The Quantum Mechanical Model o Proposed electrons exhibit both wave and

particle characteristics.
Introduction
o Schrödinger developed a mathematical
 At the beginning of the 20th century, quantum mechanics
wave function to describe electrons.
emerged as a new field of study.
Key Features:
 Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, was one of its founders.
 Wave function (atomic orbital): Describes the
o He focused on explaining the discrete line spectrum
motion and probability of finding an electron.
observed in light emitted by elements.
 Electron cloud (electron density): The area of high
o He was also interested in the atom's structure, a
probability for locating an electron.
debated topic at the time.
 Quantum numbers: Describe each electron’s orbital
 Early atomic models included:
size, shape, orientation, and spin.
o J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron.
Differences from Bohr's Model:
o Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the nucleus.  Bohr: Electrons move in circular orbits.
 Bohr supported the planetary model, likening electrons  Schrödinger: Electrons occupy orbitals (not orbits)
to: described by wave functions.
o Rings around Saturn.

o Planets orbiting the Sun.

Our Solar System Model Quantum Numbers and Orbitals

 Planets revolving around the sun serve as an analogy 1. Principal Quantum Number (n):
for Bohr’s planetary model.
o Describes the size and energy of the orbital.
o Fig. 1: Solar System Model.
o Positive integers (1, 2, 3...).

o Smaller n: Lower energy, closer to the nucleus.

The Bohr Model of the Atom
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l):
 In 1911, at age 25, Niels Bohr received his Ph.D. in
Physics. o Describes the orbital's shape.

 Bohr's initial concept: o Values range from 0 to (n - 1).

o The atom has a small positive nucleus with o Orbital shapes:

electrons orbiting around it.
 l = 0: Spherical s-orbital.
o Electrons move in circular orbits corresponding
 l = 1: Hourglass-shaped p-orbital.
to allowed energy levels.
 l = 2: Various shapes d-orbital.
o Electrons jump between orbits by absorbing or
emitting photons with specific energy.  l = 3: Complex shapes f-orbital.
 Successes: Fig. 4: Orbital shapes.
o Bohr's model accurately explained the 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m):
hydrogen atom.
o Describes orbital orientation.
 Limitations:
o Values range from -l to +l.
o The model failed for atoms other than
hydrogen. o Example: For l = 3, possible m values: -3, -2, -1,
0, +1, +2, +3.
o Further experiments showed the Bohr model
was fundamentally incorrect. 4. Spin Quantum Number (ms):

 Key realization: o Describes the electron's spin direction.

o Electrons do not move in circular orbits. o Two possible values: +1/2 or -1/2.

o The Bohr model paved the way for the o Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite
quantum mechanical model. spins.

The Wave Mechanical Model of the Atom Electron Configuration

 By the 1920s, it was clear the Bohr model was Key Principles:
incorrect.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle:
 New approach introduced by Louis Victor De Broglie
o No two electrons in an atom can have the
and Erwin Schrödinger:
same set of quantum numbers.
 o Limits orbitals to two electrons. Types of Chemical Bonding

 Aufbau Principle: Definition of a Chemical Bond:

o Electrons fill orbitals starting from the  A bond is a force that holds groups of two or more
lowest energy level. atoms together, allowing them to function as a unit.

o Ground state: Most stable arrangement of o Example:

electrons.
 In water (H₂O), the fundamental
o Excited states: Higher energy arrangements. unit is the H-O-H molecule, held
together by two O-H bonds.
Representing Electron Configuration:
o Bond strength is measured by the energy
 Notation: Uses principal quantum numbers (n), required to break it.
orbital types (l), and electron counts.

 Orbital capacities:
Ionic Bonding
o s-subshell: Max 2 electrons.
 Example:
o p-subshell: Max 6 electrons.
o Sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water,
o d-subshell: Max 10 electrons. creating a solution that conducts electricity.
o f-subshell: Max 14 electrons. o Chemists conclude that NaCl is composed of
Example: Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.

 Fluorine (9 electrons): Formation of Ionic Bonds:

o Electron configuration: 1s² 2s² 2p⁵  Sodium (Na) reacts with chlorine (Cl) to form Na⁺ and Cl⁻
ions.

o Process:
Chemical Bonding Reviewer
 Electrons are transferred from sodium
atoms to chlorine atoms, forming
oppositely charged ions.
Lesson I: Introduction
 These ions aggregate to form solid NaCl.
 The world around us is composed almost entirely of
compounds and mixtures of compounds.  Properties of Ionic Compounds:

o Examples: Rocks, coal, soil, petroleum, trees, and o High melting points (e.g., NaCl melts at ~800°C).
even humans are all complex mixtures of chemical
o Strong bonding forces due to closely packed,
compounds where different atoms are bound
together. oppositely charged ions.

 The way atoms are bound together significantly impacts o Typically formed when:
the chemical and physical properties of substances.  A metal reacts with a nonmetal.
o Example: Graphite and Diamond

 Both are composed solely of carbon atoms.

 Graphite:

 A soft, slippery material used in

pencils.

 Diamond:

 One of the hardest materials known,

Covalent Bonding
valuable as gemstones and in
industrial cutting tools. Formation of Covalent Bonds:

o Why the difference?  A bonding force develops when two identical atoms
react.
 Different ways the carbon atoms are bound in
these substances. o Example: Two hydrogen atoms form a hydrogen
molecule (H₂).
 Importance of Bonding:
 The two electrons are attracted
o Molecular bonding and structure play a central role simultaneously by both nuclei.
in determining chemical reactions, many of which
are vital for survival.  The electron probability increases
between the nuclei, indicating shared
o To understand natural materials' behavior, we must electrons.
grasp the nature of chemical bonding and the
factors controlling compound structures.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Lesson: Week 3, I

 Electrons are shared equally between identical In this lesson, we will understand how ions are formed from
atoms (e.g., H₂). their parent atoms and learn to name them. Additionally, we
will explore how the periodic table can predict which ion a
Polar Covalent Bond:
given element forms.
 Involves unequal sharing of electrons.

o The more electronegative atom attracts

Introduction and Trivia
electrons more, gaining a partial negative
charge, while the other atom gains a partial  Trivia:
positive charge.
o Did you know that you can use salt water to make
a light bulb shine?

Examples of Covalent Bonding  This is because salt water is a good conductor of

electricity, making ocean water a potential
1. Water (H₂O):
renewable energy source.
o Hydrogen and oxygen share electrons to form a
 Imagine how many light bulbs could be lit,
covalent bond. especially in the Philippines, surrounded by
2. Diamond: oceans and seas with abundant saltwater.

o A giant molecular structure of carbon atoms.  Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt):

o Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds. o Invented by Filipina Engr. Aisa Mijeno.

o High melting and boiling points due to strong o Features:

covalent bonds.  A LED lamp powered by the galvanic reaction of
3. Rubber: an anode with saline water.

o Covalent bonds between sulfur and rubber  Provides 8 hours of light and powers a USB port
molecules lead to vulcanized rubber. for charging phones.

 Designed to provide light to remote communities

relying on kerosene lamps.

 Saltwater acts as an electrolyte to facilitate

current flow within the metal-air battery.

How Salt Water Conducts Electricity

 Electricity: A steady flow of electrons or electrically

charged particles through a substance.

 Conductivity in Substances:

o In some materials (e.g., copper), electrons

move freely, carrying current.

o In salt water, current is moved by molecules

called ions.

 Pure Water:

o Not very conductive; only a tiny current can

pass through it.

 Effect of Dissolving Salt (NaCl):

o Salt splits into ions:

 Sodium Ion (Na⁺): Missing one electron, positively

charged.

 Chloride Ion (Cl⁻): Gains one extra electron,

negatively charged.

What Are Ions?

 Definition:

o An ion is any atom or molecule with a net positive

Formation of Ions Reviewer or negative charge.
 o Ions are formed by adding or removing electrons
from a neutral atom.

 Characteristics:
Common Anions
o Highly reactive species.
Element Symbol Ion Name
o Found mostly in the gaseous state and not
abundant on Earth. Fluorine F⁻ Fluoride ion

o Liquid or solid ions are produced when salts interact Bromine Br⁻ Bromide ion
with solvents.
Iodine I⁻ Iodide ion
o Ions are:
Oxygen O²⁻ Oxide ion
 Repelled by like charges.
Sulfur S²⁻ Sulfide ion
 Attracted to opposite charges.

Ion Charges and the Periodic Table

Formation of a Positive Ion (Cation)
 Using the Periodic Table to Predict Ion Charges:
 Example: Sodium Atom to Sodium Ion
o Group 1: Forms 1+ ions.
o A sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons.
o Group 2: Forms 2+ ions.
o When one electron is lost:
o Group 3: Forms 3+ ions.
 Protons: 11
 Transition Metals:
 Electrons: 10
o Can form cations with various charges.
 Net charge: 1+
 Nonmetals:
 Process:
o Form negative ions by gaining electrons.
1. Sodium loses one electron.
o Group 7: Gains 1 electron to form 1- ions.
2. Becomes a sodium ion (Na⁺).
o Group 6: Gains 2 electrons to form 2- ions.
3. Representation:

 Na → Na⁺ + e⁻
Ionic Compounds

 Definition: Substances containing ions, usually

 Cation Naming: formed between metals and nonmetals.
o A cation is named after its parent atom.  Example: NaCl contains Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.
o Example: Sodium ion (Na⁺).

Formation of a Negative Ion (Anion) The Structural Characteristics of Carbon

 Example: Chlorine Atom to Chloride Ion Lesson Overview:
o A chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons.  Carbon is a common element found in many forms in
our daily lives. For example, when using a pencil,
o When one electron is gained:
charcoal on a barbecue, or diamonds in jewelry, you
 Protons: 17 are interacting with carbon.

 Electrons: 18  About 18% of your body (by weight) is made up of

carbon, which forms the backbone of vital molecules
 Net charge: 1- such as proteins, DNA, RNA, sugars, and fats.
 Process:

1. Chlorine gains one electron.

Basic Properties of Carbon:
2. Becomes a chloride ion (Cl⁻).
 Atomic Number: 6
3. Representation:
 Symbol: C
 Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻
 Category: Non-metal
 Anion Naming:
 Subatomic Particles: 6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6
o Root name of the atom + -ide suffix. electrons

o Example: Chloride ion (Cl⁻).  Carbon atoms are small and can bond with other
carbon atoms almost infinitely, contributing to the
vast number of organic compounds.
  Carbon’s Unique Bonding Properties:

o Can form up to four covalent bonds with

other atoms, allowing diverse molecule
Importance of Organic Chemistry: formations.
 Organic Chemistry is the study of carbon-based  Carbon-Based Structures:
compounds and is essential for understanding
chemicals that occur naturally and synthetically. o Straight chains, branched chains, and rings.

 Carbon’s Versatility: It has four unpaired electrons in  Long Carbon Chains:

its outer shell, allowing it to form covalent bonds
with up to four other atoms, including other carbon o No other element can do this; silicon’s
atoms. strong bonds prefer Si-O-Si instead of Si-Si.

 Bonding Properties: Carbon atoms can form three  Isomers:

basic structures: straight chains, branched chains, o Carbon molecules can exist in different
and rings. forms (isomers), e.g. glucose and fructose.

History and Uses of Carbon: Carbon Allotropes:

 Carbon’s Abundance: The sixth most abundant 1. Diamond:
element in the universe, carbon is most commonly
obtained from coal deposits. o Transparent, colorless, hardest substance
known.
 Allotropes of Carbon:
o Does not conduct electricity.
o Amorphous Carbon: Created when carbon-
containing materials burn in an oxygen-deficient 2. Graphite:
environment. Used in inks, paints, rubber products.
o Opaque, black, soft and spongy texture.
o Graphite:
o Good conductor of electricity.
 Forms naturally in two forms, alpha and beta,
differing in crystal structure. 3. Lonsdaleite:

 Used as a lubricant and in steel production o Found in meteorites; harder than diamond.
(coke). 4. Buckyballs (C60, C540, C70):
 The material in pencils is graphite. o Structure like a soccer ball, able to trap
o Diamond: other atoms.

 Hardest known natural substance. 5. Amorphous Carbon:

 Transparent and colorless, does not conduct o Created in incomplete combustion; used in
electricity. inks, paints, rubber.

 Used in jewelry and industrial cutting tools. 6. Carbon Nanotubes:

o White Carbon: Discovered in 1969, transparent and o Very strong, can conduct electricity, and
splits light beams; very little is known about this heat.
form.

 Buckyballs (Carbon Nanotubes): Physical Properties of Allotropes:

o Consists of 60-70 carbon atoms arranged like a  Diamond:
soccer ball.
o Transparent, colorless.
o Can trap other atoms, withstand great pressures, and
have magnetic and superconductive properties. o Hardest natural material.

 Carbon-14 Isotope: o Does not conduct electricity.

o Used in radiocarbon dating.  Graphite:

o Half-life: 5,730 years. o Opaque, black.

o Used to date formerly living things. o Soft and spongy.

 Common Carbon Compounds: o Conducts electricity.

o Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Carbon Monoxide (CO),  Amorphous Carbon:

Methane (CH₄), Ethylene (C₂H₄), Benzene (C₆H₆),
o Black, soot-like.
Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH).
o Soft and spongy.

Why Carbon is Cool:

Lewis Dot Structure of Carbon:
  Carbon’s Electrons:  Key Observation:

o Six electrons, four available for bonding. o Carbon is always present in organic
compounds.
o Carbon forms single, double, or triple bonds
with other atoms. o Inorganic compounds do not contain both
carbon and hydrogen.
 Example:

o Methane (CH₄):
III. General Classes of Organic Compounds and Their Uses
 H
 Organic Compounds form the basis for life and are
 |
studied in organic chemistry and biochemistry.
 H-C-H
 Important Organic Compounds:
 |
o Carbohydrates
 H
o Lipids
o Ball-and-Stick Model: H-C-H, with each
o Proteins
carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
o Nucleic Acids

 All organic compounds contain carbon bonded to

Conclusion:
hydrogen, with other elements often included.
 Carbon's ability to form diverse structures and
compounds is essential to life.
IV. Carbohydrates
 Whether in simple molecules like methane or
complex ones like proteins and DNA, carbon's  Definition: Organic compounds made of carbon,
versatile bonding properties are foundational to the hydrogen, and oxygen.
chemistry of life.
 Formula: The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in
Organic Compounds carbohydrates is 2:1.
I. What is Organic?  Function:
 Organic Compounds are chemical compounds o Main source of energy.
associated with living organisms and contain carbon.
o Used for structural purposes by plants and
 Organic chemistry is the study of these compounds. animals.
 Examples of Organic:  Classification:
o Sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆): Contains carbon, hydrogen, o Monosaccharides: Single sugar unit (e.g.,
and oxygen. Sugar is processed from sugar glucose, fructose, galactose).
cane, a plant, making it organic.
o Disaccharides: Two monosaccharide units
o Living organisms are composed of organic joined together.
compounds because they contain carbon-
based compounds. o Polysaccharides: Long chains of
monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen,
 Inorganic Compounds: cellulose).
o Rocks and houses are not considered
organic.
V. Lipids
o Water (H₂O) and Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) are
inorganic because they do not contain  Definition: Organic compounds made of carbon,
carbon-hydrogen bonds. hydrogen, and oxygen, with a higher hydrogen-to-
oxygen ratio than carbohydrates.

 Types of Lipids:
II. Observation of Organic vs Inorganic Compounds
o Triglycerides (fats, oils, waxes)
 Organic Compounds contain:
o Steroids
o Carbon, and commonly Hydrogen and
Oxygen. o Phospholipids

o Sometimes also include other elements like  Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats:
Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphorus.
o Saturated Fats: No double bonds in fatty
 Inorganic Compounds: acids, solid at room temperature, generally
unhealthy.
o Water (H₂O), Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), and
salts like Na₂SO₄ are inorganic because they o Unsaturated Fats: Contain double bonds,
don't meet the criteria for organic liquid at room temperature, considered
compounds. healthier.
  Functions of Lipids:  Advances in medicine have enabled doctors to cure many
diseases and save lives.
o Energy Storage: Long-term energy storage.
 These days, medicines come from a variety of sources:
o Waterproofing: Form protective coatings.
o Many were developed from substances found in
nature.
VI. Proteins o Even today, many medicines are extracted from
 Definition: Composed of chains of amino acids called plants.
polypeptides. o Some medicines are made in labs by mixing
 Elements: Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, together several chemicals.
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur, phosphorus, iron, o Some medicines, like penicillin, are byproducts of
copper, or magnesium.
organisms, such as fungi.
 Functions of Proteins:
o A few medicines are biologically engineered by
1. Structure: Build cellular structures. inserting genes into bacteria, causing them to
produce the desired substance.
2. Transport: Control substances entering and leaving
cells.  When thinking about taking medicines, we often think of
pills. However, medicines can be delivered in various
3. Defense: Fight diseases. forms:
4. Enzyme Activity: Catalyze biochemical reactions. o Liquids that are swallowed
5. Genetic Material Replication: Help replicate genetic o Drops that are put into ears or eyes
material.
o Creams, gels, or ointments that are rubbed onto
 Examples of Proteins: the skin
o Hemoglobin (in blood) o Inhalers (e.g., nasal sprays or asthma inhalers)
o Collagen o Patches that are stuck to the skin (called
o Insulin transdermal patches)

o Keratin o Tablets that are placed under the tongue (called

sublingual medicines; the medicine is absorbed
o Myoglobin into blood vessels and enters the bloodstream)

o Fibrin o Injections (shots) or intravenous (inserted into a

vein) medicines

 To form the right amount of medicine, the proper

VII. Nucleic Acids
amount of each ingredient is necessary to react together
 Definition: Molecules that store and direct genetic to create the final drug. This prevents overdose, which
information for reproduction and cellular growth. could result in abnormal breathing, loss of consciousness,
or even death.
 Types of Nucleic Acids:
 This concept is similar to the manufacturing of plastics.
1. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Involved in protein Since plastics are made from other chemicals, someone
synthesis. needs to figure out how much of each ingredient is
required. Similarly, when lighting a bonfire, the amount
2. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Contains
of air, exhaust, and heat produced must be determined.
genetic information for the cell and is
involved in gene replication.  In all these examples (medicines, plastics, bonfires),
understanding the right amounts of substances needed is
 Structure:
critical, and this is done using the mole concept.
o Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides
(sugar molecule, nitrogen base, phosphoric
acid). II. The Mole Concept
o DNA: Carries genetic information and contains  The identity of a substance is not just defined by the
genes that code for proteins. types of atoms or ions it contains, but also by the
quantity of each type of atom or ion.
o RNA: Involved in the synthesis of proteins using
information from DNA.  For example, water (H₂O) and hydrogen peroxide
(H₂O₂) are similar because both molecules contain
hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, they exhibit
I. Introduction to Medicines and the Mole Concept very different properties because hydrogen peroxide
contains two oxygen atoms, whereas water only
 Medicines are chemicals or compounds used to: contains one.
o Cure, halt, or prevent disease,  This distinction was originally derived from
o Alleviate symptoms, or measuring macroscopic properties, such as the
masses and volumes of bulk quantities of matter,
o Assist in the diagnosis of illnesses. using tools like balances and volumetric glassware.
  This led to the introduction of a new unit to measure
the amount of substances: the mole, which remains
indispensable in modern chemical science.

III. Definition of the Mole

 The mole (mol) is a fundamental unit of measurement

for the amount of a substance.

o A mole is defined as the amount of substance

that contains exactly 6.022 × 10²³ particles VI. Calculating Molar Mass of a Compound
(atoms, molecules, etc.).
 Molar Mass is the mass of one mole of a substance (in
o This number is called Avogadro's Number. grams). It is numerically equal to the atomic or
molecular mass of a substance.
 The mole is also the atomic or formula mass of a
substance, expressed in grams.  Example 1: Calculate the molar mass of methane (CH₄).

 One mole of a substance contains 6.022 × 10²³ units of o Carbon: 1 atom of carbon × 12.01 g/mol =
that substance. For example: 12.01 g/mol

o One mole of carbon contains 6.022 × 10²³ o Hydrogen: 4 atoms of hydrogen × 1.008
carbon atoms. g/mol = 4.032 g/mol

o One mole of water contains 6.022 × 10²³ water o Molar mass of CH₄:
molecules.

 This is similar to how a dozen refers to 12 items. A mole  Example 2: Calculate the molar mass of sulfur dioxide
of something refers to 6.022 × 10²³ units of that (SO₂).
substance.
o The chemical formula for sulfur dioxide is
IV. Example of Mole Concept in Action SO₂.

 Example: How many molecules are there in 4.0 o Sulfur: 1 atom of sulfur × 32.07 g/mol =
moles of CO₂ (carbon dioxide)? 32.07 g/mol

o 1 mole = 6.022 × 10²³ molecules of CO₂. o Oxygen: 2 atoms of oxygen × 16.00 g/mol =
32.00 g/mol

o Molar mass of SO₂:

o
V. Calculating Moles and Number of Atoms

 How do we use the mole in chemical calculations?

o Recall that Avogadro's number is defined such that

12.01 g of carbon contains 6.022 × 10²³ atoms of
carbon.

 Example: Compute both the number of moles of atoms

and the number of atoms in a 10.0-g sample of
aluminum (Al).

o Step 1: Find moles of aluminum:

 The atomic mass of aluminum is 26.98

g/mol.

 The mass of the sample is 10.0 g. Since it is

less than 26.98 g, this sample contains less
than 1 mole of aluminum atoms.

 The conversion is: