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PRAXIS II
MATHEMATICS 0061
By: Sharon Wynne, M.S.

XAMonline, INC.
Boston
Copyright © 2010 XAMonline, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrievable system, without
written permission from the copyright holder.

To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work for any purpose including
workshops or seminars, please submit a written request to:
XAMonline, Inc.
25 First Street, Suite 106
Cambridge, MA 02141
Toll Free 1-800-509-4128
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.xamonline.com
Fax: 1-617-583-5552

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wynne, Sharon A.
PRAXIS II Mathematics 0061 / Sharon A. Wynne. 3rd ed
ISBN 978-1-60787-050-0
1. PRAXIS II Mathematics 0061
2. Study Guides
3. PRAXIS
4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure
5. Careers

Disclaimer:
The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and were created
independently from the National Education Association, Educational Testing Service, or any
State Department of Education, National Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates.

Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as testing formats
and Web site information may change and therefore would not be included in part or in
whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline and reflect
content similar to that on real tests; however, they are not former test questions. XAMonline
assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no claims nor guarantees teacher
candidates a passing score. Numerical scores are determined by testing companies such as NES
or ETS and then are compared with individual state standards. A passing score varies from
state to state.

Printed in the United States of America œ-1

PRAXIS II Mathematics 0061

ISBN: 978-1-60787-685-4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Ta b l e o f
Contents
DOMAIN I
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY ........................................ 1

COMPETENCY 1
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY .......................................................................................... 3
Skill 1.1: Demonstrate an understanding of the structure of the natural, integer, rational, real, and complex
number systems and the ability to perform basic operations (5, 2, 3, and 4) on numbers in these systems ................................3

Skill 1.2: Compare and contrast properties (e.g., closure, commutativity, associativity, distributivity) of number
systems under various operations ......................................................................................................................... 10

Skill 1.3: Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of counting numbers (e.g., prime, composite, prime
factorization, even, odd, factors, multiples) ................................................................................................................ 12

Skill 1.4: Solve ratio, proportion, percent, and average (including arithmetic mean and weighted average) problems ....................... 18

Skill 1.5: Work with algebraic expressions, formulas, and equations; add, subtract, multiply, and divide
polynomials; add, subtract, multiply, and divide algebraic fractions; perform standard algebraic operations
involving complex numbers, radicals, and exponents, including fractional and negative exponents .......................................... 19

Skill 1.6: Solve and graph systems of equations and inequalities, including those involving absolute value................................. 19

Skill 1.7: Interpret algebraic principles geometrically ................................................................................................. 27

Skill 1.8: Recognize and use algebraic representations of lines, planes, conic sections, and spheres ........................................ 28

Skill 1.9: Solve problems in two and three dimensions (e.g., find the distance between two points, find the
coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment) ............................................................................................................ 34

DOMAIN II
MEASUREMENT, GEOMETRY, AND TRIGONOMETRY ................. 35

COMPETENCY 2
MEASUREMENT .............................................................................................................. 37
Skill 2.1: Make decisions about units and scales that are appropriate for problem situations involving
measurement; use unit analysis ........................................................................................................................... 37

Skill 2.2: Analyze precision, accuracy, and approximate error in measurement situations ..................................................... 45

Skill 2.3: Apply informal concepts of successive approximation, upper and lower bounds, and limit in measurement situations ........ 46

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E iii
PRAXIS

COMPETENCY 3
GEOMETRY.................................................................................................................... 49
Skill 3.1: Solve problems using relationships of parts of geometric figures (e.g., medians of triangles, inscribed
angles in circles) and among geometric figures (e.g., congruence and similarity) in two and three dimensions ............................... 49

Skill 3.2: Describe relationships among sets of special quadrilaterals, such as the square, rectangle,
parallelogram, rhombus, and trapezoid .................................................................................................................. 59

Skill 3.3: Solve problems using the properties of triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, circles, and parallel and perpendicular lines .... 63

Skill 3.4: Solve problems using the properties of circles, including those involving inscribed angles, central
angles, chords, radii, tangents, secants, arcs, and sectors ........................................................................................... 71

Skill 3.5: Understand and apply the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse ....................................................................... 78

Skill 3.6: Compute and reason about perimeter, area/surface area, or volume of two- and three-dimensional
figures or of regions or solids that are combinations of these figures................................................................................ 80

Skill 3.7: Solve problems involving reflections, rotations, and translations of geometric figures in the plane ............................... 88

COMPETENCY 4
TRIGONOMETRY ............................................................................................................. 94
Skill 4.1: Define and use the six basic trigonometric relations using degree or radian measure of angles; know
their graphs and be able to identify their periods, amplitudes, phase displacements or shifts, and asymptotes ............................ 94

Skill 4.2: Apply the Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines .............................................................................................103

Skill 4.3: Apply the formulas for the trigonometric functions of x/2, 2x, x, x + y, and x – y; prove trigonometric identities................104

Skill 4.4: Solve trigonometric equations and inequalities ............................................................................................109

Skill 4.5: Convert between rectangular and polar coordinate systems..............................................................................111

DOMAIN III
FUNCTIONS AND CALCULUS ........................................... 113

COMPETENCY 5
FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................. 115
Skill 5.1: Demonstrate an understanding of and the ability to work with functions in various representations
(e.g., graphs, tables, symbolic expressions, and verbal narratives), and the ability to convert flexibly among them ..........................115

Skill 5.2: Find an appropriate family of functions to model particular phenomena (e.g., population growth, cooling,
simple harmonic motion) ....................................................................................................................................116

Skill 5.3: Determine properties of a function such as domain, range, intercepts, symmetries, intervals of increase
or decrease, discontinuities, and asymptotes ..........................................................................................................117

Skill 5.4: Use the properties of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic, polynomial, and rational functions to solve problems ........122

Skill 5.5: Determine the composition of two functions; find the inverse of a one-to-one function in simple cases
and know why only one-to-one functions have inverses ...............................................................................................133

Skill 5.6: Interpret representations of functions of two variables, such as three-dimensional graphs, level curves, and tables..........135

iv P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COMPETENCY 6
CALCULUS .................................................................................................................. 137
Skill 6.1: Demonstrate an understanding of what it means for a function to have a limit at a point; calculate limits
of functions or determine that the limit does not exist; solve problems using the properties of limits ........................................138

Skill 6.2: Understand the derivative of a function as a limit, as the slope of a curve, and as a rate of change
(e.g., velocity, acceleration, growth, decay) ...............................................................................................................141

Skill 6.3: Show that a particular function is continuous; understand the relationship between continuity and differentiability ...........143

Skill 6.4: Numerically approximate derivatives and integrals ........................................................................................148

Skill 6.5: Use standard differentiation and integration techniques ..................................................................................148

Skill 6.6: Analyze the behavior of a function (e.g., find relative maxima and minima, concavity); solve problems
involving related rates; solve applied minima-maxima problems ...................................................................................153

Skill 6.7: Demonstrate an understanding of and the ability to use the Mean Value Theorem and the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus ........................................................................................................................................161

Skill 6.8: Demonstrate an intuitive understanding of integration as a limiting sum that can be used to compute
area, volume, distance, or other accumulation processes ...........................................................................................163

Skill 6.9: Determine the limits of sequences and simple infinite series ............................................................................179

DOMAIN IV
DATA ANALYSIS AND STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY .............. 181

COMPETENCY 7
DATA ANALYSIS AND STATISTICS ....................................................................................... 183
Skill 7.1: Organize data into a suitable form (e.g., construct a histogram and use it in the calculation of probabilities) ......................183

Skill 7.2: Know and find the appropriate uses of common measures of central tendency (e.g., population mean,
sample mean, median, mode) and dispersion (e.g., range, population standard deviation, sample standard deviation,
population variance, sample variance) .....................................................................................................................187
Skill 7.3: Analyze data from specific situations to determine what type of function (e.g., linear, quadratic,
exponential) would most likely model that particular phenomenon; use the regression feature of the calculator to
determine curve of best fit; interpret the regression coefficients, correlation, and residuals in context ......................................192

Skill 7.4: Understand and apply normal distributions and their characteristics (mean, standard deviation)...................................196

Skill 7.5: Understand how sample statistics reflect the values of population parameters, and use sampling
distributions as the basis for informal inference .......................................................................................................199

Skill 7.6: Understand the differences among various kinds of studies and which types of inferences can
legitimately be drawn from each ..........................................................................................................................200

Skill 7.7: Know the characteristics of well-defined studies, including the role of randomization in surveys and experiments ............200

COMPETENCY 8
PROBABILITY ............................................................................................................... 202
Skill 8.1: Understand the concepts of sample space and probability distribution, and construct sample spaces and
distributions in simple cases ..............................................................................................................................202

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E v
PRAXIS

Skill 8.2: Understand the concepts of conditional probability and independent events; understand how to compute
the probability of a compound event......................................................................................................................204

Skill 8.3: Compute and interpret the expected value of random variables in simple cases (e.g., fair coins, expected
winnings, expected profit) ...................................................................................................................................206

Skill 8.4: Use simulations to construct empirical probability distributions and to make informal inferences about
the theoretical probability distribution ...................................................................................................................207

DOMAIN V
MATRIX ALGEBRA AND DISCRETE MATHEMATICS ................. 209

COMPETENCY 9
MATRIX ALGEBRA ......................................................................................................... 211
Skill 9.1: Understand vectors and matrices as systems that have some of the same properties as the real number
system (e.g., identity, inverse, and commutativity under addition and multiplication) ...............................................................211

Skill 9.2: Scalar multiply, add, subtract, and multiply vectors and matrices; find inverses of matrices ......................................212

Skill 9.3: Use matrix techniques to solve systems of linear equations .............................................................................217

Skill 9.4: Use determinants to reason about inverses of matrices and solutions to systems of equations ....................................219

Skill 9.5: Understand and represent translations, reflections, rotations, and dilations of objects in the plane by
using sketches, coordinates, vectors, and matrices ...................................................................................................220

COMPETENCY 10
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS ................................................................................................ 225
Skill 10.1: Solve basic problems that involve counting techniques, including the multiplication principle,
permutations, and combinations; use counting techniques to understand various situations (e.g., number of ways
to order a set of objects, to choose a subcommittee from a committee, to visit n cities) ...........................................................225

Skill 10.2: Find values of functions defined recursively and understand how recursion can be used to model
various phenomena; translate between recursive and closed-form expressions for a function .................................................231

Skill 10.3: Determine whether a binary relation on a set is reflexive, symmetric, or transitive; determine whether
a relation is an equivalence relation .....................................................................................................................233

Skill 10.4: Use finite and infinite arithmetic and geometric sequences and series to model simple phenomena
(e.g., compound interest, annuity, growth, decay) .......................................................................................................234

Skill 10.5: Understand the relationship between discrete and continuous representations and how they can be
used to model various phenomena .......................................................................................................................239

Skill 10.6: Use difference equations, vertex-edge graphs, trees, and networks to model and solve problems ..............................241

SAMPLE TEST
Sample Test ..................................................................................................................................................247

Answer Key ...................................................................................................................................................260

Rigor Table ...................................................................................................................................................260

Sample Questions with Rationales .......................................................................................................................261

vi P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 PRAXIS II
MATHEMATICS 0061

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E vii
PRAXIS

viii P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

SECTION 1
ABOUT XAMONLINE

XAMonline—A Specialty Teacher Certification Company

Created in 1996, XAMonline was the first company to publish study guides for
state-specific teacher certification examinations. Founder Sharon Wynne found it
frustrating that materials were not available for teacher certification preparation and
decided to create the first single, state-specific guide. XAMonline has grown into a
company of over 1,800 contributors and writers and offers over 300 titles for the
entire PRAXIS series and every state examination. No matter what state you plan on
teaching in, XAMonline has a unique teacher certification study guide just for you.

XAMonline—Value and Innovation

We are committed to providing value and innovation. Our print-on-demand tech-
nology allows us to be the first in the market to reflect changes in test standards
and user feedback as they occur. Our guides are written by experienced teachers
who are experts in their fields. And our content reflects the highest standards of
quality. Comprehensive practice tests with varied levels of rigor means that your
study experience will closely match the actual in-test experience.

To date, XAMonline has helped nearly 600,000 teachers pass their certification
or licensing exams. Our commitment to preparation exceeds simply providing
the proper material for study—it extends to helping teachers gain mastery of
the subject matter, giving them the tools to become the most effective classroom
leaders possible, and ushering today’s students toward a successful future.

SECTION 2
ABOUT THIS STUDY GUIDE

Purpose of This Guide

Is there a little voice inside of you saying, “Am I ready?” Our goal is to replace
that little voice and remove all doubt with a new voice that says, “I AM READY.
Bring it on!” by offering the highest quality of teacher certification study guides.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E ix
PRAXIS

Organization of Content
You will see that while every test may start with overlapping general topics, each is
very unique in the skills they wish to test. Only XAMonline presents custom con-
tent that analyzes deeper than a title, a subarea, or an objective. Only XAMonline
presents content and sample test assessments along with focus statements, the
deepest-level rationale and interpretation of the skills that are unique to the exam.

Title and field number of test

Each exam has its own name and number. XAMonline’s guides are written to
give you the content you need to know for the specific exam you are taking. You
can be confident when you buy our guide that it contains the information you
need to study for the specific test you are taking.

Subareas
These are the major content categories found on the exam. XAMonline’s
guides are written to cover all of the subareas found in the test frameworks
developed for the exam.

Objectives
These are standards that are unique to the exam and represent the main
subcategories of the subareas/content categories. XAMonline’s guides are
written to address every specific objective required to pass the exam.

Focus statements
These are examples and interpretations of the objectives. You find them
in parenthesis directly following the objective. They provide detailed
examples of the range, type, and level of content that appear on the test
questions. Only XAMonline’s guides drill down to this level.

How Do We Compare with Our Competitors?

XAMonline—drills down to the focus statement level.
CliffsNotes and REA—organized at the objective level
Kaplan—provides only links to content
MoMedia—content not specific to the state test

Each subarea is divided into manageable sections that cover the specific skill areas.
Explanations are easy to understand and thorough. You’ll find that every test
answer contains a rejoinder so if you need a refresher or further review after taking
the test, you’ll know exactly to which section you must return.

How to Use This Book

Our informal polls show that most people begin studying up to eight weeks prior
to the test date, so start early. Then ask yourself some questions: How much do

x P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

you really know? Are you coming to the test straight from your teacher-education
program or are you having to review subjects you haven’t considered in ten years?
Either way, take a diagnostic or assessment test first. Also, spend time on sample
tests so that you become accustomed to the way the actual test will appear.

This guide comes with an online diagnostic test of 30 questions found online at
www.XAMonline.com. It is a little boot camp to get you up for the task and reveal
things about your compendium of knowledge in general. Although this guide is
structured to follow the order of the test, you are not required to study in that
order. By finding a time-management and study plan that fits your life you will
be more effective. The results of your diagnostic or self-assessment test can be
a guide for how to manage your time and point you toward an area that needs
more attention.

After taking the diagnostic exam, fill out the Personalized Study Plan page at
the beginning of each chapter. Review the competencies and skills covered in that
chapter and check the boxes that apply to your study needs. If there are sections
you already know you can skip, check the “skip it” box. Taking this step will give
you a study plan for each chapter.

Week Activity

8 weeks prior to test Take a diagnostic test found at www.XAMonline.com

7 weeks prior to test Build your Personalized Study Plan for each chapter.
Check the “skip it” box for sections you feel you are
already strong in.
SKIP IT †
6-3 weeks prior to test For each of these four weeks, choose a content area to
study. You don’t have to go in the order of the book. It
may be that you start with the content that needs the
most review. Alternately, you may want to ease yourself
into plan by starting with the most familiar material.

2 weeks prior to test Take the sample test, score it, and create a review plan
for the final week before the test.

1 week prior to test Following your plan (which will likely be aligned with
the areas that need the most review) go back and study
the sections that align with the questions you may have
gotten wrong. Then go back and study the sections
related to the questions you answered correctly. If need
be, create flashcards and drill yourself on any area that
you makes you anxious.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xi
PRAXIS

SECTION 3
ABOUT THE PRAXIS EXAMS

What Is PRAXIS?
PRAXIS II tests measure the knowledge of specific content areas in K-12 educa-
tion. The test is a way of insuring that educators are prepared to not only teach in a
particular subject area, but also have the necessary teaching skills to be effective. The
Educational Testing Service administers the test in most states and has worked
with the states to develop the material so that it is appropriate for state standards.

PRAXIS Points
1. The PRAXIS Series comprises more than 140 different tests in over seventy
different subject areas.

2. Over 90% of the PRAXIS tests measure subject area knowledge.

3. The purpose of the test is to measure whether the teacher candidate possesses
a sufficient level of knowledge and skills to perform job duties effectively and
responsibly.

4. Your state sets the acceptable passing score.

5. Any candidate, whether from a traditional teaching-preparation path or

an alternative route, can seek to enter the teaching profession by taking a
PRAXIS test.

6. PRAXIS tests are updated regularly to ensure current content.

Often your own state’s requirements determine whether or not you should take
any particular test. The most reliable source of information regarding this is either
your state’s Department of Education or the Educational Testing Service. Either
resource should also have a complete list of testing centers and dates. Test dates
vary by subject area and not all test dates necessarily include your particular test,
so be sure to check carefully.

If you are in a teacher-education program, check with the Education Department

or the Certification Officer for specific information for testing and testing time-
lines. The Certification Office should have most of the information you need.

If you choose an alternative route to certification you can either rely on our Web
site at www.XAMonline.com or on the resources provided by an alternative certi-
fication program. Many states now have specific agencies devoted to alternative
certification and there are some national organizations as well:

xii P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

National Center for Education Information

http://www.ncei.com/Alt-Teacher-Cert.htm

National Associate for Alternative Certification

http://www.alt-teachercert.org/index.asp

Interpreting Test Results

Contrary to what you may have heard, the results of a PRAXIS test are not based
on time. More accurately, you will be scored on the raw number of points you earn
in relation to the raw number of points available. Each question is worth one raw
point. It is likely to your benefit to complete as many questions in the time allotted,
but it will not necessarily work to your advantage if you hurry through the test.

Follow the guidelines provided by ETS for interpreting your score. The web site
offers a sample test score sheet and clearly explains how the scores are scaled and
what to expect if you have an essay portion on your test.

Scores are usually available by phone within a month of the test date and scores
will be sent to your chosen institution(s) within six weeks. Additionally, ETS now
makes online, downloadable reports available for 45 days from the reporting date.

It is critical that you be aware of your own state’s passing score. Your raw score
may qualify you to teach in some states, but not all. ETS administers the test and
assigns a score, but the states make their own interpretations and, in some cases,
consider combined scores if you are testing in more than one area.

What’s on the Test?

PRAXIS tests vary from subject to subject and sometimes even within subject
area. For PRAXIS Mathematics (0061), the test lasts for 2 hours and consists of
approximately 50 multiple-choice questions. The use of a graphing calculator is
required for this test. The breakdown of the questions is as follows:

Category Approximate Number Approximate

of Questions Percentage of the test

I: Algebra and Number Theory 8 16%

II: Measurement 3 6%
-Geometry 5 10%
-Trigonometry 4 8%

Table continued on next page

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xiii
PRAXIS

Category Approximate Number Approximate

of Questions Percentage of the test

III: Functions 8 16%

-Calculus 6 12%

IV: Data Analysis and Statistics 5-6 10-12%

-Probability 2-3 4-6%

V: Matrix Algebra 4-5 8-10%

-Discrete Mathematics 3-4 6-8%

The following process categories are distributed throughout the test questions in
each category:
• Mathematical Problem Solving
• Mathematical Reasoning and Proof
• Mathematical Connections
• Mathematical Representation
• Use of Technology

This chart can be used to build a study plan. Sixteen percent may seem like a lot
of time to spend on Algebra and Number Theory, but when you consider that
amounts to about 4 out of 25 multiple choice questions, it might change your
perspective.

Question Types
You’re probably thinking, enough already, I want to study! Indulge us a little
longer while we explain that there is actually more than one type of multiple-
choice question. You can thank us later after you realize how well prepared you are
for your exam.

1. Complete the Statement. The name says it all. In this question type
you’ll be asked to choose the correct completion of a given statement.
For example:

The Dolch Basic Sight Words consist of a relatively short list of words
that children should be able to:
A. Sound out
B. Know the meaning of
C. Recognize on sight
D. Use in a sentence

xiv P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

The correct answer is A. In order to check your answer, test out the statement
by adding the choices to the end of it.

2. Which of the Following. One way to test your answer choice for this
type of question is to replace the phrase “which of the following” with your
selection. Use this example:

Which of the following words is one of the twelve most frequently used
in children’s reading texts:
A. There
B. This
C. The
D. An

Don’t look! Test your answer. ____ is one of the twelve most frequently used
in children’s reading texts. Did you guess C? Then you guessed correctly.

3. Roman Numeral Choices. This question type is used when there is

more than one possible correct answer. For example:

Which of the following two arguments accurately supports the use of

cooperative learning as an effective method of instruction?
I. Cooperative learning groups facilitate healthy competition
between individuals in the group.
II. Cooperative learning groups allow academic achievers to carry or
cover for academic underachievers.
III. Cooperative learning groups make each student in the group
accountable for the success of the group.
IV. Cooperative learning groups make it possible for students to
reward other group members for achieving.
A. I and II
B. II and III
C. I and III
D. III and IV

Notice that the question states there are two possible answers. It’s best to read
all the possibilities first before looking at the answer choices. In this case, the
correct answer is D.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xv
PRAXIS

4. Negative Questions. This type of question contains words such as

“not,” “least,” and “except.” Each correct answer will be the statement that
does not fit the situation described in the question. Such as:

Multicultural education is not

A. An idea or concept
B. A “tack-on” to the school curriculum
C. An educational reform movement
D. A process

Think to yourself that the statement could be anything but the correct
answer. This question form is more open to interpretation than other types,
so read carefully and don’t forget that you’re answering a negative statement.

5. Questions that Include Graphs, Tables, or Reading

Passages. As always, read the question carefully. It likely asks for a very
specific answer and not a broad interpretation of the visual. Here is a simple
(though not statistically accurate) example of a graph question:

In the following graph in how many years did more men take the
NYSTCE exam than women?


 0HQ
 :RPHQ



       
A. None
B. One
C. Two
D. Three

It may help you to simply circle the two years that answer the question.
Make sure you’ve read the question thoroughly and once you’ve made your
determination, double check your work. The correct answer is C.

xvi P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

SECTION 4
HELPFUL HINTS

Study Tips
1. You are what you eat. Certain foods aid the learning process by releas-
ing natural memory enhancers called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of
tryptophan, choline, and phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the
neurotransmitters associated with memory and certain foods release memory
enhancing chemicals. A light meal or snacks of one of the following foods fall
into this category:
• Milk • Rice • Eggs • Fish
• Nuts and seeds • Oats • Turkey

The better the connections, the more you comprehend!

2. See the forest for the trees. In other words, get the concept before
you look at the details. One way to do this is to take notes as you read, para-
phrasing or summarizing in your own words. Putting the concept in terms
that are comfortable and familiar may increase retention.

3. Question authority. Ask why, why, why? Pull apart written material
paragraph by paragraph and don’t forget the captions under the illustrations.
For example, if a heading reads Stream Erosion put it in the form of a ques-
tion (Why do streams erode? What is stream erosion?) then find the answer
within the material. If you train your mind to think in this manner you will
learn more and prepare yourself for answering test questions.

4. Play mind games. Using your brain for reading or puzzles keeps it flex-
ible. Even with a limited amount of time your brain can take in data (much
like a computer) and store it for later use. In ten minutes you can: read two
paragraphs (at least), quiz yourself with flash cards, or review notes. Even if
you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores it
for recall, which is why frequent reading or review increases chances of reten-
tion and comprehension.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xvii
PRAXIS

5. The pen is mightier than the sword. Learn to take great notes. A
by-product of our modern culture is that we have grown accustomed to get-
ting our information in short doses. We’ve subconsciously trained ourselves
to assimilate information into neat little packages. Messy notes fragment the
flow of information. Your notes can be much clearer with proper formatting.
The Cornell Method is one such format. This method was popularized in
How to Study in College, Ninth Edition, by Walter Pauk. You can benefit
from the method without purchasing an additional book by simply looking
up the method online. Below is a sample of how The Cornell Method can be
adapted for use with this guide.

6”
Note Taking Column
Cue Column
1. Record: During your reading, use the note-taking
column to record important points.

2. Questions: As soon as you finish a section, formulate

questions based on the notes in the right-hand column.
Writing questions helps to clarify meanings, reveal
relationships, establish community, and strengthen
memory. Also, the writing of questions sets the state for
exam study later.

3. Recite: Cover the note-taking column with a sheet of

paper. Then, looking at the questions or cue-words in
the question and cue column only, say aloud, in your
own words, the answers to the questions, facts, or ideas
indicated by the cue words.

4. Reflect: Reflect on the material by asking yourself

questions.

5. Review: Spend at least ten minutes every week

reviewing all your previous notes. Doing so helps you
retain ideas and topics for the exam.

Summary

2” After reading, use this space to summarize the notes from

each page.

*Adapted from How to Study in College, Ninth Edition, by Walter Pauk, ©2008 Wadsworth

xviii P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

6. Place yourself in exile and set the mood. Set aside a particular
place and time to study that best suits your personal needs and biorhythms.
If you’re a night person, burn the midnight oil. If you’re a morning person set
yourself up with some coffee and get to it. Make your study time and place as
free from distraction as possible and surround yourself with what you need,
be it silence or music. Studies have shown that music can aid in concen-
tration, absorption, and retrieval of information. Not all music, though.
Classical music is said to work best

7. Get pointed in the right direction. Use arrows to point to important

passages or pieces of information. It’s easier to read than a page full of yellow
highlights. Highlighting can be used sparingly, but add an arrow to the
The proctor will write the
margin to call attention to it. start time where it can
be seen and then, later,
8. Check your budget. You should at least review all the content material
provide the time remaining,
before your test, but allocate the most amount of time to the areas that need typically fifteen minutes
the most refreshing. It sounds obvious, but it’s easy to forget. You can use the before the end of the test.
study rubric above to balance your study budget.

Testing Tips
1. Get smart, play dumb. Sometimes a question is just a question. No
one is out to trick you, so don’t assume that the test writer is looking for
something other than what was asked. Stick to the question as written and
don’t overanalyze.

2. Do a double take. Read test questions and answer choices at least twice
because it’s easy to miss something, to transpose a word or some letters. If you
have no idea what the correct answer is, skip it and come back later if there’s
time. If you’re still clueless, it’s okay to guess. Remember, you’re scored on the
number of questions you answer correctly and you’re not penalized for wrong
answers. The worst case scenario is that you miss a point from a good guess.

3. Turn it on its ear. The syntax of a question can often provide a clue, so
make things interesting and turn the question into a statement to see if it
changes the meaning or relates better (or worse) to the answer choices.

4. Get out your magnifying glass. Look for hidden clues in the ques-
tions because it’s difficult to write a multiple-choice question without giving
away part of the answer in the options presented. In most questions you can
readily eliminate one or two potential answers, increasing your chances of
answering correctly to 50/50, which will help out if you’ve skipped a ques-
tion and gone back to it (see tip #2).

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xix
PRAXIS

5. Call it intuition. Often your first instinct is correct. If you’ve been study-
ing the content you’ve likely absorbed something and have subconsciously
retained the knowledge. On questions you’re not sure about trust your
instincts because a first impression is usually correct.

6. Graffiti. Sometimes it’s a good idea to mark your answers directly on the
test booklet and go back to fill in the optical scan sheet later. You don’t get
extra points for perfectly blackened ovals. If you choose to manage your test
this way, be sure not to mismark your answers when you transcribe to the
scan sheet.

7. Become a clock-watcher. You have a set amount of time to answer the

questions. Don’t get bogged down laboring over a question you’re not sure
about when there are ten others you could answer more readily. If you choose
to follow the advice of tip #6, be sure you leave time near the end to go back
and fill in the scan sheet.

Do the Drill
No matter how prepared you feel it’s sometimes a good idea to apply Murphy’s
Law. So the following tips might seem silly, mundane, or obvious, but we’re
including them anyway.

1. Remember, you are what you eat, so bring a snack. Choose

from the list of energizing foods that appear earlier in the introduction.

2. You’re not too sexy for your test. Wear comfortable clothes. You’ll
be distracted if your belt is too tight or if you’re too cold or too hot.

3. Lie to yourself. Even if you think you’re a prompt person, pretend you’re
not and leave plenty of time to get to the testing center. Map it out ahead
of time and do a dry run if you have to. There’s no need to add road rage to
your list of anxieties.

4. Bring sharp number 2 pencils. It may seem impossible to forget this

need from your school days, but you might. And make sure the erasers are
intact, too.

5. No ticket, no test. Bring your admission ticket as well as two forms of

identification, including one with a picture and signature. You will not be
admitted to the test without these things.

6. You can’t take it with you. Leave any study aids, dictionaries, note-
books, computers, and the like at home. Certain tests do allow a scientific or
four-function calculator, so check ahead of time to see if your test does.

xx P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 MATHEMATICS 0061

7. Prepare for the desert. Any time spent on a bathroom break cannot
be made up later, so use your judgment on the amount you eat or drink.

8. Quiet, Please! Keeping your own time is a good idea, but not with a
timepiece that has a loud ticker. If you use a watch, take it off and place it
nearby but not so that it distracts you. And silence your cell phone.

To the best of our ability, we have compiled the content you need to know in this
book and in the accompanying online resources. The rest is up to you. You can
use the study and testing tips or you can follow your own methods. Either way,
you can be confident that there aren’t any missing pieces of information and there
shouldn’t be any surprises in the content on the test.

If you have questions about test fees, registration, electronic testing, or other
content verification issues please visit www.ets.org.

Good luck!

Sharon Wynne
Founder, XAMonline

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E xxi
PRAXIS

xxii P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 DOMAIN I
ALGEBRA AND
NUMBER THEORY

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 1
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

PERSONALIZED STUDY PLAN KNOWN

MATERIAL/
PAGE COMPETENCY AND SKILL SKIP IT

3 1: Algebra and number theory †

1.1: Demonstrate an understanding of the structure of †
number systems and the ability to perform basic
operations
1.2: Compare and contrast properties of number systems †
under various operations
1.3: Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of †
counting numbers
1.4: Solve ratio, proportion, percent, and average †
problems
1.5: Work with algebraic expressions, formulas, and †
equations; polynomials; algebraic fractions;
operations involving complex numbers, radicals, and
exponents
1.6: Solve and graph systems of equations and †
inequalities
1.7: Interpret algebraic principles geometrically †
1.8: Recognize and use algebraic representations of lines, †
planes, conic sections, and spheres
1.9: Solve problems in two and three dimensions †

2 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

COMPETENCY 1
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

SKILL Demonstrate an understanding of the structure of the natural,

1.1 integer, rational, real, and complex number systems and the
ability to perform basic operations (5, 2, 3, and 4) on numbers
in these systems

Underlying many of the more involved fields of mathematics is an understanding

of basic algebra and number theory. A foundation in these concepts allows for
expansion of knowledge into trigonometry, calculus, and other areas. The follow-
ing discussion covers the essential properties of standard sets of numbers (such as
real and complex numbers).

Real Numbers
The following chart shows the relationships among the subsets of the real
numbers.
Real Numbers

Irrational Natural
Numbers Numbers
Whole Numbers
Integers

Rational Numbers

REAL NUMBERS are denoted by R and are numbers that can be shown by an
REAL NUMBERS:
infinite decimal representation such as 3.286275347 . . . . Real numbers include
numbers that can be
rational numbers, such as 242 and −23/129, and irrational numbers, such as Ï·· 2 represented by an infinite
and p, and can be represented as points along an infinite number line. Real decimal representation
numbers are also known as “the unique complete Archimedean ordered field.” Real
numbers are to be distinguished from imaginary numbers.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 3
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Real numbers are classified as follows:

CLASSIFICATIONS OF REAL NUMBERS

Natural Numbers The counting numbers. 1, 2, 3, . . .

Denoted by N

Whole Numbers The counting numbers along with zero. 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

Integers, The counting numbers, their negatives, and zero. . . . , {2, {1,
Denoted by Z 0, 1, 2, . . .

Rationals, All of the fractions that can be formed using whole numbers.
Denoted by Q Zero cannot be the denominator. In decimal form, these
numbers will be either terminating or repeating decimals.
Simplify square roots to determine if the number can be
written as a fraction.

Irrationals Real numbers that cannot be written as a fraction. The

decimal forms of these numbers neither terminate nor repeat.
Examples include p, e and Ï··
2.

Operations on Whole Numbers

Mathematical operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and divi-
sion. Addition can be indicated by these expressions: sum, greater than, and, more
than, increased by, added to. Subtraction can be expressed by the phrases difference,
fewer than, minus, less than, and decreased by. Multiplication is shown by product,
times, multiplied by, and twice. Division is indicated by quotient, divided by,
and ratio.

Addition and subtraction

There are two main procedures used in addition and subtraction: adding or
subtracting single digits and “carrying” or “borrowing.”

4 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Example: Find the sum of 346 1 225 using place value.

PLACE VALUE
100 10 1

3 4 6
2 2 5

5 6 11

5 7 1

Standard algorithm for addition check:

3 14 6
12 2 5
5 7 1

Example: Find the difference 234 2 46 using place value.

PLACE VALUE
100 10 1

1 13 4
4 6

PLACE VALUE
100 10 1

1 12 14
4 6

1 8 8

Standard algorithm for subtraction check:

2 3 4
2 4 6
1 8 8

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 5
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Multiplication and division

Multiplication is one of the four basic number operations. In simple terms,
multiplication is the addition of a number to itself a certain number of times. For
example, 4 multiplied by 3 is the equal to 4 1 4 1 4 or 3 1 3 1 3 1 3. Another
way of conceptualizing multiplication is to think in terms of groups. For example,
if we have 4 groups of 3 students, the total number of students is 4 multiplied by
3. We call the solution to a multiplication problem the PRODUCT .
PRODUCT: a solution to a
multiplication problem
Example: A student buys 4 boxes of crayons. Each box contains 16 crayons.
How many total crayons does the student have?
The total number of crayons is 16 3 4.
16
3 4
64 Total number of crayons equals 64 crayons.

Division, the inverse of multiplication, is another of the four basic number opera-
tions. When we divide one number by another, we determine how many times we
can multiply the divisor (number divided by) before we exceed the number we are
dividing (dividend). For example, 8 divided by 2 equals 4 because we can multiply
2 four times to reach 8 (2 3 4 5 8 or 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 5 8). Using the grouping
conceptualization we used with multiplication, we can divide 8 into 4 groups of 2
or 2 groups of 4. We call the answer to a division problem the QUOTIENT .
QUOTIENT: the answer to
a division problem If the divisor does not divide evenly into the dividend, we express the leftover
amount either as a remainder or as a fraction with the divisor as the denominator.
For example, 9 divided by 2 equals 4 with a remainder of 1 or 4 1··2.

Example: Each box of apples contains 24 apples. How many boxes must a
grocer purchase to supply a group of 252 people with one apple each?
The grocer needs 252 apples. Because he must buy apples in groups of 24, we
divide 252 by 24 to determine how many boxes he needs to buy.
10
24q····
252
2 24
12 The quotient is 10 with a remainder of 12.
2 0
12

Thus, the grocer needs 10 full boxes plus 12 more apples. Therefore, the mini-
mum number of boxes the grocer must purchase is 11 boxes.

6 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Adding and Subtracting Decimals

When adding and subtracting decimals, we align the numbers by place value as
we do with whole numbers. After adding or subtracting each column, we bring
the decimal down, placing it in the same location as in the numbers added or
subtracted.

Example: Find the sum of 152.3 and 36.342.

152.300
1 36.342
188.642

Note that we placed two zeroes after the final place value in 152.3 to clarify the
column addition.

Example: Find the difference of 152.3 and 36.342.

2 9 10 (4)11(12)
152.300 152.300
2 36.342 2 36.342
58 115.958

Note how we borrowed to subtract from the zeros in the hundredths and thou-
sandths place of 152.300.

Operations with Signed Numbers

When adding and subtracting numbers with the same sign, the result will also
have the same sign. When adding numbers that have different signs, subtract the
smaller number from the larger number (ignoring the sign) and then use the sign
of the larger number. When subtracting a negative number, change the sign of the
number to a positive sign and then add it (i.e., replace the two negative signs by a
positive sign).

Examples:
(3) 1 (4) 5 7
({8) 1 ({4) 5 {12
(6) 2 (5) 5 1
(3) 2 (6) 5 {3
({4) 2 (2) 5 {6
({6) 2 ({10) 5 4

When we multiply two numbers with the same sign, the result is positive. If the
two numbers have different signs, the result is negative. The same rule follows for
division.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 7
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Examples:
(5)(5) 5 25
(5)({6) 5 {30
({19)({2) 5 38
16 4 4 5 4
({34) 4 2 5 {17
({18) 4 ({2) 5 9
27 4 ({3) 5 {9

Order of Operations
The Order of Operations is to be followed when evaluating expressions with
multiple operations. Remember the mnemonic PEMDAS (Please Excuse My
Dear Aunt Sally) to follow these steps in order:

1. Simplify inside grouping characters such as parentheses, brackets, radicals,

fraction bars, etc.

2. Multiply out expressions with exponents.

3. Do multiplication or division from left to right.

Note: Multiplication and division are equivalent even though multiplication
is mentioned before division in the mnemonic PEMDAS.

4. Do addition or subtraction from left to right.

Note: Addition and subtraction are equivalent even though addition is
mentioned before subtraction in the mnemonic PEMDAS.

Example:
Evaluate: 12(9 2 7) 1 4 3 5
················
4 3
3 12
12(9 2 7) 1 4 3 5
················
34 1 23
12(2) 1 4 3 5
5 ············ Simplify within parentheses.
34 1 23
12(2) 1 4 3 5
5 ············
81 1 8
Multiply out exponent expressions.
24 1 20
5 ······· Do multiplication and division.
81 1 8
5 44
···
89
Do addition and substraction.

8 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Complex Numbers
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C. The set C is defined as {a 1 bi : a,
bP R} (P means “element of ”). In other words, complex numbers are an exten-
sion of real numbers made by attaching an imaginary number i, which satisfies
the equality i 2 5 {1. COMPLEX NUMBERS are of the form a 1 bi, where a and b
COMPLEX NUMBERS:
are real numbers and i 5 Ï·· {1 . Thus, a is the real part of the number and b is
numbers of the form a 1
the imaginary part of the number. When i appears in a fraction, the fraction is bi, where a and b are real
usually simplified so that i is not in the denominator. The set of complex numbers numbers and i 5Ï·· {1
includes the set of real numbers, where any real number n can be written in its
equivalent complex form as n 1 0i. In other words, it can be said that R # C (or
R is a subset of C).

Complex Numbers

Real Numbers

The number 3i has a real part 0 and imaginary part 3; the number 4 has a real
part 4 and an imaginary part 0. As another way of writing complex numbers, we
can express them as ordered pairs:

Complex number Ordered pair

3 1 2i (3, 2)

Ï··3 1 Ï··3i ( Ï··3 , Ï··3 )

7i (0, 7)

6 1 2i
······
16··, 2··2
7 7 7

The basic operations for complex numbers can be summarized as follows, where
z1 5 a1 1 b1i and z2 5 a2 1 b2i. Note that the operations are performed in the
standard manner, where i is treated as a standard radical value. The result of each
operation is written in the standard form for complex numbers. Also note that the
COMPLEX CONJUGATE of a complex number z 5 a 1 bi is denoted as z* 5 a 2 bi.
COMPLEX CONJUGATE:
z1 1 z2 5 (a1 1 a2) 1 (b1 1 b2)i for a complex number
z 5 a 1 bi , this is denoted
z1 2 z2 5 (a1 2 a2) 1 (b1 2 b2)i
as z* 5 a 2 bi
z1z2 5 (a1a2 2 b1b2) 1 (a1b2 2 a2b1)i
z1 z1 z*2 aa 1bb ab 2ab
z2
··
5 z··2 ··
z* 5 ·········
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 ·········
2 1
2
1 2
2
i
2 a2 1 b2 a2 1 b2

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 9
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

SKILL Compare and contrast properties (e.g., closure, commutativity,

1.2 associativity, distributivity) of number systems under various operations

Fields and Rings

Any set that includes at least two nonzero elements that satisfies the field axioms
for addition and multiplication is a FIELD . The real numbers, R, as well as the
FIELD: any set that
complex numbers, C, are each a field, with the real numbers being a subset of the
includes at least two
nonzero elements complex numbers. The field axioms are summarized below.
that satisfies the field
axioms for addition and FIELD AXIOMS
multiplication
ADDITION

Commutativity a1b5b1a

Associativity a 1 (b 1 c) 5 (a 1 b) 1 c

Identity a105a

Inverse a 1 ({a) 5 0

MULTIPLICATION

Commutativity ab 5 ba

Associativity a(bc) 5 (ab)c

Identity a315a

RING: an integral Inverse

1
a 3 ··a 5 1 (a ? 0)
domain with two binary
operations (addition and ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION
multiplication) where, for
every nonzero element a Distributivity a(b 1 c) 5 (b 1 c)a 5 ab 1 ac
and b in the domain, the
product ab is nonzero Note that both the real numbers and the complex numbers satisfy the axioms
summarized above.
Note: Multiplication is A RING is an integral domain with two binary operations (addition and multipli-
implied when there is no cation) where, for every nonzero element a and b in the domain, the product ab is
symbol between two
nonzero. A field is a ring in which multiplication is commutative, or a 3 b 5
variables. Thus, a 3 b
can be written ab. Multipli-
b 3 a, and all nonzero elements have a multiplicative inverse. The set Z (integers)
cation can also be indi- is a ring that is not a field in that it does not have the multiplicative inverse;
cated by a raised dot (?). therefore, integers are not a field. A polynomial ring is also not a field, as it also
has no multiplicative inverse. Furthermore, matrix rings do not constitute fields
because matrix multiplication is not generally commutative.

10 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Real numbers are an ordered field and can be ordered

As such, an ordered field F must contain a subset P (such as the positive numbers)
such that if a and b are elements of P, then both a 1 b and ab are also elements
of P. (In other words, the set P is closed under addition and multiplication.)
Furthermore, it must be the case that for any element c contained in F, exactly
one of the following conditions is true: c is an element of P, {c is an element of P,
or c 5 0.

The rational numbers also constitute an ordered field

The set P can be defined as the positive rational numbers. For each a and b that
are elements of the set Q (the rational numbers), a 1 b is also an element of P, as
is ab. (The sum a 1 b and the product ab are both rational if a and b are rational.)
Since P is closed under addition and multiplication, Q constitutes an ordered
field.

Complex numbers, unlike real numbers, cannot be ordered

Consider the number i 5 Ï·· {1 contained in the set C of complex numbers.
Assume that C has a subset P (positive numbers) that is closed under both addi-
tion and multiplication. Assume that i > 0. A difficulty arises in that i 2 5 {1 , 0,
so i cannot be included in the set P. Likewise, assume i , 0. The problem once
again arises that i 4 5 1 . 0, so i cannot be included in P. It is clearly the case
that i ± 0, so there is no place for i in an ordered field. Thus, the complex num-
bers cannot be ordered.

Example: Prove that for every integer y, if y is an even number, then y2 is

even.
The definition of even implies that for each integer y there is at least one integer x
such that y 5 2x.
y 5 2x
y 2 5 4x2

Since 4x 2 is always evenly divisible by two (2x 2 is an integer), y 2 is even for all
values of y.

Example: If a, b, and c are positive real numbers, prove that

c(a 1 b) 5 (b 1 a)c.
Use the properties of the set of real numbers.
c(a 1 b) 5 c(b 1 a) Additive commutativity
5 cb 1 ca Distributivity
5 bc 1 ac Multiplicative commutativity
5 (b 1 a)c Distributivity

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 11
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Example: Given real numbers a, b, c, and d, where ad 5 {bc, prove that

(a 1 bi)(c 1 di) is real.
Expand the product of the complex numbers.
(a 1 bi) (c 1 di) 5 ac 1 bci 1 adi 1 bdi 2

Use the definition of i 2.

(a 1 bi) (c 1 di) 5 ac 2 bd 1 bci 1 adi

Apply the fact that ad 5 {bc.

(a 1 bi) (c 1 di) 5 ac 2 bd 1 bci 2 bci 5 ac 2 bd

Since a, b, c and d are all real, ac 2 bd must also be real.

Closure
Another useful property that can describe arbitrary sets of numbers (including
fields and rings) is CLOSURE . A set is closed under an operation if the operation
CLOSURE: a set is closed
performed on any given elements of the set always yields a result that is likewise
under an operation if the
operation performed on an element of the set. For instance, the set of real numbers is closed under multi-
any given elements of the plication, because for any two real numbers a and b, the product ab is also a real
set always yield a result number.
that is likewise an element
of the set
Example: Determine if the set of integers is closed under division.
For the set of integers to be closed under division, it must be the case that a·· is an
b
integer for any integers a and b. Consider a 5 2 and b 5 3.
a52
·
b ··
3

This result is not an integer. Therefore, the set of integers is not closed under
division.

SKILL Demonstrate an understanding of the properties of counting

1.3 numbers (e.g., prime, composite, prime factorization, even, odd, factors,
multiples)

Natural (Counting) Numbers

The set of NATURAL NUMBERS , N, includes 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . (For some definitions,
NATURAL NUMBERS:
N includes zero.) The natural numbers are sometimes called the counting
the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . ;
they are sometimes called numbers (especially if the definition of N excludes zero). The set N constitutes
the counting numbers neither a ring nor a field, because there is no additive inverse (since there are no
negative numbers).

12 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

The set N obeys the properties of associativity, commutativity, distributivity

and identity for multiplication and addition (assuming, for the case of addition,
that zero is included in some sense in the natural numbers). The set of natural
numbers does not obey additive or multiplicative inverses, however, as there are no
noninteger fractions or negative numbers.

Natural numbers can be either even or odd. Even numbers are evenly divisible
by two; odd numbers are not evenly divisible by two (alternatively, they leave a
remainder of one when divided by two). Any natural number n that is divisible by
at least one number that is not equal to 1 or n is called a COMPOSITE NUMBER . A
COMPOSITE NUMBER:
natural number n that is only divisible by 1 or n is called a PRIME NUMBER .
any natural number n that
is divisible by at least one
Divisibility tests number that is not equal to
1 or n
1. A number is divisible by 2 if that number is an even number (i.e., the last
digit is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8).
PRIME NUMBER: a
Consider a number abcd defined by the digits a, b, c and d (for instance, natural number n that is
1,234). Rewrite the number as follows. only divisible by 1 or n
10abc 1 d 5 abcd
Note that 10abc is divisible by 2. Thus, the number abcd is only divisible by
2 if d is divisible by two; in other words, abcd is divisible by two only if it is
an even number. For example, the last digit of 1,354 is 4, so it is divisible by
2. On the other hand, the last digit of 240,685 is 5, so it is not divisible by 2.

2. A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is evenly divisible by 3.

Consider a number abcd defined by the digits a, b, c and d. The number can
be written as
abcd 2 1000a 1 100b 2 10c 1 d
The number can also be rewritten as
abcd 5 (999 1 1)a 1 (99 1 1)b 1 (9 1 1)c 1 d
abcd 5 999a 1 99b 1 9c 1 (a 1 b 1 c 1 d)
Note that the first three terms in the above expression are all divisible by 3.
Thus, the number is evenly divisible by 3 only if a 1 b 1 c 1 d is divisible
by 3. The same logic applies regardless of the size of the number. This proves
the rules for divisibility by 3.
The sum of the digits of 964 is 9 1 6 1 4 5 19. Since 19 is not divisible by
3, neither is 964. The digits of 86,514 is 8 1 6 1 5 1 1 1 4 5 24. Since 24
is divisible by 3, 86,514 is also divisible by 3.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 13
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

3. A number is divisible by 4 if the number in its last two digits is evenly divis-
ible by 4.
Let a number abcd be defined by the digits a, b, c and d.
ab(100) 1 cd 5 abcd
Since 100 is divisible by 4, 100ab is also divisible by 4. Thus, abcd is divisible
by 4 only if cd is divisible by 4.
25ab 1 cd··
5 abcd
····
4 4
The number 113,336 ends with the number 36 for the last two digits. Since
36 is divisible by 4, 113,336 is also divisible by 4. The number 135,627 ends
with the number 27 for the last two digits. Since 27 is not evenly divisible by
4, 135,627 is also not divisible by 4.

4. A number is divisible by 5 if the number ends in either a 5 or a 0.

Use the same number abcd.
100ab 1 cd 5 abcd
The first term is evenly divisible by 5, but the second term is only evenly
divisible by 5 if it is 0, 5, 10, 15, . . . , 95. In other words, abcd is divisible by
5 only if it ends in a 0 or a 5. For instance, 225 ends with a 5, so it is divis-
ible by 5. The number 470 is also divisible by 5 because its last digit is a 0.
The number 2,358 is not divisible by 5 because its last digit is an 8.

5. A number is divisible by 6 if the number is even and the sum of its digits is
evenly divisible by 3 or 6.
Let a number efgh be defined by the digits e, f, g and h. If efgh is even, then it
is divisible by 2. Write abcd as follows.
efgh
····
2
5 abcd 5 999a 1 99b 1 9c 1 (a 1 b 1 c 1 d)
efgh 5 2abcd 5 2(999)a 1 2(99)b 1 2(9)c 1 2(a 1 b 1 c 1 d)
Then divide efgh by 6.
efgh
····
6
5 2(999)
······
6
a 1 2(99)
·····
6
b 1 2(9)
····
6
c 1 2··6(a 1 b 1 c 1 d)
efgh
····
6
5 333a 1 33b 1 3c 1 2··6(a 1 b 1 c 1 d)
Notice that efgh is divisible by 6 only if the sum of the digits is divisible by
3 or by 6. The number efgh must also be even, since 2 is a factor of 6. For
instance, 4,950 is an even number and its digits add to 18 (4 1 9 1 5 1
0 5 18). Since the number is even and the sum of its digits is 18 (which is
divisible by 3 and 6), then 4,950 is divisible by 6. On the other hand, 326 is
an even number, but its digits add up to 11. Since 11 is not divisible by 3 or
6, then 326 is not divisible by 6.

14 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

6. A number is divisible by 8 if the number in its last three digits is evenly divis-
ible by 8.
The logic for the proof of this case follows that of numbers divisible by 2 and
4. The number 113,336 ends with the 3-digit number 336 in the last three
columns. Since 336 is divisible by 8, then 113,336 is also divisible by 8. The
number 465,627 ends with the number 627 in the last three columns. Since
627 is not evenly divisible by 8, then 465,627 is also not divisible by 8.

7. A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is evenly divisible by 9.

The logic for the proof of this case follows that for the case of numbers that
are divisible by 3 and 6. The sum of the digits of 874, for example, is 8 1
7 1 4 5 19. Since 19 is not divisible by 9, neither is 874. The sum of the
digits of 116,514 is 1 1 1 1 6 1 5 1 1 1 4 5 18. Since 18 is divisible by
9, 116,514 is also divisible by 9.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Every integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely in the form
p1e1 p2e2 . . . pkek.

The pi are distinct prime numbers and the ei are positive integers.

Greatest common factor

GCF is the abbreviation for the GREATEST COMMON FACTOR . The GCF is the
GREATEST COMMON
largest number that is a factor of all the numbers given in a problem. The GCF
FACTOR: the largest
can be no larger than the smallest number given in the problem. If no other number that is a factor of
number is a common factor, then the GCF will be the number 1. To find the all the numbers given in a
GCF, list all possible factors of the smallest number given (include the number problem
itself ). Starting with the largest factor (which is the number itself ), determine if it
is also a factor of all the other given numbers. If so, that is the GCF. If that factor
The GCF can be no larger
does not work, try the same method on the next smaller factor. Continue until
than the smallest number
a common factor is found. This is the GCF. Note: There can be other common given in the problem.
factors besides the GCF.

Example: Find the GCF of 12, 20, and 36.

The smallest number in the problem is 12. The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and
12. 12 is the largest factor, but it does not divide evenly into 20. Neither does 6,
but 4 will divide into both 20 and 36 evenly. Therefore, 4 is the GCF.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 15
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Example: Find the GCF of 14 and 15.

Factors of 14 are 1, 2, 7 and 14. 14 is the largest factor, but it does not divide
evenly into 15. Neither does 7 or 2. Therefore, the only factor common to both
14 and 15 is the number 1, which is the GCF.

The Euclidean Algorithm is a formal method for determining the greatest

common divisor (GCD, another name for GCF) of two positive integers.
The algorithm can be formulated in a recursive manner that simply involves
repetition of a few steps until a terminating point is reached. The algorithm can
be summarized as follows, where a and b are the two integers for which determi-
nation of the GCD is to be undertaken. (Assign a and b such that a > b.)

1. If b 5 0, a is the GCD

2. Calculate c 5 a mod b

3. If c 5 0, b is the GCD

4. Go back to step 2, replacing a with b and b with c

Note that the mod operator in this case is simply a remainder operator. Thus, a
mod b is the remainder of division of a by b.

Example: Find the GCD of 299 and 351.

To find the GCD, first let a 5 351 and b 5 299. Begin the algorithm as follows.
Step 1: b ± 0
Step 2: c 5 351 mod 299 5 52
Step 3: c ± 0

Perform the next iteration, starting with step 2.

Step 2: c 5 299 mod 52 5 39
Step 3: c ± 0

Continue to iterate recursively until a solution is found.

Step 2: c 5 52 mod 39 5 13
Step 3: c ± 0

Step 2: c 5 39 mod 13 5 0
Step 3: c 5 0: GCD 5 13

LEAST COMMON Thus, the GCD of 299 and 351 is thus 13.
MULTIPLE: of a group of
numbers is the smallest Least common multiple
number that all of the given
LCM is the abbreviation for LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE . The least common mul-
numbers will divide into
tiple of a group of numbers is the smallest number that all of the given numbers

16 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

will divide into. The least common multiple will always be the largest of the given
The least common
set of numbers, or a multiple of the largest number.
multiple will always be the
largest of the given set of
Example: Find the LCM of 20, 30 and 40. numbers, or a multiple of
The largest number given is 40, but 30 will not divide evenly into 40. The next the largest number.
multiple of 40 is 80 (2 3 40), but 30 will not divide evenly into 80 either. The
next multiple of 40 is 120. 120 is divisible by both 20 and 30, so 120 is the LCM
(least common multiple).

Example: Find the LCM of 96, 16 and 24.

The largest number is 96. 96 is divisible by both 16 and 24, so 96 is the LCM.

Proofs using the fundamental theorem of arithmetic

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic can be used to show that every fraction
Every fraction is equivalent
is equivalent to a unique fraction in which the numerator and denominator are
to a unique fraction in
relatively prime. which the numerator and
denominator are relatively
Given a fraction ··a , the integers a and b can both be written uniquely as a product
b prime.
of prime factors.
a
b

When all the common factors are cancelled, the resulting numerator a1 (the
product of remaining factors ) and the resulting denominator b1 (the product of
remaining factors ) have no common divisor other than 1; i.e., they are rela-
tively prime.

Since, according to the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, the initial prime

a
decomposition of the integers a and b is unique, the new reduced fraction ···1 is
b
also unique. Hence, any fraction is equivalent to a unique fraction in which 1the
numerator and denominator are relatively prime.

The proof that the square root of any integer, not a perfect square number, is
irrational may also be demonstrated using prime decomposition.

Let n be an integer. Assuming that the square root of n is rational, we can write
Ï··n 5 ·a
b

Since every fraction is equivalent to a unique fraction in which the numerator ·a

b
and denominator are relatively prime (shown earlier), we can reduce the fraction
a
to the fraction ···1 and write
b1
a1 a2
Ï··
n5 ···
; n 5 ··12
b1 b1

where a1 and b1 are relatively prime.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 17
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Since a1 and b1 are relatively prime, a12 and b12 must also be relatively prime. Also,
a12
since n is an integer, ··2 must be an integer. The only way the above two condi-
b1
tions can be satisfied is if the denominator b12 5 1. Thus, n 5 a12.

As a result, the square root of an integer can be rational only if the integer is a
perfect square. Stated in an alternative manner, the square root of an integer, not
a perfect square, is irrational.

SKILL Solve ratio, proportion, percent, and average (including arithmetic

1.4 mean and weighted average) problems
Ratios
A RATIO is a comparison of two numbers for the purpose of relating relative
RATIO: a comparison
magnitudes. For instance, if a class had 11 boys and 14 girls, the ratio of boys to
of two numbers for the
purpose of relating relative girls could be written one of three ways:
magnitudes 11:14 or 11 to 14 or 11
···
14

The ratio of girls to boys is:

Note: Read ratio questions 14:11 or 14 to 11 or 14 ···
11
carefully. For example,
given a group of 6 adults Ratios can be reduced when possible. A ratio of 12 cats to 18 dogs, for example,
and 5 children, the ratio of would reduce to 2:3, 2 to 3 or 2··3.
children to the entire group
would be 5:11.
Proportions
A PROPORTION is an equation in which a fraction is set equal to another frac-
tion. To solve the proportion, multiply each numerator times the other fraction’s
PROPORTION: an denominator. Set these two products equal to each other and solve the resulting
equation in which a
fraction is set equal to
equation. This is called cross multiplying the proportion.
another fraction
4 x.
Example: Find x given the proportion ·· 5 ··
15 60
To solve for x, cross multiply.
(4)(60) 5 (15)(x)
240 5 15x
16 5 x

x13
Example: Find x given the proportion ······ 5 2·.
3x 1 4 5
To solve for x, cross multiply.
5(x 1 3) 5 2(3x 1 4)
5x 1 15 5 6x 1 8
75x

18 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

The mathematics of solving for variables in proportions is not difficult; the key
The key to solving
to solving a problem involving proportions, then, is constructing the proportion
a problem involving
correctly. As noted above, this requires carefully reading the problem, followed proportions, is
by careful identification of the related values and construction of the appropriate constructing the proportion
ratios. correctly.

Percents
A PERCENT is a decimal value multiplied by 100. Another representation is the
PERCENT: a decimal value
following: given some value c, the percent representation is p, where
p multiplied by 100
c 5 ····
100
or
p 5 100c

When using percents in a problem, it is important to either use only percents or

only decimals. Mixing these two types of values can lead to incorrect answers.

Averages
Problems involving averages can be solved using the tools discussed in
Competency 7.

SKILL Work with algebraic expressions, formulas, and equations; add,

1.5 subtract, multiply, and divide polynomials; add, subtract, multiply,
and divide algebraic fractions; perform standard algebraic
operations involving complex numbers, radicals, and exponents,
including fractional and negative exponents
For a detailed discussion of algebraic functions, see Competency 5.

SKILL Solve and graph systems of equations and inequalities, including

1.6 those involving absolute value

Solving Systems of Linear Equations

For a detailed discussion of solutions of systems of linear equations by way of
matrix algebra, see Skill 9.2 In simple cases in which the use of matrices is unnec-
essary, systems of equations can be solved through substitution, elimination, or
graphing.

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 19
ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

Substitution method
The method of substitution simply requires solving one equation for a particular
variable, then substituting this expression into another equation to eliminate that
variable. This process, when repeated a sufficient number of times, yields the
solution for a particular variable. This solution can then be substituted into other
equations to find the solution for the other variables.

Example: Solve the following system of equations:

2x 2 3y 5 {13
5x 1 y 5 27

This system of equations can be solved by substitution. Solve the first equation for x.
2x 5 3y 2 13
13
2x 5 3··2y 2 ···
2

Substitute this result into the second equation and solve for y.
13
5[3··2y 2 ···
2 ] 1 y 5 27
15
···
2
y { 65
···
2
1 y 5 27
17
···
2
y 5 54
···
2
1 65
···
2
5 119
····
2
y 5 119
····
17
57

Use this result to find x. Either equation can be used.

2x 2 3(7) 5 {13
2x 5 {13 1 21 5 8
x54

The solution is then x 5 4 and y 5 7.

Elimination method
The method of elimination involves multiplying one of the equations in the
system by a constant number and combining two equations in such a way that
one of the variables is eliminated.

Example: Farmer Greenjeans bought 4 cows and 6 sheep for $1700. Mr.
Ziffel bought 3 cows and 12 sheep for $2400. If all the cows were the same
price and all the sheep were the same price, find the price charged for a cow
and for a sheep.
Let x 5 price of a cow
Let y 5 price of a sheep

Farmer Greenjeans’ equation would be: 4x 1 6y 5 1700

Mr. Ziffel’s equation would be: 3x 1 12y 5 2400

20 P R A X I S I I M AT H E M AT I C S 0 0 6 1
 ALGEBRA AND NUMBER THEORY

To solve by elimination:

Multiply the first equation by {2: {2(4x 1 6y 5 1700)

Keep the other equation the same: (3x 1 12y 5 2400)
{8x 2 12y 5 {3400
3x 1 12y 5 2400 Add the equations
{5x 5 {3400
x 5 200 The price of a cow was $200.

Solving for y, y 5 150 The price of a sheep was $150.

Graphing method
Graphing a system of equations requires plotting each equation separately on an
appropriate set of axes. In the simplest case, the equations can be plotted in a two-
dimensional graph. Assuming the equations are all linear in two dimensions, it is
sufficient to solve for y in each case and then plot the functions with respect to the
variable x. The intersection of the lines is the solution to the system of equations.

Example: Solve the following system of equations graphically:

6x 2 7y 5 3
{4x 1 3y 5 {7

First, solve each equation for y.

7y 5 6x 2 3 3y 5 4x 2 7
6 3
y 5 ··7x 2 ··7 y 5 4··3x 2 7··3

Next, plot each function and look for the intersection (solution).
y
10
4 7
y 5 2x
3 22
3
8

6
6 3
y 5 2x
7 22
7
4

0 x
0 2 4 6 8

{2

{4

T E A C H E R C E RT I F I C AT I O N S T U D Y G U I D E 21
Other documents randomly have
different content
“Mignonne Allons Voir Si La Rose....”
After Ronsard.

C OME, sweet, away! Come see the rose,

Now that the day draws near its close,
See whether it be faded grown—
Whether at evening fall away
Those leaves that opened to the day,
Or dies their blush, so like thine own.

Thou seest, dear love, its beauties pass,

Its wasted petals fall, alas!,
In one short hour. It may not bide.
Unkind in truth is Mother Earth
Since dawn gives such a flower its birth
And Death draws nigh at eventide.

So, sweet my darling, hear my voice,

I bid thee, in thy youth, rejoice!
Before thy fragile petals close
Gather thy blossoms whilst thou may,
With time they fall and fade away
As droops at night the withered rose.
 Religion.

F ROM that crude savage who, on Libyan sands,

Graves his barbaric god, and kneels thereto;
From those mysterious, matriarchal bands,
Eating strange flesh their spirit to renew
With fabled ancestors; from Austral lands
To Hyperborean solitudes, each age
Hath sought to fend its head from God’s dull rage
And stay the cosmic circling with clasped hands.

Yea, we no less! Doth man dare look away

Bravely as fits a man? With fear-sealed eyes,
Filling the spheres with vast, vague mysteries,
Man still must hearken some great angel’s wing,
Still bow to man-made God, still seek to stay
With claspèd hands the cosmic circling...
The Great Woods Were Awakening.
“Les grands bois s’éveillaient; il faisait jour à peine...”

Pradel.

T HE great woods were awakening. A new day

Was freshly born; enchanted birds among
The clear green foliage raised their matin song
To praise the morning-glow. Thought-sad I lay
Beneath a gnarlèd oak; despite that gay
Fresh springtide, all my soul was suffering.
I waited her, and lo! the rapid wing
Of fluttering footsteps brushed the dew away.

Drunken with pleasure in a long-locked kiss

Our breath enmingled. Tightening in my arms
That beautiful, supple form, her heart’s alarms
I stifled on my heart. The thicket drew
Close over us, the sun grew dark, I wis,
Earth faded, Heaven opened to our view...
 I-N-R-I.

W ITH bleeding brows beneath a thorn-meshed crown,

With swollen hands fast bound in leathern thong,
I saw One stand amid a surging throng
That spat on Him and strove to drag Him down.
On His bowed back the ridg’d welts scarlet lay
Traced long with bloody dew. His haggard face
Was streaked with sweat and blood, as in that place
He silent stood and silent gazed away.
Once more that One I saw, still garlanded
With mocking thorns. Through either bleeding hand
And through both patient feet a mangling nail
Was driven deep. Some cursed, some laughed, cried “Hail,
God crucified!...” And some crouched low in dread
And wept, and thunderous darkness filled the land...
Fayre Robyn.[B]
F AYRE ROBYN he rad owre the brae,
Hys steede he was a wighty browne;
The countrie a’ lay at hys back,
Hys eyen were to the toune.

Bauld Robyn owre the brae did ride,

Nor yet a Horde nor yerle was he,
But mae than ony nobleman
Hys fayreness was to see.

And Robyn rad adoun the brae,

And cam yth High Strete;
A gentil pace hys horse hadde
Whych was baith goode and meete.

The Shyreff’s dauter sate yth wane

And luikt out o’ the window round,
Therebye Robyn rad and sang,
A braw and pleasant sound.

She luikt upon hys goodely forme

He luikt a’ in hir deepe blue yee;
Robyn doft hys bonnet; a rose to hym
She dropit for replye.

Leeve may o meete me bye the yett,

And a’ taegither we will flie.
I’ll meete thee when the nyghte be com,
So ryde again soone bye.

She’s met hym when the nyghte was com,

And a’ taegither they hae fled,
Now gin the Shyreff com, most sure
They maun baith be dead.

The hae na gane a league, a league,

Al b l
A league nor barely ane,
When Robyn saith now by my bloode
They’re reasin a’ the toon.

They hae na gane anither league,

A league nor barely twa,
When they do heare a not ffar off
Some bernes that them pursue.

The be com unto a great roke;

Ye faith it was baith deepe and wide.
The Shyreff’s bernes byn sonygh
The maun plunge them in the tyde.

They’ve plunged them in the cauld water,

The spait was ful swift bye;
Now byr Ladye, quoth the may,
Methinks we baith maun dee.

They’ve plunged them into the cauld roke;

The hors they rade sank doun.
A’ yth black water then
The baith were neere to droune.

He bare hir firme in hys left arme

And swam a’ wi’ his right:
When the cam to yearth againe
The bernes byn in sight.

The bernes rad the roke along

And saw Robyn’s bonnet on the tide.
Now be the baith to bottom gane,
Ther may the bide!

The Shyreff turned him home again,

Turned back and went awaie,
But Robyn and His Ladye ffayre
Were wed the nextin daye
Were wed the nextin daye.
 Coeur de Femme.

I CANNOT think that woman love as we

Love them, with soul and body, breath and
blood,
And spent soul tortured in the strangling flood
Of passion’s tense oblivious agony;
I cannot think the kiss She gives to me
Thrills her white body as it pulses mine,
Or in Love’s chalice of ambrosial wine
She drowns all things which were or are to be.

We please them with our smile, for they are vain

And Love a flatterer is; they joy to fling
A rose-entwinèd leash about their slave;
Purple and gold they take, and winnowed grain
Of gems from Hesperus’ isle,—all men will bring;
But Love—lies bleeding by a woman’s grave!
BALLADES & RONDEAUX
Ballade of the Sick.
C AN these be men, that lie so still, so white?
Whose hopeless eyes yearn things they cannot
say?
Who scarce can part the daytime from the night
Save that the night drags heavier than the day?
Have these a listening God, to whom they pray?
God hears not such, nor cares, right well know I,
For nameless things I learn through long delay,
On this strait bed where I perforce must lie.
I learn of life-in-death; I learn the blight
Of seeing my soul and body slow decay,
Hemmed in with white-walled nothingness. The flight
Of vagrant flies, the sunlight’s sluggish way
Of crawling on—yes, even the shadows gray
Help tease the laggard moments loathly by.
Since great are none, small things my pain allay
On this strait bed where I perforce must lie.
I learn to see, nor shrink from any sight.
That deathmask yonder—carrion mass of clay—
Hath but a bleeding scrap of lung, to fight
The ghastly death that knows nor truce nor stay.
The Polack, old through pains that tear and flay,
Will go next sennight—how these swart folk die!
Last week they found one, waxen-cold for aye,
On this strait bed where I perforce must lie.

ENVOY

“This too will pass!” my comfort be alway.

Hell is forgot of them that chant on high;
Yet have I seen such things no man should say,
On this strait bed where I perforce must lie...
Three Rondeaux from Charles d’Orléans.
I.
LE TEMPS A LAISSIÉ SON MANTEAU.

Y E TIME hath lefte his mantle fall

Of biting windes and cold and rain,
And well hath dight himself again
In sunlight shining cleare on all;

Creatures be none, nor birds, but call

One to another their own refrain:
Ye time hath lefte his mantle fall
Of biting windes and cold and rain.

Fountaines and brooks moste musical

Their fayrest dress to wear be fain;
With silvern drops and golde, amain,
Each newlie decks hymself withall;
Ye time hath lefte his mantle fall.

II.
DIEU! QU’IL LA FAIT BON REGARDER!
 Ye Gods! How good on her to gaze,
All-gracious, fayre and sweet of mien;
Such virtues be in her y-seen
All men stand ready with their praise.

Who then could weary of her ways?

Her beautie flowereth ever green;
Ye Gods! How good on her to gaze,
All-gracious, fayre and sweet of mien.

This side or yon of Ocean’s maze

Nor dame nor damozel, I ween
So wholly parfaict yet hath been—
A dream, to think on her always:
Ye Gods! How good on her to gaze!...

III.
LES FOURRIERS D’ESTE SONT VENUS.
Ye maides in waiting all be here
Of Summertide, to deck her hall,
To hang her arras, woven all
With golden flowers and verdure clear;

To stretch her carpet far and near

Of soft green moss o’er stone and wall;
Ye maides in waiting all be here
Of Summertide, to deck her hall.

Hearts that but late were cold and drear

Now (prais’d be God!), their joy recall;
Come, come away, with snow-wrapped pall!
Out on thee, Winter, old and blear!
Ye maides in waiting all be here...
 The Song of the Poor.
“O Rois qui serez jugés à votre tour.”

Banville.
O KINGS, who must yourselves be judged one day,
Think of the wretched poor that ever stand
On Famine’s edge, and pity them! They pray
For you and love you; drudging till your land,
And, toiling, fill your coffers—they withstand
Your enemies; yet damned on earth they fare,
Woe infinite and endless pain they bear;
Not one there is but knows the keen distress
Of cold, of heat, and rain and ceaseless care,
For to the poor all things are bitterness.

Even as a beast of burden, scourged amain,

The wretched peasant lives his hopeless life.
Does he but pluck his grapes, or dare refrain
An hour from drudging toil, and choose a wife
To share the sorrow of his unequal strife,—
His lord, a savage bird of prey, draws nigh;
Relentless comes, and, saying “Here am I!”
Seizes what little he may chance possess.
Nothing avails the vassal’s pleading cry,
For to the poor all things are bitterness.

Pity the wretched jester in your halls!

Think on the fisher when the black waves curl
Their frothing tongues, and crackling lightning falls
On his frail boat! Pity the blue-eyed girl,
Lowly and dreaming, as her young hands whirl
The droning wheel! Think of a mother’s pain
And torment, as she weeps and seeks in vain,
Holding her fair dead child in blind distress,
To warm its cold heart back to life again.
O, to the poor all things are bitterness.

ENVOI.

Mercy for these thine own, oh Prince, I cry!

 e cy o t ese t e o , o ce, c y
Peace to thy vassal ’neath his darkened sky,
Peace to the pale nun, praying passionless,
And to all such as lowly live and die—
For to the poor all things are bitterness.
 Kyrielle.

N AY, not for me the toil and strife

Of ’Change, of war, of public life—
Than go with Fame, I’d rather stay
With books, and pipe and dear Edmée.

A little garden?... Well, perchance,

If weedless flowers, self-raising plants
Would grow therein, where I might stray
With books, and pipe and dear Edmée.

Horses and dogs?... Yes, I’d not mind

Were I but ever sure to find
An hour of peace, at close of day
With books, and pipe and dear Edmée.

Travel?... Of course! The Frank might stare,

The Russian rave, the Turk despair;
I none the less would them survey
With books, and pipe and dear Edmée.

But homeward-longing ever, I

Still for our low-built house would sign,
Where I might peaceful be for aye
With books, and pipe and dear Edmée.

Old books and many, pipe not new,

Edmée all mine, forever, too,
I’d love them all till I were grey,
But best and dearest, dear Edmée!...
 Rondeau.

T HY breast, dear Doris, ever be

All-hallowed, consecrate to me,
A rest where this my heart may go
Whatever tempests beat and blow;
A shelter that my soul may see
Though all the world speak grievously.
Warmed in its softness, dear, by thee,
My love shall sometime come to know
Thy breast.

And sometime, too, so reverently

Thou couldst not, Sweet, refuse my plea.
I’ll kiss the dimple that I know
Betwixt those little hills of snow
Waits, till my lips press passionately
Thy breast!...
When I First Saw Edmée
(Villanelle.)

W HEN I first saw Edmée

She was clad all in blue.
A cold colour, you say?

Yes, I thought so, that day,

And my hopes were but few
When I first saw Edmée;

Now, of azure array

I’ve quite altered my view—
A cold colour, you say?

Is the sky cold in May?

How little I knew,
When I first saw Edmée.

All the sweetness there lay

In the shade that means “true!”...
A cold colour, you say?

Ah, my heart’s quite away.

The sad moment I rue
When I first saw Edmée.
A cold colour, you say?...
 My Old Coat.
“Sois-moi fidèle, ô pauvre habit que j’aime.”

Béranger.
B E ever true to me, thou well-loved coat,
For we are growing old together now,
These ten long years I’ve brushed thee every day
Myself; great Socrates the Sage, I trow
Had not done better! And if remorseless Fate
Gnaw with sharp tooth that poor, thin cloth of thine,
Resist, say I, with calm philosophy,
Let us not part, thou dear old friend of mine!

How I recall—(for even now I’m bless’d

With a good memory!), that glad day of days
When first I wore thee! It was at my feast;
My friends to crown my glory, sang thy praise.
Thy poverty and age that honor me
Have not yet made their early love decline—
They’re ready still to feast us once again.
Let us not part, thou dear old friend of mine!

Have I perfumed thee with those floods of musk,

Which the vain fop exhales before his glass?
Have I exposed thee, waiting audience,
To scorn and laughter of the great who pass?
Just for a paltry ribbon, all fair wide France
Was rent apart, but simply I combine
A few sweet wild-flowers for thine ornament.
Let us not part, thou dear old friend of mine!...

Fear nevermore those days of struggling vain,

When the same lowly destiny was ours;
Those days of pleasure intermix’d with pain,
Of sunny sky o’ercast by April showers.
Soon comes the night, for evening shadows fall,
And soon forever must I my coat resign.
Wait yet a little, together we’ll end it all,
And never part, thou dear old friend of mine!...
A Pantoum.
H ERE I must lie on my bed,
Longing for health again.
Crazy thoughts whirl in my head,
Mix with that endless pain.

Longing for health again—

Dreams of walking once more
Mix with that endless pain.
Lying in bed is a bore!

Dreams of walking once more,

After these months of repression,
Lying in bed is a bore
Past any means of expression!

After these months of repression,

To wander, and study, and revel...
Past any means of expression,
Pain, you’re a villainous devil!

To wander, and study, and revel,

To eat, drink, and live like a man...
(Pain, you’re a villainous devil!...)
With never a doctor to ban—

To eat, drink, and live like a man,

To wander in meadow and wood,
With never a doctor to ban
Those things that I know to be good...

To wander in meadow and wood,

With Someone, enjoying October,
Those things that I know to be good,
The sky, be it sunny or sober.

With Someone, enjoying October,

T th t d th hill
 To see the gay trees and the hills,
The sky, be it sunny or sober,
With a curse on all doctors and pills...

To see the gay trees and the hills,

Hope is quick faded and fled.
With a curse on all doctors and pills,
Here I must lie on my bed!...
 When Doris Deigns.

W HEN Doris deigns to gaze on me

All happy thoughts be mine;
Her eyes are two twin stars, I wis,
Bright in my soul they shine;
No earth-born flower one half so fair
As she, no joy can aught compare
With my sweet fire of love, perdie,
When Doris deigns to gaze on me!

When Doris deigns to smile on me

The whole world brighter grows;
A clearer azure takes the sky,
A deeper blush the rose;
The circling lark upon the wing
A sweeter, purer song doth sing,
And just a bit of Heav’n I see,
When Doris deigns to smile on me!
THE YEAR
 Spring.
MAY EVENING.

S ILENCE and peace. The warm, love-bringing Night

From the pure zenith soft and slow descending
Lulls the sweet air to rest, with the day’s ending,
Save where the dark bat wheels his fickle flight.
Deep glows the rosy-golden West, still bright,
Beyond the plumy toss of elms down-bending,
Whilst on the close-cut lawns, blurring and bending,
Tall chapel-windows cast their ruddy light.

Now the clear blue of the mid dome of heaven

Darkens, immeasurably deep and still.
That one full star which ushers in the even
Burns in rapt glory o’er the steadfast spire;
And the Night-angel strews at his sweet will
The silvern star-dust of the heavenly choir.
 Summer.
AUGUST RAIN.

D EAD is the day, and through the list’ning leaves

The wind-dirge sighs. Sad at my dim-lit pane
I darkling sit to hear the pattering rain
And pebbly drip that plashes from the eaves.
Far in the misty fields loll sodden sheaves,
Whilst every wheel-mark in the rutty lane
Leads down its trickling rivulet to drain
Marsh-meadows where the knotted willow grieves.

Gray afternoon to dusk hath given place,

And dusk to silent darkness falls again.
Listless, to see the sad earth veil her face,
I watch the miry fields, the swollen rills,
And, farther, through my glimmering windowpane,
The rain-swept valley and the fading hills...
 Autumn
NOVEMBER IN CAMBRIDGE.

E VEN in her mourning is the College fair,

With burial robes of scarlet leaves and gold
That flicker down in misty morning cold
Or fall reluctant through gray evening air.
The Gothic elms rise desolately bare;
A clinging flame the twisted ivy crawls
Its blood-red course athwart the time-worn walls
And spreads its crimson arras everywhere.

High noon brings some wan ghost of summer, still;

Fresh stand the rose-trees yet, the lawns show green
With leaves inlaid, and still the pigeons fly
Round sun-warm gables where they court and preen;
But evenfall comes shuddering down, a-chill,
And bare black branches fret the leaden sky.
 Winter.
HAMPTON HOLIDAYS.

L AST comes December with his ruffian wind

Whirled from the maelstrom of the polar sea
To sweep our mighty hill in mockery
Of such enshrouding snows as would be kind
And wrap their frozen mother. Stiffly lined
Through thin and crackling ice the leaves lie stark
As hoar Caina’s ice-locked souls, and dark
In the dark air the branches toss and grind.

Then dawns another day when winds are still;

From our frost-flashing village on the hill
We greet the laggard sun, and far below
All down the valley see the silver spread,
Save where the dim fir-forest’s pungent bed
Lies thatched by tufted pine-plumes bright with snow.
MORS OMNIUM VICTOR
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