EET 319 - ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Credit Hours: 3
Prerequisite Course: Introduction to Analogue Electronics
Contact Hours: 45

Course Purpose
The purpose of this course is to provide students with a solid foundation in both analog and
digital electronics. By the end of the course, learners will understand different number systems,
codes, and the basics of digital electronics, as well as be able to design simple combinational and
sequential logic circuits.

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, students should be able to:
1. Explain the operation of basic logic gates:
o Understand the function and behavior of logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) and
how they form the building blocks of digital circuits.
2. Design simple combinational and sequential logic circuits:
o Utilize basic logic gates to create circuits like adders, multiplexers, and flip-flops.
3. Describe the characteristics and principles of operation of the p-n junction:
o Analyze the structure and behavior of p-n junctions in semiconductors.
4. Analyze and design simple diode circuits such as rectifiers and voltage regulators:
o Understand diode applications in power supplies and voltage regulation.

Course Content
1. Semiconductors and Diodes
• p-n Junction Diode Characteristics:
o Understanding the fundamental behavior of p-n junctions, diode operation, and
key characteristics like forward and reverse bias.
• Zener Diode Characteristics:
 o Operation of Zener diodes and their application in voltage regulation circuits.
• Diode Circuits:
o Half-wave and full-wave rectifiers: Design and operation of rectifier circuits for
converting AC to DC.
o Voltage Regulators: Zener diode-based voltage regulation techniques.

2. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)

• BJT Configurations:
o Overview of the common transistor configurations:
▪ Common Base (CB)
▪ Common Emitter (CE)
▪ Common Collector (CC) / Emitter Follower
• BJT Characteristics and Biasing:
o Understanding the behavior of BJTs in different configurations and learning how
to properly bias them for amplification and switching applications.

3. Logic Gates and Digital Circuits

• Basic Logic Gates:
o Symbols, truth tables, and operation of fundamental logic gates like AND, OR,
NOT, NOR, and XOR gates.
o Use of Integrated Circuit (IC) chips to implement logic gates.
• Combinational Circuits:
o Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
o Encoders and Decoders
o Adders and Subtractors

4. Sequential Logic and Memory Devices

• Memory Devices:
o Overview of memory technologies including:
 ▪ Read Only Memory (ROM)
▪ Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
▪ Random Access Memory (RAM)

Assessment Structure
• Continuous Assessment Test: 30%
• End of Semester Examination: 70%
• Total: 100%

Core Reading Materials

1. Shuqin Lou & Chunling Yang (2019). Digital Electronic Circuits: Principles and
Practices. De Gruyter.
2. Patrick, D. R., Fardo, S. W., & Chandra, V. (2008). Electronic Digital System
Fundamentals. Fairmont Press.
3. Ndjountche, T. (2016). Digital Electronics 1: Combinational Logic Circuits. John Wiley
& Sons, Incorporated.

Recommended Reading Materials

1. William H. Gothmann (1982). Digital Electronics: An Introduction to Theory and
Practice. Prentice-Hall, 2nd Edition.
2. Roger L. Tokheim (1999). Digital Electronics. McGraw-Hill Education, 5th Edition.
3. Puri (1997). Digital Electronics: Circuits and Systems. Tata McGraw-Hill.
 SEMICONDUCTORS & DIODES

Molecular arrangement in solids, liquids and gases are different. In gaseous substances, the
arrangement of molecules is not close. In liquids, the molecular arrangement is moderate and close
arrangement in solids.
In solids, the close arrangement of atoms leads to overlapping electron orbitals and the formation
of energy bands rather than discrete levels.
Due to the intermixing of atoms in solids, instead of single energy levels, there will be bands of
energy levels formed.
These set of energy levels, which are closely packed, are called Energy bands.
The two main types of energy bands are the valence band and the conduction band.
1. Valence Band: This band is composed of the highest energy range of electrons that are tightly
bound to atoms. Electrons in the valence band are not free to move around and contribute to the
electrical conduction of the material.
2. Conduction Band: This band lies above the valence band and contains energy levels that
electrons can move into when provided with sufficient energy. Electrons in the conduction band
are relatively free to move through the material and contribute to its electrical conductivity.
Forbidden gap: The forbidden gap (also called band gap) is the energy range between the
valence band and conduction band where no electron states exist. Electrons must gain enough
energy to jump across the forbidden gap to move from the valence to conduction band. The larger
the forbidden gap, the more tightly bound the electrons are to the nuclei. More energy is needed to
excite electrons across a larger forbidden gap. The size of forbidden gap determines electrical
properties whether conductors, insulators, or semiconductors.

Band theory explains the electrical conductivity differences between metals, insulators and
semiconductors based on their:
• bandgap size
• electron freedom.
Classification of Solids Based on Energy Band Theory:
1. Conductors: In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap, allowing electrons to
move freely from the valence band to the conduction band with minimal energy input. This results
in excellent electrical conductivity. Metals are prime examples of conductors.
2. Insulators: Insulators have a lager bandgap between the valence and conduction bands.
Electrons are firmly bound in the valence band, and the energy required to move them to the
conduction band is high. Insulators have very low electrical conductivity. Non-metals like rubber,
glass, and ceramics are typical insulators.
3. Semiconductors: Semiconductors have a smaller bandgap between the valence and conduction
bands. Electrons can jump to conduction bands with sufficient energy. This leads to some
conductivity, which can be enhanced by doping (adding impurities to the crystal lattice).
Semiconductors are crucial components in electronic devices like transistors, diodes, and
integrated circuits.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors:

• Doping semiconductors allows enhancing their conductivity by adding impurities to the
crystal lattice.
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are pure semiconductor materials, typically elements from
Group IV of the periodic table (such as silicon or Germanium), with a small energy gap between
the valence and conduction bands. At room temperature, a few electrons can still gain enough
energy to move to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs. This generates a small level
of electrical conductivity.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors: Extrinsic semiconductors are created by intentionally introducing
impurities into the crystal lattice of intrinsic semiconductors. This process is called doping and is
done to modify the electrical properties of the semiconductor. There are two main types of extrinsic
semiconductors:
- N-type: Doping with elements from Group V (e.g., phosphorus) introduces extra electrons
into the crystal lattice, creating excess negative charge carriers (electrons) in the material.
- P-type: Doping with elements from Group III (e.g., boron) introduces "holes" (electron
vacancies) in the crystal lattice, creating excess positive charge carriers (holes) in the material.
Extrinsic semiconductors with controlled levels of doping are used to create semiconductor
devices with specific electrical characteristics, forming the basis of modern electronics.
DIODES
A diode is a semiconductor device, made from a small piece of semiconductor material, such as
silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region with a PN junction
and depletion region in between. The P-region is called the anode and N-region is called the
cathode. It conducts current in one direction and offers high resistance in the other direction. The
basic diode structure and symbol are shown below.

Diode structure Diode Symbol

P-type and N-type Diodes

P-type Diode: In a P-type semiconductor, there are "holes" (positively charged carriers) as the
majority charge carriers. This type of semiconductor is created by doping a pure semiconductor
material (usually silicon or Germanium) with trivalent impurities like boron.
N-type Diode: In an N-type semiconductor, there are excess electrons as the majority charge
carriers. This type of semiconductor is created by doping the pure semiconductor material with
pentavalent impurities like phosphorus or arsenic.
PN Junction diode
When a P-type semiconductor is brought into contact with an N-type semiconductor, a PN junction
is formed. At the junction, a diffusion of charge carriers occurs. Electrons from the N-type region
diffuse into the P-type region, and holes from the P-type region diffuse into the N-type region.
This diffusion establishes a region of charge carriers near the junction called the depletion region,
which lacks free charge carriers.
Biasing
Bias is the application of a dc voltage to a diode to make it either conduct or block current. It can
be forward or reverse.
No Bias
There is No an external potential applied to the junction, different components of charge carriers
could be transported in both regions.
Two types of the majority carriers are available in the junction: electrons in the N-type region and
holes in the P-type region.
The minority carriers in the P-type and N-type regions are electrons and holes, respectively.
Forward Bias
Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the PN junction.
The PN-junction is forward biased:
➢ A positive-voltage terminal is connected to the P-type region.
➢ A negative -voltage terminal is connected to the N-type region.
The depletion region is narrowed because the majority carries, which are electrons in the N-type
and holes in the P-type, are forced to diffuse in the opposite directions.
When the applied potential is more than the built-in-potential, a forward current can pass through
the circuit.

Reverse Bias
The PN-junction is reversed biased when:
➢ A negative -voltage terminal is connected to the P-type region.
➢ A positive-voltage terminal is connected to the N-type region.
The applied potential is less than the built-in-potential.
The minority carriers will drift towards the P-type region and N-type region.
This process continues until thermal equilibrium occurs on both sides of the junction.
This bias gives rise to an increase in thickness of the depletion region.
A very small current can pass from the N-Type region to the P-type region, which is referred to as
a reverse current (𝐼𝑅) and can be ignored.
I-V characteristics of the PN Junction Diode
IV characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the
circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis.
Three different regions are seen: forward and reverse region.
• At point A: the forward current is zero at zero-bias condition. In zero bias conditions, no
external voltage is applied to the PN junction (the circuit is open) Hence, the potential
barrier at the junction does not permit current flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero at
V=0 V, as indicated by point A in the figure below.
• At point B: The current increases slightly until it reaches approximately 0.7 V at the knee
of the curve. After point B, the change in the forward voltage becomes not noticeable. The
external voltage applied to the PN junction is used in overcoming the potential barrier.
• At point C: the forward current increases rapidly. The potential barrier has been eliminated
and the diode acts as a conductor and thus the current increases rapidly.
The forward voltage at point C is approximately equal to the built-in voltage.
At zero-bias condition, the reverse current is strongly diminished.
In reverse bias condition, anode is connected to the negative terminal and cathode to the positive
terminal of the external voltage. This results in an increased potential barrier at the junction
resulting in practically no current flowing through the circuit.
The reverse bias applied to the PN junction acts as a forward bias to their minority carriers and
hence, small current flows in the reverse direction.
If the applied reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of the minority carriers
may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductor atom.
At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur. This is characterized by a sudden increase of
reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier region. This may destroy the junction
permanently.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a special type of semiconductor diode which is designed to operate in the
breakdown region.
It also has two terminals called anode and cathode.
The Zener diode is constructed by joining a highly doped p-type semiconductor material with a
highly doped n-type semiconductor material.
Therefore, in case of a Zener diode, the concentration of charge carriers (holes and electrons) is
relatively higher than that of an ordinary PN junction diode. The circuit symbol for a Zener diode
is shown below.

A Zener diode behaves as a normal PN junction diode in the forward bias, but also operates in the
reverse direction when the voltage across it reaches the Zener voltage.
When the reverse voltage across the Zener diode becomes equal to the Zener voltage, the
breakdown of the depletion region takes place called Zener breakdown and thus starts
conducting in the reverse direction also.
Therefore, the Zener diode can conduct in both forward and reverse directions. It is widely used
as a voltage regulator in electronic circuits.
V-I characteristics of a Zener diode

• The V-I curve represents the relationship between the current flowing through the diode
and the voltage across it.
• In the forward bias region (first quadrant), the Zener diode behaves like a standard diode,
allowing current to flow through it. However, due to heavier doping, the current is higher
compared to a normal diode.
• In the reverse bias region (third quadrant), the diode remains non-conductive until the
reverse voltage reaches a critical value known as the Zener voltage (VZ).
• The Zener voltage is the point where significant current begins to flow through the diode
in reverse. This occurs after the reverse voltage exceeds VZ.
• Below this breakdown voltage (VZ), only a small reverse leakage current flows. However,
once the reverse voltage surpasses VZ, the diode undergoes breakdown, allowing a large
current to flow despite increasing reverse bias voltage.
 • In this breakdown region, the voltage across the diode remains clamped at VZ, while the
reverse current increases with rising input voltage. This clamping effect is a key feature of
Zener diodes.
• Importantly, the depletion region returns to its original state once the reverse bias is
removed, ensuring that the diode is not damaged by the large breakdown current.
• Due to its ability to maintain a constant voltage at VZ during breakdown, Zener diodes are
widely used for voltage regulation. They are essential components in voltage stabilizers
and various protection circuits.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

A Zener diode is widely used as a voltage regulator to maintain a constant output voltage across
a load, even when the input voltage or load conditions vary. This application leverages the Zener
diode's ability to operate in reverse breakdown mode.
How a Zener Diode Regulates Voltage:
When reverse biased, a Zener diode exhibits a unique behavior after a certain threshold called the
Zener breakdown voltage (VZ).
Once the input voltage reaches or exceeds this breakdown voltage, the Zener diode allows current
to flow in reverse, while the voltage across it remains constant at VZ. This is how it maintains a
stable output voltage.
In a typical Zener diode voltage regulator:
• A series resistor (RS) is connected in series with the Zener diode to limit the current
through the diode.
• The input voltage (VS) is applied across the combination of the series resistor and the Zener
diode.
• The stabilized output voltage is taken across the Zener diode and load resistor (RL).
The Zener diode is reverse biased, meaning the cathode is connected to the positive terminal of
the voltage supply and the anode to the negative terminal.

Current Limiting by Resistor (RS):

The resistor RS serves a critical role in controlling the current flowing through the Zener diode:
• It limits the current through the diode, preventing it from exceeding the Zener diode’s
maximum current rating.
 • With no load connected (i.e., IL = 0), all the current flows through the Zener diode. The
value of RS needs to be selected carefully to ensure the diode doesn't exceed its maximum
power dissipation when there is no load.
If the series resistor RS is too small, it will result in excessive current flowing through the Zener
diode, potentially causing it to overheat and exceed its power rating.
Thus, RS must be chosen to ensure that the Zener current (IZ) remains within safe limits, even
when the load is disconnected or has a high impedance.

Voltage Regulation (Output Voltage):

The load resistor RL is connected in parallel with the Zener diode. Therefore, the voltage across
the load will always be the Zener voltage (VZ), even if the input voltage (VS_SS) varies. This is
because:
• The Zener diode maintains a constant voltage (VZ) across itself in the breakdown region.
• The current flowing through the load resistor RL will vary depending on the load
conditions, but the voltage across RL will stay constant as long as the Zener diode remains
in breakdown.
Working Principle:
1. Normal Operation (Vin<VZ):
o When the input voltage (Vin) is less than the Zener breakdown voltage (VZ), the
Zener diode behaves like an open circuit (no current flows through it), and the
output voltage will be less than VZ.
2. Zener Breakdown Mode (Vin ≥ VZ):
o When Vin reaches or exceeds VZ, the Zener diode goes into breakdown mode and
starts conducting in reverse.
o The voltage across the Zener diode stays fixed at the Zener breakdown voltage (VZ
), regardless of any further increase in Vin.
o The series resistor (Rs) drops the excess voltage, ensuring that the output voltage
remains regulated at VZ.

Power Dissipation:
The power dissipated by the Zener diode is a crucial factor in its operation. The power is given by
the product of the Zener voltage and the Zener current:
𝑃𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 × 𝐼𝑍
Example No1
A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required to be produced from a 12V DC power supply input
source. The maximum power rating PZ of the Zener diode is 2W. Using the Zener regulator circuit
above calculate:
a). The maximum current flowing through the Zener diode.

b). The minimum value of the series resistor, RS

c). The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the zener diode.
d). The zener current IZ at full load.

EXAMPLE 2
For the circuit shown in Figure below, find:
(i) The output voltage
(ii) The voltage drop across series resistance
(iii) current through the series resistance
(iii) The current through Zener diode.
 POWER SUPPLY: RECTIFICATION

Rectification is the process of turning an alternating current waveform into a direct current
waveform.
It is crucial to the operation of modern electronic circuits. Most electronic devices such as a TV or
computer require a fixed, unchanging DC voltage to power their internal circuitry.
In contrast, residential and commercial power distribution is normally AC.
Half-wave rectifier
A halfwave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC voltage
waveform to pass while blocking the other half cycle.
It is the simplest form of rectifying and requires only one diode for the construction.
A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:
A diode
A transformer
A resistive load
It is shown below.

The circuit can be simplified by replacing the transformer coils with the voltage source.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
The following is a step-by-step description of how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.
1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The obtained
secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, acting like a
closed switch. Consequently, all of the input signal will drop across the resistor.
3. The diode reverse biased during the negative half cycle Therefore, the diode acts as an open
switch. The circulating current drops to zero thereby producing no voltage across the
resistor.
4. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:

The half-wave rectifier waveform can be simplified as follows.

Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter
The output waveform of a halfwave rectifier is a pulsating DC waveform.
Filters in halfwave rectifiers are used to transform the pulsating waveform into constant
DC waveforms.
A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter.
To produce a constant DC voltage, we need to suppress the ripples of a DC voltage. This
can be achieved by using either a capacitor filter or an inductor filter at the output side.

Characteristics of a half-wave rectifier

Ripple factor
The direct current (DC) produced by a half wave rectifier is not pure DC but a pulsating DC. In
the output pulsating DC signal, we find ripples. These ripples in the output DC signal can be
reduced by using filters such capacitors and inductors.
To measure how much ripples are there in the output DC signal we use a factor known as ripple
factor. The ripple factor is denoted by γ.
The ripple factor tells us the amount of ripples present in the output DC signal.
A large ripple factor indicates a high pulsating DC signal while a low ripple factor indicates a low
pulsating DC signal.

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝛾 = √( ) −1 = 1.21
𝐼𝑑𝑐

DC current
The DC current is given by:
 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum DC load current.

Output DC voltage (VDC)
The output DC voltage (VDC) is the voltage that appears at the load resistor (RL). This voltage is
obtained by multiplying the output DC current with load resistance RL.
It can be mathematically written as,
VDC = IDC RL
It is given by:
𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋
𝑉𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum secondary voltage.
Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of load current in a half wave rectifier is.
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
2
Root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage VRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a half wave rectifier is
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
2 𝐿
Rectification Efficiency
The rectification efficiency of the half-wave rectifier can be obtained using the following formula:
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂=
𝑃𝑎𝑐
The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 40.6%.

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Here are a few common applications of half wave rectifiers:
They are used for signal demodulation purposes.
They are used for rectification applications.
 They are used for signal peak applications.
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
Power loss
Low output voltage
The output contains a lot of ripples.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

The full wave rectifier converts both halves of each waveform cycle into pulsating DC signal using
four rectification diodes.
Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or current which
is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have some fundamental
advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts.
The average (DC) output voltage is higher than for half wave.
The output of the full wave rectifier has much less ripple than that of the half wave rectifier
producing a smoother output waveform.
There are two ways to implement a full wave rectifier
1. Center-tap full wave rectifier.
2. Full wave Bridge rectifier.
The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
This type of single-phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop
“bridge” configuration to produce the desired output.
It is shown below.

Positive Half cycle

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle.
 During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown
below.

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased.
The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

The waveforms are as follows.

Full Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
We can improve the average DC output of the rectifier while at the same time reducing the
AC variation of the rectified output by using smoothing capacitors to filter the output
waveform.
Smoothing or reservoir capacitors connected in parallel with the load across the output of
the full wave bridge rectifier circuit increases the average DC output level even higher as
the capacitor acts like a storage device.
The circuit and the waveform are shown below.

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more
smooth DC output voltage

Characteristics of a full-wave rectifier

Ripple factor

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝛾 = √( ) −1 = 0.48
𝐼𝑑𝑐
DC current
The DC current is given by:
2 ∙ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝐷𝐶 =
𝜋

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum DC load current.

Output DC voltage (VDC)
It can be mathematically written as,
2∙𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝐷𝐶 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
𝜋

Root mean square (RMS) value of load current IRMS

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 =
√2
Root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage VRMS
The root mean square (RMS) value of output load voltage in a half wave rectifier is
𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿
√2
Rectification Efficiency
The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier can be obtained using the following formula:
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂=
𝑃𝑎𝑐
The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.

Applications
They are used for identifying the amplitude of modulating radio signal.
Full wave bridge rectifiers are sued in a power supply circuit for different applications.
They are used in mobile phones, laptops, and charger circuits.
They are used in UPS to convert AC into DC.
Advantages
They have higher efficiency than half-wave rectifiers.
There is no loss in output power since they utilize both half cycles and no voltage signal
is wasted in the rectification process.
 They have less ripple factor.
Disadvantages
They need more circuit elements than half wave rectifiers which make them complex and
tends to occupy a lot of space.
They are more expensive than half-wave rectifiers.
 TRANSISTORS

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor that uses both electron and hole
charge carriers.
The term bipolar comes from the fact that there are two types of charge carriers (electrons and
holes) that play part in conductions.
Accordingly, there are two types of transistors, namely.
• NPN: where the majority charge carriers are electrons.
• PNP: where the majority charge carriers are holes.
It has three regions: the Emitter (E), Base (B), and Collector (C).
The BJT can function as a switch (on/off control) or as an amplifier (to increase the strength of
weak signals).
It operates by controlling the current flowing between the collector and emitter terminals through
a small current applied to the base terminal.
An NPN transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of p-
type.

A PNP transistor is formed by two p-sections separated by a thin section of n-type.

In each type of transistor, the following points may be noted:
(i) These layers form two PN junctions (Emitter-Base junction and Collector-Base
junction), which are essential for transistor operation. Therefore, a transistor may be
regarded as a combination of two diodes connected back-to-back.

(ii) There are three terminals, one taken from each type of semiconductor.
(iii) The middle section is a very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the function
of a transistor.

Transistor Terminals
Transistors, whether BJT or FET, have three terminals:
Base (B)
• The base is the central region of a BJT and is a thin, lightly doped semiconductor layer. It
controls the operation of the transistor.
• The base acts as the control terminal. A small current injected into the base controls the
larger current flowing between the collector and the emitter.
• In an NPN transistor, the base is P-type, and in a PNP transistor, it is N-type.
Emitter (E)
• The emitter is the region from which charge carriers (electrons in an NPN, holes in a PNP)
are emitted into the base.
 • It is heavily doped to increase carrier injection efficiency and is responsible for providing
the charge carriers necessary for current conduction.
• The emitter current (IE) is the sum of the collector current and the base current.
Collector (C)
• The collector is the region that collects the charge carriers from the base after they have
passed through it.
• It is moderately doped and larger in size compared to the emitter to dissipate heat
effectively.
• The collector current (IC) is the output current and is primarily controlled by the base
current.

Transistor Action
In normal operation the base-emitter junction of a transistor is forward biased, and the collector
base junction is reverse biased.
The base region is made very narrow so that carriers are swept across it from emitter to collector
so that only a relatively small current flows in the base.
The current flowing in the emitter circuit is typically 100 times greater than that flowing in the
base.
The direction of conventional current flow is from emitter to collector for a PNP transistor, and
collector to emitter in the case of an NPN device.
The current flows are shown below.
The equation that relates the current flow in the collector, base and the emitter is:
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
Transistor Configurations
There are three terminals in transistor viz., emitter, base, and collector terminals.
However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require four terminals: two for the
input and two for the output.
This difficulty is overcome by making one terminal of the transistor common to both input and
output terminals.
The input is fed between this common terminal and one of the other two terminals. The output is
obtained between the common terminal and the remaining terminal.
Accordingly, a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three ways:
(i) common base connection
(ii) common emitter connection
(iii)common collector connection
Common Base connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output is taken from
collector and base.
Here, the base of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common base connection.
Emitter current amplification factor (𝜶)
It is the ratio of output current to input current. In a common base connection, the input current is
the emitter current IE and output current is the collector current IC.
𝐼𝐶
𝛼=
𝐼𝐸
𝑉𝑅𝐶
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑉𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐸 =
𝑅𝐸
𝑉𝐵𝐸 is approximately 0.7V for Silicon and 0.3V for a Germanium transistor.
This value is less than unity.
Practical values of α in commercial transistors range from 0.9 to 0.99.
Examples
1. In a common base connection, IE = 1mA, IC = 0.95mA. Calculate the value of IB.
2. In a common base connection, the current amplification factor is 0.9. If the emitter current is
1mA, determine the value of base current.
3. In a common base connection, IC = 0.95 mA, and IB = 0.05 mA. Find the value of α.
4. In a common base connection, the emitter current is 1mA. If the emitter circuit is open, the
collector current is 50 µA. Find the total collector current. Given that α = 0.92
5. In a common base connection in the figure below α = 0.95. The voltage drop across 2 kΩ
resistance which is connected in the collector is 2V. Find the base current.

Common Emitter Connection

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from the
collector and emitter.
Here, the emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence the name
common emitter connection.
The circuit is as follows.

Current amplification factor (𝜷)

In a common emitter connection, the input current is the base current IB and output current is the
collector current IC.
𝐼𝐶
𝛽=
𝐼𝐵
 𝑉𝑅𝐶
𝐼𝐶 =
𝑅𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶
In almost any transistor, less than 5% of emitter current flows as the base current. Therefore, the
value of β is generally greater than 20. Usually, its value ranges from 20 to 500
Relation between β and α
𝛼
𝛽=
1−𝛼
Assignment
1. Derive the relation between β and α from the transistor currents.
𝐼
Hint: use 𝛽 = 𝐼 𝐶 and 𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶 .
𝐵

2. Find the value of β if (i) α = 0.9 (ii) α = 0.98 (iii) α = 0.99

3. Find the α rating of the transistor shown in Figure below. Hence determine the value of IC using
both α and β rating of the transistor

4. A transistor is connected in common emitter (CE) configuration in which collector supply is 8V

and the voltage drop across resistance RC connected in the collector circuit is 0.5V. The value of
RC = 800 Ω. If α = 0.96, determine: (i) collector-emitter voltage (ii) base current
Common Collector connection
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while output is taken
between the emitter and collector. Here, the transistor collector is common to both input and output
circuits and hence the name common collector connection.

The circuit is shown below.

Current amplification factor 𝜸. In common collector circuit, input current is the base current IB
and output current is the emitter current IE.
 𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
𝐼𝐵
Relation between γ and α
1
𝛾=
1−𝛼
Comparison of Transistor Connections
The comparison of various characteristics of the three connections is given below in the tabular
form.

Commonly use Transistor Connection

Out of the three transistor connections, the common emitter circuit is the most efficient.
It is used in about 90 to 95 per cent of all transistor applications.
The main reasons for the widespread use of this circuit arrangement are:
High current gain: The collector current IC is the output current and IB is the input current.
In this circuit arrangement, collector current is given by:
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
As the value of β is very large, therefore, the output current, IC is much more than the input
current IB. Hence, the current gain in CE arrangement is very high. It may range from 20
to 500.
High voltage and power gain. Due to high current gain, the common emitter circuit has the
highest voltage and power gain of three transistor connections.