machine is high

• Required Skilled labours

• Hard materials only machined.

40
 ST. ANNE’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
( (Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
ANGUCHETTYPALAYAM, PANRUTI – 607 106.

UNIT IV
ADVANCED NANO FINISHING PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
In order to substitute manual finishing process and to meet the functional properties such as
wear resistance, power loss, due to friction on most of the engineering components, we go for
advanced machining process. This finishing process is carried out at micro and nano level. This
process is called as advanced nano finishing process.
Nano finishing is the only operation which can make rough surfaces in nanometers range. The
ultimate precision through finishing will be where processed where there is a change in size of
sub nanometer.
It offers batter accuracy, higher efficiency, economic and consistency. Some of the nano
finishing processes are
1. Abrasive flow machining
2. Chemo mechanical polishing
3. Magnetic abrasive finishing
4. Magneto rheological finishing
5. Magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing

ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING

PRINCIPLE
In abrasive flow machining process, the semisolid abrasive media acts as deformable grading
wheel; which helps to remove small amount of materials.
The abrasive media is given larger force or velocity by hydraulic or mechanical means to push
the media into the areas in which conventional finishing process cannot be performed.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF AFM

The schematic arrangement of abrasive flow machining is as shown in figure.
The main elements of AFM are
(i) Machine

41
 (ii) Tooling
(iii) Media
(iv) Workpiece.

Machine
 The machine consists of two opposing hydraulic cylinder with piston rod and base plate.
 The two opposing medium charmless are hydraulically clamped together with the
workpiece in between them.
 When hydraulic pressure is applied in the media containing the abrasive particles moves
over the workpiece surface and removes the peaks the surface.
 Pressure and temperature control devices are provided at appropriate setup in order to
monitor the pressure and temperature of the media.
 Replaceable inserts are provided at various points in experimental setup. It is made of
nylon, Teflon and other materials which is used for restricted flow of media. The inserts
can be replaced on worn out conditions.

Tooling
 The tool used in AFM process is the media.
 It consists of organic polymers and special hydrocarbon gel. This gel along with the
abrasives is present at the base of the setup.
 Tooling design in AFM permits or block the flow of media in or out of the work surface.
 Tooling is selectively and controllably used in areas were material in the workpiece is
removed.

Media
 The media consists of the base and abrasive grits.
 The base contains organic polymers and hydrocarbon gel. It exists in semisolid form.
 The abrasive grits used along with the base are Aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, boron
carbide and diamond.
 These abrasive grits are mixed with the base by mechanical means to form a semisolid
laden putty.
 The abrasive grits with the base is called the media. It is used to abrade the surface of
workpieces, when it moves through restricted areas and resist abrasive action.
 The composition and mechanical mixing determines the stiffness of the media.

Workpieces

42
  The material such as metals and metal alloys are used as workpieces. These workpieces
are flat or cylindrical in shape.

Working
 The hydraulic rams are those which alternatively compress and extrude the abrasive
medium from the bottom cylinder to the top through the workpiece.
 The pressure of the extruding medium is in the range of 0.70 to 0.22 MPa or 100-3200
PSI.
 Abrasive grit size are 8 to 700 mesh, which enable quick cutting action. Fine grit size
are 300-700 mesh for the medium to increase the stiffness.
 The medium may be mixed with hand or cycled 20-50 times through scrap
 While tooling, maximum machining takes place when there is a maximum restriction
in media or flow of abrasives.
 The media stiffness is also used to determine the stock removal. If media has high
stiffness, it will result in a flow patterns of pure extrusion process.
 If the media has low stiffness, then media flow in the centre is faster than along the
walls.
 The pressure and temperature inside the media is determined and controlled.
 The force acting on the media are the viscous components assist to exert axial forces
and tries to move along the direction of applied extrusion pressure.
 The elastic component assists in exerting radial force which presses the active abrasive
particles into the workpiece surface.
 The viscous and elastic components are used in removing the material in the form of
micro nano chips.
 For effective movement of the chips, the axial force should be greater than the required
force because it increases the depth of penetration and remove the material.

 The force and velocity diagram in AFM are as shown in figure. 4.1.

43
Fig. Force diagram of abrasive flow machining

TYPES OF ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING

The types of abrasive flow machining are
1.One way abrasive flow machining
2.Two way abrasive flow machining
3.Orbital abrasive flow machining
PROCESS PARAMETERS IN ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING
The metal removal rate depends upon the following parameters.
1. Addition of plasticizers
2. Extrusion pressure
3. Number of cycles

ADVANTAGES OF AFM
 Operations such as deburring polishing and radiusing can be done.
 This process is more suitable for batch production
 It is faster than manual finishing
 It can finish inaccessible areas in one single movement.

LIMITATIONS OF AFM
 It has low finishing rate compared to other nano finishing process.
 The process involves high production time and high production cost.
 There should be repeated replacements of poly abrasive media that is used in AFM
process.

44
APPLICATIONS OF AFM
AFM is used in finishing of
 Extrusion dies
 Nozzle of flame cutting touch
 Air foil surfaces of impellors
 Accessory parts like fuel spray, nozzle, fuel control bodies.

CHEMO MECHANICAL POLISHING

INTRODUCTION
Chemo mechanical finishing or CMP was adopted by IBM in 80‟s for Si polishing.
Chemo mechanical polishing is a process of smoothing and planning surface with the
combination of chemical etching and free abrasive polishing.
CMP of silicon wafers is a basic processing technology for production of flat, defect free,
highly reflective surface.
This planarization method is a choice for < 0.5 micron technologies.

PRINCIPLE
In chemo mechanical polishing, a chemical reaction is used to soften the material and then
mechanical polishing is done on the layer. The polishing action is partly mechanical and partly
chemical.

Construction and Working of CMP

45
Fig. Chemo mechanical polishing
The schematic arrangement of chemo mechanical polishing is as shown in figure 4.8.
CMP consists of the rotating platen. CMP polishing pad, workpiece, CMO slurry with abrasive,
speed, temperature and pressure control system.

Working
In chemo mechanical polishing, the pressure is applied by down force on the carrier. The force
is transferred to the carrier through the carrier axis.
The gas pressure is loaded on the wafer. The higher points on the wafer are subjected to high
pressure and the removal rate are enhanced.
The wafer face is mounted upside down.
The carrier is pressed against a moving plates containing a polishing pad. The carrier also
rotates.
The slurry is supplied from above the platen. The slurry may be oxide or metal type.
An abrasive containing aqueous slurry is dripped onto the table and centrifugal force distributes

46
the slurry across the pad.
This forms a thin colladial layer of slurry which saturates the pad.
In aqueous solution, oxide form hydroxyl and hydrogen bond between slurry particles and
wafer.
The silicon dioxide bonds are formed by releasing water molecules. Thus chemical reaction
occurs and the silicon bonds also brakes when the slurry particles move away.
The combination of mechanical effect and chemical reaction results in material removal from
the surface of the wafer.
The material removal is more or less in atomic level. The process is explained in two aspects
1. Chemical aspects of material removal
2. Mechanical aspects of material removal
Chemical Aspects of Material Removal
The process uses a chemical etching to soften the workpiece surface and the mechanical
polishing off the layer takes place.

Mechanical Aspect of Material Removal

When abrasives are present in the slurry then substantial material removal takes place due to
abrading, but when there is no abrasives in the slurry the material removal purely takes place
due to mechanical friction and result of pressure down force applied.
The process detaches material from the surface in a relative motion caused by protrusion of
fixed and free abrasives between opposing surfaces of the polishing pad and workpiece.
The process parameter involved in CMP process are
 Process : 10 to 50 kPa
 Platen / carrier rpm: 10 to 100 rpm

47
  Velocity – 10 – 100 cm/s
 Slurry flow rate – 50 to 500 m/min Typical material removal rate
 Oxide CMP – 2800 A0 / min

FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS PARAMETERS

The factors affecting process parameters are
 Temperature in the polishing pad
 Conditioning of polishing pad.

ADVANTAGES OF CMP
 It is used to polish metal like Aluminium, Copper, Silver titanium etc.
 It can also polish insulators like SiO2, Si3N4.
 Ceramics like SiC, TiN, TaN can also be polished.

LIMITATIONS OF CMP
 Cleaning of platen surface in a difficult process.
 Embedded particles, residual slurry are to be removed very carefully.
 Due to residues min scratches are also formed on the surface of the platen and the pad.
 Surface defects such riping out and dishing are formed on the surface.

APPLICATIONS OF CMP
 It is used in fabrication of semiconductor devices
 Oxides are deposited on the wafer in from of shape trenches
 Flat panel display
 Microelectronic mechanical system
 Magnetic recording head and CD writing

MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING

INTRODUCTION
Magnetic abrasive finishing process was developed in US, USSR, Bulgaria and Japan. This
process is mainly used in finishing radiusing and deburring of various flat surfaces and

48
cylindrical surfaces.
PRINCIPLE
In magnetic abrasive finishing process, the magnetic particles are joined to each
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF MAF
 The schematic arrangement of magnetic abrasive finishing is shown in figure 4.11.
 MAF process consists of magnetic abrasive particles, flexible magnetic abrasive brush
and workpieces.

Fig. Magnetic abrasive finishing

Magnetic Abrasive Particles
 The rotating magnetic poles consist of granular magnetic abrasives composed of
ferromagnetic particles and abrasives as shown in figure 4.9.

Fig. 4.12. Magnetic Abrasive Particle

 These particles acts as the multiple cutting tool.

49
Fig. Magnetic abrasive finishing-cylindrical surface

Fig. Magnetic abrasive finishing – internal surface

Flexible Magnetic Abrasive Brush
 When electromagnets generates the magnetic field, the ferromagnetic abrasives join
with each other under the influence of magnetic field.
 The ferromagnetic abrasive particles join together to produce a flexible magnetic
abrasive brush. This brush acts as the cutting tool.

Workpiece
 The workpiece used in MAF processis ferromagnetic or non
ferromagnetic materials.
 The workpiece is placed between the poles of magnet.
 The workpiece may be flat surface, internal and external surface of cylindrical objects
for finishing.

Working

50
  When the electromagnets generates the magnetic field. This magnetic field influence
the abrasive particles.
 In presence of magnetic field, the magnetic abrasive particles join with each other to
magnetic abrasive brush.
 The magnetic field produced generates the essential pressure require to move the
abrasive brush.
 The magnetic field also controls and regulates the essential cutting force required to
abrade the peaks on the surface of the workpiece.
 The magnetic flux density produced will rotate, vibrates and produce axial movement
on the workpiece surface.
 The flexible magnetic brush receives the actions due to magnetic flux density and
produces sharing action on workpiece.
 The force acting on the workpiece is exerted by the magnetic flux density through the
flexible magnetic abrasive brush.
 The force acting on the workpiece are of two types (i) Normal force (ii) Tangential
force.
 The normal force acting in “F” which is responsible for actuating the abrasive particles
along the magnetic force, it is mainly responsible for cutting action or penetration in
the workpiece. The tangential force acting
 It also improves the surface integrity by introducing the compressive residual stresses.

FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS PARAMETERS

1. Pressure
2. Type and size of grains
3. Finishing efficiency
4. Bonded and unbounded magnetic abrasive
5. Magnetic flux density.

ADVANTAGES OF MAF
 MAF have self adaptability and easy controllability
 Surface finish is in order of nanometer.
 The device can be easily mounted on other machine without the need of high capital
investment.

DISADVANTAGES OF MAF

51
  It is difficult to implement MAF in mass production operation.
 It is a time consuming process.
 It is not applicable for some ordinary finishing task where conventional finishing
technique can be easily implemented.

APPLICATIONS OF MAF
 It is used in finishing processes such as lapping, buffing, honing and burnishing
operation in surface of tubes, bearing and automobile components.
 Polishing and removal of thin oxide film from high speed rotating shafts.
 It is used in finishing operations of cutting tools, turbine blades, air foil optics and
sanitary pipes.
 It is used in medical field in areas of capillary tube, needles and biopsy needles etc.

MAGNETO RHEOLOGICAL FINISHING

INTRODUCTION
A magneto rheological fluid is a layer of smart fluid in a carrier. It is a type of oil when
subjected to a magnetic field, the fluid increases it apparent viscosity to the point that it
becomes a viscoelastic solid.
Rheology is a science of flow and deformation study of rheological properties of the medium.
The performance of the medium. The performance of the medium is given by its rheological
properties.
Flow behavior of the medium is complex in nature as it is a heterogeneous mixture. Each
ingredient of the mixture is responsible for its flow behavior.
PRINCIPLE
In magneto rheological finishing process under the influence of magnetic field the MR fluid
(Magneto rheological fluid) becomes a viscoelastic solid. This act as the cutting tool to remove
the materials from the surface of the workpiece.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF MRF

52
The schematic arrangement of magneto rheological polishing is as shown in figure 4.20.
The MRF experimental setup consist of electromagnets, nozzle, suction pipe, pumps and MR
fluid conditioner.

Fig. Magneto rheological finishing process

The basic components in MR fluid are
1. Magnetic dispersed phase
2. Abrasive particles
3. Stabilizers
4. Carrier fluid

Workpiece
The workpiece material used in MRF in optical lenses, glasses and ceramic.
Nozzle
Nozzle in the opening connected by the pump from the MR fluid conditioner.
Nozzle is used to deliver the MR fluid over the surface of the electromagnetic rotating wheel.
Suction
 It is a point at which the MR fluid is sucked after finishing the polishing process.
 It is sucked by this pipe and pumped into the MR fluid conditioner again.

Working

53
Fig. Magneto rheological fluid circulation system
 Magneto rheological fluid is delivered to the moving roller just above the
electromagnetic pole through the nozzle.
 This fluid is influenced by the magnetic field. In presence of the magnetic field, the
fluid becomes a thin polishing ribbon.
 This polishing ribbon contains the CI particle closed to magnetic fluid and abrasives
above the CIP chain which touch the surface of workpiece to be polished. It acquire a
plastic Bingham‟s property.
 MR fluid is extruded into the rotating wheel form a thin ribbon that will contact the
optical surface of the workpiece.
 Electromagnets below the rotating wheel creates a strong local magnetic field gradient.
 The strength of magnetic field gradient influences the stiffness of MR fluid and pulls
it. The MR fluid produces dynamic field strength of 50-100 kPa. The controlled zone
magnetized fluid becomes the polishing tool.
 Material removal takes place due to shear stress. The workpiece is positioned above the
abrasive involved in finishing operation. There are two types of forces acting on the
roller. 1. Normal force and 2. Tangential force.
 The normal force represent as „Fn ‟ this force penetrates the abrasive inside the
workpiece. Under magnetic force, the particle squeezes in the converging gap.
 The other force is the tangential force „Fxy‟ which helps in removal of material in form
of micro- nano chips. This is done by shear flow of MR fluid which pushes the abrasives
forward. The resultant force “Fr ” moves the chip from the workpieces.
 In absence of magnetic field the abrasive ribbon changes the viscoelastic nature into
fluid. This fluid is sucked by the suction pipe.

54
Carbonyl iron particles in columnar and structure in presence of magnetic field get aligned
along the lines of magnetic force. The abrasive floats on the outer layer of the magnetic field
which is in contact with the workpieces.
When the ribbon have relative motion due to magnetic flux gradient with respect to work
surface, the surface of the work[piece get abraded due to shearing plastic deformation at the
tips. Thus finishing or polishing operation is carried out. MR fluid is efficient process for high
precision finishing of optics. It is also used for free from shapes.
The merits of using MR polishing fluid lap are
 It is adjustable with respect to magnetic field.
 It carry away the heat and debris from the polishing zone.
 It does not produce any pressure like of grinding wheel.
 It does not lodes, it sharpness as it is self deformable.

The accuracy produced by computer controlled MRF process is in the order of 10-100 nm.
ADVANTAGES OF MRF
 High accuracy
 Enhances product quality and repeatability
 Increases production rate, productivity yield and cost effectiveness.
 Manufacture of precision optics.
 Optical glasses with roughness of less than 10 angstrom can be machined.
 Polishing tool can be easily adjusted and confines perfectly to the workpiece surface.
 Obtain high precision surfaces without any damage
 Surface finish upto nanometer level is achieved without sub surface damage.

LIMITATIONS OF MRF
 High quality fluids are expensive.
 Fluids are subject to thickening after prolonged used and
need replacement.
 Settling of ferromagnetic particles can be a problem for some application
 This process is not suitable for finishing of internal and external surface of cylindrical
components.

APPLICATIONS OF MRF
 Use in lens manufacturing

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  Optical glasses, single crystals, calcium fluorides silicon ceramic are machined.
 Square and rectangular aperture surface such as prism, cylinder and photo blank
substrates are machined
 The nano diamond doped MR fluid removes edge chips, cracks and scratches in
sapphire bend bars
 Polishing of high aspect ratio optics and thin film filling and
semiconductor wafers
 It is also used machining materials like glass, copper and tantalum
 It is used in automobile, electrical and manufacturing fields.

MAGNETO RHEOLOGICAL ABRASIVE FLOW FINISHING

This process is the combination of two finishing processes. They are abrasive flow machining
and magneto rheological finishing. This process eliminates the limitations in AFM and MRF.
The limitations in AFM are lacks to control its properties like viscosity and wall shear stress
and also difficult to mix the abrasive particles which made to think of better alternatives.
The limitations of MRF is, it is ineffective polishing hard metals and it is used for machining
flat, spherical and external surfaces.
After studying these processes, it was planned to eliminate the limitations of both the processes
and combine its advantages.

On combining the process, the abrasive medium in magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing
can be manipulated and controlled in real time and also it helps in deterministically and
selectively abrade the workpiece surfaces.
The machining setup is similar to AFM will remove the shape limitation in workpiece surface.

PRINCIPLE
Magneto rheological polishing fluid comprises of carbonyl iron powder and silicon carbide,
abrasive dispersed in the viscoplastic base of grease and mineral oil.

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When external magnetic field is applied these fluid exhibit change in rheological behavior.
These fluids behaves smartly and does the finishing operation precisely.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF MRAFF

Fig. Magneto rheological abrasuive flow finishing

Magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing arrangement consists of hydraulic cylinders, MR

fluid cylinder with piston, workpiece and workpiece fixtures, electromagnets.
Electromagnets
The electromagnets are placed on either side of the workpiece fixture. It consists of 2000 turns
of 17 SWG copper wire.
Workpiece and Workpiece Fixtures
The workpieces are inserted in the workpiece fixtures, which are placed in between the two
cylinders.

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The workpiece material is metal and metal alloys.
Mechanism of Magneto Rheological Abrasive Flow Finishing

Working
 Hydraulic ram alternatively undergoes compression and extrusion in the medium
cylinder and moves the MR fluid from the bottom media cylinder to the top through the
workpiece.
 Appropriate pressure is applied to the hydraulic cylinder for movement of the MR fluid
medium.
 When the MR fluid reaches the workpiece it is influenced by the localized magnetic
field using the electro magnets.
 It develops maximum magnetic field gradient of 0.1 tesla in which the MR fluid
behaves smartly and passes across the workpiece in a gap of 30 mm, the CI particles
lies closer to magnetic field and abrasive particles entrap in them and lies outwards as
shown in figure
 The abrasives on the MR fluid is squeezed under high pressure and viscosity around
the workpiece. Thus the workpiece surface get abraded and material removal takes
place.
 This compression and extrusion of the MR fluids result in finishing operation. The MR
fluid media cylinder is moved from bottom to top or viceversa.
 The finishing efficiency of the MR fluids relies mainly on the rheological properties of
fluid.
 The rheological properties such as yield stress and viscosity are characterized based on
the specific applications.

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  The property of the MR fluid is responsible for binding/bonding strength of abrasive
particles surrounding CI particles or CIP chain.
 MR fluid‟s composition and volume ratio have an impact on rheological property and
stability.
 Rheometer with magneto rheological devices is used to find the property analysis and
temperature distribution of the fluid.

Fig. Microscopic image of MR fluid

At extrusion hydraulic pressure of 3.75 MPa, maximum improvement in surface finish is

observed due to optimum concentration of magnetic field.
The best surface finish is obtained at stainless steel workpieces was 30 mm at optimum
finishing condition of N-400 cycles, P = 3.75 MPa , B – 0.668 Tesla.

ADVANTAGES OF MRAFF
 The viscosity of abrasives in MRAFF can be controlled in real time and also it helps in
finishing the workpieces determistically.
 Complex structures can be easily machined.
 Non uniform magnetic field produces non uniform surface finish
 Required a closed environment.

APPLICATIONS OF MRAFF
 Used in investment cast milled parts, airfoil, cast aluminum automobile turbo
components
 Complex piping for values, fittings, tubes and flow meter

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 Finishing of automotive gears in a single pass, heart values, exhaust manifold and high
pressure holes.
 Used in finishing of heart valves, exhaust manifold and high pressure holes.

ST. ANNE’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

( (Accredited by NAAC, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
ANGUCHETTYPALAYAM, PANRUTI – 607 106.

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 UNIT V
RECENT TRENDS IN NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING
PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
Recent developments in nontraditional machining process are the hybrid process. This process
was developed by combining the advantages of two nontraditional machining processes and
eliminating the limitations of those processes.
The various types of hybrid process are
1. Electric discharge diamond grinding (EDDG)
2. Electro chemical spark machining (ECSM)
3. Magneto rheological abrasive flow finishing (MRAFF)

Fig. Electro chemical spark machining process

The main purposes of implementing hybrid process are

 It enhances volumetric material removal rate.

 Computer controls of the processes have good results and better performance.
 Awareness of capabilities will resolve many problems in machining.

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  Application of adaptive control machining becomes easier.

Fig. Stages in electro chemical spark machining

ELECTRO CHEMICAL SPARK MACHINING

INTRODUCTION
Electro chemical spark machining is a hybrid process of electro chemical machining and
electric discharge machining. This process is Unique because it is suitable for both conducting
and non conducting material. It is used for selective deposition, microwelding and machining
of special non conductive material.
PRINCIPLE
The anode and the cathode are immersed inside the electrolyte. Due to potential difference
developed, hydrogen bubbles are generated and thus spark is created between the cathode and
workpiece. This produces high energy that helps in material removal or vapourization of
material take place as shown in figure

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 Fig. Principle of ECSM

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF ECSM

 The schematic arrangement of electro chemical spark machining process is as shown
in figure 5.1.
 The electro chemical spark machining process consists of an anode, cathode,
electrolyte, workpiece table controlled servometer, exhaust pipes and PC control
system.
 In ECSM process the anode used in graphite and it is immersed in the electrolyte. The
anode larger in size compared to cathode.
 The cathode used in ECSM process is smaller in size. It is placed just above the

 The electrolyte connected with this process may be a combination of water,

hydrochloric acid with sodium chloride.
 The table in ECSM process has three types of rotation x, y and z axis. The whole
experimental setup is placed in the table.

 Exhaust pipes are provide above the arrangement, which is used in removing poisonous
fumes that are released during electrolysis and sparking. As these fumes are harmful to
the operator and also corrosive in nature.

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Working
 The anode and cathode which are connected to the power supply are immersed inside
the electrolyte.
 When the supply is ON, potential difference is created in the area and hydrogen bubbles
are produced near the bubble in between the workpiece as shown in figure 5.2.
 A huge number of electrons are generated due to discharge accelerated towards the
workpiece kept near the cathode tip. The former being at a relatively high potential.
 The flow of huge number of electrons is seen as a current spike for a short duration of
a milli seconds.
 The bombardment of electron raises the temperature of the workpieces giving rise to a
sharp temperature pulse. This removes the material and vapourise it.
 The material removal in ECSM process is in the form of circular pits.
 The chemical reaction involved in this process are
 At cathode, reduction reaction takes place

2 H2O + 2 e–  H2  + 2 OH–
 At anode, oxidization reaction takes place

4 OH–  2 H2O + O2  + 4 e–
 The material removal in ECSM process takes place through
 Melting and vapourisation
 Chemical reaction when proper electrolyte is not selected.
 Cracks propagate through random thermal stresses.
 Due to mechanical shock and cavitations effect.
  As the material removal is due to the heat energy produced by the spark, the
workpiece used can be a conductive material or a non conductive material.

THE PROCESS PARAMETERS INVOLVED IN ECSM PROCESS

 A supply voltage ranges between 35 – 50 V.

 The workpiece used here is soda lime glass.
 The gap to be maintained between the cathode and workpiece is around 50 –
depending on the type of application.
 The electrolyte solution is 14 – 20% of water and sodium chloride.
ADVANTAGES OF ECSM

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  No need for vacuum
 Cost effective
 Material removal is in the form of circular pits.
DISADVANTAGES OF ECSM
 The fumes produced due to chemical reaction is harmful to the operator.
 The fumes are more corrosive in nature.
APPLICATION OF ECSM
 It is used in machining materials like Alumina, Quartz and composites.
 It is used in preparation of blind holes in quartz material.
 It is used in machining materials like glass, copper, tantalum etc.
 It is used in automobile, electrical and manufacturing fields.

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE DIAMOND GRINDING (EDDG)

INTRODUCTION
Electric discharge diamond grinding process is a hybrid process of electric discharge
machining and diamond grinding. This process eliminates the limitations of EDM and diamond
grinding process. The limitations of EDM are low material removal rate and resolidified white
layer infected with micro cracks are produced. The limitations of diamond grinding are high
cost, high specific material removal energy, due to high temperature strength degradation takes
place and due to wheel wear, dressing becomes a problem.
This hybrid process takes the advantages of EDM and diamond grinding such as grinding of
hard materials, increases thermal softening of the workpiece which requires less force and
better accuracy with surface dressing.

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 Fig. Schematic Arrangement of Electric Discharge Diamond Grinding

5.3.1. PRINCIPLE
Electric discharge diamond grinding process is a spark erosion process used for precision
grinding. Spark is produced between metal bonded grinding wheel and workpiece. Heat
generated during sparking softens the workpieces surface and grinding process is easily
abraded using diamond abrasive particles.

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF EDDG

The schematic arrangement of electric diamond grinding process is as shown in figure 5.4.
EDDG process consists of dielectric fluid, metal bonded diamond grit wheel, workpiece, servo
control system and CNC-EDM controlled pulse power generator.
Dielectric Fluid: The dielectric fluid used in EDDG may be water or water based cutting fluid

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such as kerosene, paraffin oil and hydrocarbon oil. The arrangement consists of a tank which
receives the dielectric fluid from the bottom of EDDG setup. This fluid is filtered twice and
pumped into the arrangement again by using motor. This fluid filtration is done in order to
remove the chips and debris formed during grinding.
Tool
The alumina metal bonded diamond grit wheel is used as a tool. This tool is an electrically
conductive material. This tool is connected to negative terminal of pulse power generator. The
abrasives in the wheel are diamond grits which are arranged on outer surface of grinding wheel
which is used for material removal.
Workpiece
The workpiece used in EDDG process is hard material. It is electrically conductive material.
The workpiece is connected to the positive terminal of the pulse power generator. The
workpiece materials used are high speed steel and cemented carbides.
Servo Control System
The servo control system used in EDDG is used to maintain in a constant gap between the
grinding wheel and workpiece during active feeding of the wheel into the workpiece. The
system monitors the desire gap distance in such a way that the wheel feeds into the workpiece
will be equal to the rate at which material is being removed. The circuit senses the gap distance
effectively, if the gap is sensed block with particles they get melted out due to high generated.
Pulse Power Generator
The pulse power generator generates the DC power supply to the tool and workpieces. The
whole setup in CNC EDM controlled using computer arrangement.
Working
 An electrically conductive rotating, grinding wheel is used as the electrode and
workpiece is used as the anode.
 The wheel and the workpiece are connected –ve and +ve terminal of pulse power
generator.
 This pulse power generator is in turn connected to the CNC computer.
 The arrangement is submerged in a big tank filled with dielectric fluid.
 The pulse power generator generates pulse electrical energy at rates upto 250000
pulse/second.
 The dielectric fluid flows through a small gap that is maintained continuously and
uniformly at the rotational motion of grinding wheel.

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  When the power supply discharges, DC pulse power to the wheel and workpiece, the
insulative property of dielectric fluid is broken down and a small spark is produced
between the gap as shown in figure 5.5. Due to this heat is generated between the gap
and the material removal takes place.
 A small pool of molten metal is formed in the tool as well as the workpieces. The tool
has a smaller pool than the workpiece. Large amount of heat energy is released and
forms the pool. This softens the workpieces.
 The diamond abrasive grits attached an alumina wheel pushes the material in the
workpiece surface.

Fig. Formation of Spark in an Abrasive

Thus dressing and declogging of the wheel is maintained. The forces acting in this process are
normal and tangential force.
Normal force acts on the grinding wheel helps in penetration of the wheel into the workpiece.
Tangential forces are used to remove the material from the workpieces.
FACTORS AFFECTING PROCESS PARAMETERS OF EDDG
1.Wheel speed
2.Current
3.Pulse on time

ADVANTAGES OF EDDG
 It can grind any conductive and non conductive materials.
 Less corrosive effect is produced.
 This process involves continuous dressing and declogging of the abrasive wheel and
thus increases the wheel life to 25%.

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APPLICATION OF EDDG
 It is used in grinding of thin sections
 Grinding of high hardness materials such as cermates, super alloys and metal matrix
composites.

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