SCIENCE-REVIEWER-Q2
SCIENCE-REVIEWER-Q2
particle characteristics.
Introduction
o Schrödinger developed a mathematical
At the beginning of the 20th century, quantum mechanics
wave function to describe electrons.
emerged as a new field of study.
Key Features:
Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, was one of its founders.
Wave function (atomic orbital): Describes the
o He focused on explaining the discrete line spectrum
motion and probability of finding an electron.
observed in light emitted by elements.
Electron cloud (electron density): The area of high
o He was also interested in the atom's structure, a
probability for locating an electron.
debated topic at the time.
Quantum numbers: Describe each electron’s orbital
Early atomic models included:
size, shape, orientation, and spin.
o J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron.
Differences from Bohr's Model:
o Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the nucleus. Bohr: Electrons move in circular orbits.
Bohr supported the planetary model, likening electrons Schrödinger: Electrons occupy orbitals (not orbits)
to: described by wave functions.
o Rings around Saturn.
o Electrons do not move in circular orbits. o Two possible values: +1/2 or -1/2.
o The Bohr model paved the way for the o Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite
quantum mechanical model. spins.
By the 1920s, it was clear the Bohr model was Key Principles:
incorrect.
Pauli Exclusion Principle:
New approach introduced by Louis Victor De Broglie
o No two electrons in an atom can have the
and Erwin Schrödinger:
same set of quantum numbers.
o Limits orbitals to two electrons. Types of Chemical Bonding
o Electrons fill orbitals starting from the A bond is a force that holds groups of two or more
lowest energy level. atoms together, allowing them to function as a unit.
Orbital capacities:
Ionic Bonding
o s-subshell: Max 2 electrons.
Example:
o p-subshell: Max 6 electrons.
o Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water,
o d-subshell: Max 10 electrons. creating a solution that conducts electricity.
o f-subshell: Max 14 electrons. o Chemists conclude that NaCl is composed of
Example: Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
o Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁵ Sodium (Na) reacts with chlorine (Cl) to form Na⁺ and Cl⁻
ions.
o Process:
Chemical Bonding Reviewer
Electrons are transferred from sodium
atoms to chlorine atoms, forming
oppositely charged ions.
Lesson I: Introduction
These ions aggregate to form solid NaCl.
The world around us is composed almost entirely of
compounds and mixtures of compounds. Properties of Ionic Compounds:
o Examples: Rocks, coal, soil, petroleum, trees, and o High melting points (e.g., NaCl melts at ~800°C).
even humans are all complex mixtures of chemical
o Strong bonding forces due to closely packed,
compounds where different atoms are bound
together. oppositely charged ions.
The way atoms are bound together significantly impacts o Typically formed when:
the chemical and physical properties of substances. A metal reacts with a nonmetal.
o Example: Graphite and Diamond
Graphite:
Diamond:
o Why the difference? A bonding force develops when two identical atoms
react.
Different ways the carbon atoms are bound in
these substances. o Example: Two hydrogen atoms form a hydrogen
molecule (H₂).
Importance of Bonding:
The two electrons are attracted
o Molecular bonding and structure play a central role simultaneously by both nuclei.
in determining chemical reactions, many of which
are vital for survival. The electron probability increases
between the nuclei, indicating shared
o To understand natural materials' behavior, we must electrons.
grasp the nature of chemical bonding and the
factors controlling compound structures.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Lesson: Week 3, I
Electrons are shared equally between identical In this lesson, we will understand how ions are formed from
atoms (e.g., H₂). their parent atoms and learn to name them. Additionally, we
will explore how the periodic table can predict which ion a
Polar Covalent Bond:
given element forms.
Involves unequal sharing of electrons.
o Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds. o Invented by Filipina Engr. Aisa Mijeno.
o Covalent bonds between sulfur and rubber Provides 8 hours of light and powers a USB port
molecules lead to vulcanized rubber. for charging phones.
Conductivity in Substances:
Pure Water:
Definition:
Characteristics:
Common Anions
o Highly reactive species.
Element Symbol Ion Name
o Found mostly in the gaseous state and not
abundant on Earth. Fluorine F⁻ Fluoride ion
o Liquid or solid ions are produced when salts interact Bromine Br⁻ Bromide ion
with solvents.
Iodine I⁻ Iodide ion
o Ions are:
Oxygen O²⁻ Oxide ion
Repelled by like charges.
Sulfur S²⁻ Sulfide ion
Attracted to opposite charges.
Na → Na⁺ + e⁻
Ionic Compounds
o Example: Chloride ion (Cl⁻). Carbon atoms are small and can bond with other
carbon atoms almost infinitely, contributing to the
vast number of organic compounds.
Carbon’s Unique Bonding Properties:
Used as a lubricant and in steel production o Found in meteorites; harder than diamond.
(coke). 4. Buckyballs (C60, C540, C70):
The material in pencils is graphite. o Structure like a soccer ball, able to trap
o Diamond: other atoms.
Transparent and colorless, does not conduct o Created in incomplete combustion; used in
electricity. inks, paints, rubber.
o White Carbon: Discovered in 1969, transparent and o Very strong, can conduct electricity, and
splits light beams; very little is known about this heat.
form.
o Six electrons, four available for bonding. o Carbon is always present in organic
compounds.
o Carbon forms single, double, or triple bonds
with other atoms. o Inorganic compounds do not contain both
carbon and hydrogen.
Example:
o Methane (CH₄):
III. General Classes of Organic Compounds and Their Uses
H
Organic Compounds form the basis for life and are
|
studied in organic chemistry and biochemistry.
H-C-H
Important Organic Compounds:
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o Carbohydrates
H
o Lipids
o Ball-and-Stick Model: H-C-H, with each
o Proteins
carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
o Nucleic Acids
Types of Lipids:
II. Observation of Organic vs Inorganic Compounds
o Triglycerides (fats, oils, waxes)
Organic Compounds contain:
o Steroids
o Carbon, and commonly Hydrogen and
Oxygen. o Phospholipids
o Sometimes also include other elements like Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats:
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus.
o Saturated Fats: No double bonds in fatty
Inorganic Compounds: acids, solid at room temperature, generally
unhealthy.
o Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and
salts like Na₂SO₄ are inorganic because they o Unsaturated Fats: Contain double bonds,
don't meet the criteria for organic liquid at room temperature, considered
compounds. healthier.
Functions of Lipids: Advances in medicine have enabled doctors to cure many
diseases and save lives.
o Energy Storage: Long-term energy storage.
These days, medicines come from a variety of sources:
o Waterproofing: Form protective coatings.
o Many were developed from substances found in
nature.
VI. Proteins o Even today, many medicines are extracted from
Definition: Composed of chains of amino acids called plants.
polypeptides. o Some medicines are made in labs by mixing
Elements: Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, together several chemicals.
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur, phosphorus, iron, o Some medicines, like penicillin, are byproducts of
copper, or magnesium.
organisms, such as fungi.
Functions of Proteins:
o A few medicines are biologically engineered by
1. Structure: Build cellular structures. inserting genes into bacteria, causing them to
produce the desired substance.
2. Transport: Control substances entering and leaving
cells. When thinking about taking medicines, we often think of
pills. However, medicines can be delivered in various
3. Defense: Fight diseases. forms:
4. Enzyme Activity: Catalyze biochemical reactions. o Liquids that are swallowed
5. Genetic Material Replication: Help replicate genetic o Drops that are put into ears or eyes
material.
o Creams, gels, or ointments that are rubbed onto
Examples of Proteins: the skin
o Hemoglobin (in blood) o Inhalers (e.g., nasal sprays or asthma inhalers)
o Collagen o Patches that are stuck to the skin (called
o Insulin transdermal patches)
One mole of a substance contains 6.022 × 10²³ units of o Carbon: 1 atom of carbon × 12.01 g/mol =
that substance. For example: 12.01 g/mol
o One mole of carbon contains 6.022 × 10²³ o Hydrogen: 4 atoms of hydrogen × 1.008
carbon atoms. g/mol = 4.032 g/mol
o One mole of water contains 6.022 × 10²³ water o Molar mass of CH₄:
molecules.
This is similar to how a dozen refers to 12 items. A mole Example 2: Calculate the molar mass of sulfur dioxide
of something refers to 6.022 × 10²³ units of that (SO₂).
substance.
o The chemical formula for sulfur dioxide is
IV. Example of Mole Concept in Action SO₂.
Example: How many molecules are there in 4.0 o Sulfur: 1 atom of sulfur × 32.07 g/mol =
moles of CO₂ (carbon dioxide)? 32.07 g/mol
o 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules of CO₂. o Oxygen: 2 atoms of oxygen × 16.00 g/mol =
32.00 g/mol
o
V. Calculating Moles and Number of Atoms