Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Sets

Introduction

One of the most important tools in discrete mathematics is Set Theory. We begin with
sets, subsets and their operations, notations with which you may already be familiar. In
this chapter, we shall study some set theoretic concept which are essential for our present
work.

Set

A set is a well−defined collection of objects called elements or members of the set.

e.g. : Collection of one legged black birds. Collection of real numbers between 0 and 1.

Well−defined just means that it is possible to decide if a given object belongs to the set.

A set of three elements of alpha, beta and gamma can be written as {α, β, γ}

The order in which the element of a set are listed is not important. Thus {α, γ, β}, {γ, β,
α}, {β, α, γ}, {γ, α, β} and {β, γ, α} are all representations of the given set. Moreover,
repeated elements in the listing of elements of a set can be ignored. The {α, γ, α, β} is
another representation of the set {α, β, γ}.

Roster or tabular form method

Rule or set builder form method

Subset

If every element in a set A is the elements of a set B, then A is called subset of B. We

also say that A is contained in B or that B contains A. This relationship is denoted by
A ⊆ B or B⊇A

If A is not a subset of B i.e., if at least one element of A does not belong to B, we write
𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 or 𝐵 ⊉ 𝐴 .

Example: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

All the elements of A belongs to B. That is A ⊆ B (A is a subset of B)

Also, if A ⊆ B, then we say that B is a superset of A and write B ⊇ A. If A ⊆ B but A ≠

B, then A is called a proper subset of B, written as, A ⊂ B.

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Universal Set

In any application of the theory of sets, the members of all sets under investigation
usually belong to some fixed large set called the universal set.
For example, in a plane geometry, the universal set consists of all points in the plane.
Usually it is denoted by U.

Empty Set

The set with no elements is called empty set or null set and is denoted by 𝜙. For example
A = {x : x is a +ve integer, x < 1}. A has no element.

Note: (i) A is said to be equal to B iff A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

(ii) Empty set is a subset of every set.

Cardinality of a set: The cardinality of a finite set is numbers of elements in the set. It is
denoted by |𝐴| or 𝑛(𝐴) for set 𝐴.
e.g., 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3} then |𝐴| = 3.

Finite and Infinite Set: A set A is called finite if it has n distinct elements, where n ∈ N.
In this case, n is called cardinality of A and is denoted by | A |.
A set that is not finite is called infinite set.

Operations on Sets:

Union: Let A and B be two sets then the union of A and B is the collection of
all the elements of either A or B or both.
A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}

Intersection: Let A and B be two sets then the intersection of A and B is the
collection of all the elements which belong in both sets.
A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

Note : A ∩ B = 𝜙, then A and B are called disjoint sets.

The complement of set: Let A be a subset of the given universal set U then the
complement of A is the collection of all elements of U which are not the
elements of A. It is denoted by 𝐴′ or 𝐴̅ or 𝐴𝑐 .

A′ = { x | x ∈ U and x ∉ A} where U is universal set.

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
The difference of A and B: Let A and B be two sets then the difference of A and B is
the collection of all the elements of A but not the elements of B.
∴ 𝐴 − 𝐵 (or 𝐴\𝐵) = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 & 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

Ring sum / Symmetric difference: Let A and B be two sets then the ring sum of A and
B is the set of all the elements which are either in A or in B but not in both.
A ⊕ B = { x | x ∈ A ∪ B but ∉ A ∩ B} = A Δ B = A \ B ∪ B \ A

Set of Numbers

Natural Numbers: Counting numbers are called natural numbers. Thus the set ℕ =
{1, 2, 3, 4, ⋯ } is the set of all natural numbers.

Whole Numbers: The set obtained by adjoining 0 to the set of all natural numbers, is the
set of whole numbers. Thus, 𝕎 = {0, 1, 2, 3, ⋯ }

Integers: The set ℤ consisting of all natural numbers 0 and negatives of natural numbers,
is the set of all integers. Thus, ℤ = {⋯ , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ⋯ }.

Remarks
The set of +ve integers is, ℤ+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, ⋯ } The set of − ve integers is, ℤ− =
{−1, −2, −3, ⋯ } Note that 0 is neither +ve nor −ve.

The integers divisible by 2 are even integers, while the integers not divisible by 2 are odd
integers.

Rational Number: The set ℚ of all numbers of the form (𝑝/𝑞) where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers
and q ≠ 0, is the set of rationals.

Irrational Numbers : The set of all numbers which can be expressed in decimal form in
non-terminating and non−repeating form only, is the set of irrationals, e.g., 2, 3, 5 ,
π, e, etc. are irrationals.

Real Numbers : The totality of rationals and irrationals forms the set ℝ of all real
numbers.

Intervals : If a and b are real numbers such that a < b, then

the set {x ∈ R; a ≤ x ≤ b} is called a closed interval, denoted by [a, b];

the set {x ∈ R; a < x < b} is called an open interval, denoted by ]a, b[;

the set {x ∈ R; a ≤ x < b} is called a left half open interval, denoted by ]a, b]; and

the set {x ∈ R; a ≤ x < b} is called a right half open interval, denoted by [a, b[.

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Complex Numbers : The set ℂ = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 |𝑎 & 𝑏 ∈ ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 √−1 = 𝑖} is the set of all
complex numbers.

Algebraic Properties of set of operation :

Commutative property A ∪ B = B ∪ A and A∩B=B∩A

Associative property

A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C and A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

Distributive property

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) and A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Idempotent property A∪A=A and A ∩ A = A

Properties of the complement

 A  A , A A U , A A   ,  U, U  
De−Morgan’s laws
A B  A B and A B  A B

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Principle of inclusion and exclusion :

Statement : 1) Let A and B be two finite sets then
| A ∪ B | = | A| + | B | − | A ∩ B |
2) Let A, B and C be finite sets, then
| A ∪ B ∪ C | = |A | + | B | + | C | − | A ∩ B | − | B ∩ C | − | A ∩ C |
+|A∩B∩C|
3) Let A, B, C and D be finite sets then
| A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D| = |A| + |B| + |C| + |D| − |A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| − |A ∩ D|
− |B ∩ C| − |B ∩ D| − |C ∩ D| + |A ∩ B ∩ C | + |A ∩ B ∩ D|
+ |A ∩ C ∩ D| + |B ∩ C ∩ D| − |A ∩ B ∩ C ∩ D|
and so on.

Cartesian Product:
The Cartesian product of two non empty sets A and B is defined as
A×B = {(x, y) : x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
e.g. A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {a, b, c}
∴ A×B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c)}

Partition
A partition of S is a collection {Ai} of non-empty subsets of S such that
(i) Each a in S belongs to one of Ai
(ii) The sets of {Ai} are mutually disjoint. i.e. Ai ≠ Aj then Ai ∩ Aj = φ
The subsets in partition are called cells.

Briefly it can be expressed as S = {Ai} such that ∪ Ai = S & Ai ∩ Aj = φ when i ≠ j

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
Questions:

1. Prove the following laws of the algebra of sets.(use membership tables or Venn diagram)
(In TEE, no quotation from prove that)
(a) Indempotent laws (i.e. (i) A ∪ A = A (ii) A ∩ A = A)
(b) Associative laws
(i) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
(c) Commutative laws
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
(d) Distributive laws
(i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (ii) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
(e) Identity law
(i) A ∪ φ = A (ii) A ∩ U = A (iii) A ∪ U = U (iv) A ∩ φ = φ
(f) Involution laws :
(AC)C = A
(g) Complement laws
(i) A ∪ AC = U (ii) A ∩ AC = φ (iii) UC = φ (iv) φC = U
(h) DeMorgan’s laws
C
(i) (A ∪ B) = AC ∩ BC (ii) (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC
2. Prove the following properties of the symmetric difference :
(i) A ⊕ B = B ⊕ A (ii) If A ⊕ B = A ⊕ C, then B = C
3. Identify the following statements as true or false
(i) y ∈A ∩ B
(ii) x ∈ B ∪ C
(iii) w ∈ B ∩ C
(iv) v ∉ C B •z A
(v) x ∈ A ∪ B ∩ C
(vi) y ∈ A ∪ B ∪ C •w •x •y
(vii) z ∈ A ∩ C
(viii) v ∈ B ∩ C
•v C

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
Questions:
1 Define partition of a set. Explain it with the suitable example.
Let A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h}. Consider following subsets of A.
A1 = {a, b, c, d}, A2 = {a, c, e, f, g, h}A3 = {a, c, e, g}, A4 = {b, d}, A5 = {f, h}.
Determine whether each of the following is partition of A or not. Justify your answer.
(i) {A1, A2} (ii) {A1, A5} (iii) {A3, A4, A5}.

2 List all the partitions of set A = {1, 2, 3}.

3 Let the universal set be U = {1, 2, 3, . . . 10}, let A = {2, 4, 7, 9}, B = {1, 4, 6, 7, 10} and C =
{3, 5, 7, 9}
find : (i) A ∪ B (ii) A ∩ C (iii)  A  B  C (iv) B CC
4 Simplify the expression  A  B  C  B
5 How many elements are in A1 ∪ A2 if there are 12 elements in 𝐴1 and 18 elements in
A2 and
(i) A1 ∩ A2 = φ ? (iii) | A1 ∩ A2 | = 6 ?
(ii) | A1 ∩ A2 | = 1 ? (iv) A1 ⊆ A2 ?
6 If A = { x|x is real and −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 } and B = { y|y is real and 1 ≤ y ≤ 5 }, sketch the set A × B
in the Cartesian plane.
7 (i) Write the members of {a, b} × {1, 2, 3}.
a. Give examples of sets A, B, C such that A ∪ B = A ∪ C, but B ≠ C.
b. Find the power set of the set A = {α, β, γ}.
8 If A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}, find A × B.
9 Let A, B and C are subsets of U (universal set) .(use membership tables or Venn diagram)
Prove that : A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
10 Prove the following.(use membership tables or Venn diagram)
(A − B) ∪ (B − A) = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B)
11 Verify the theorem
| A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − |A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| + |A ∩ B ∩ C| where
[a] A = {a, b, c, d, e}
B = {d, e, f, g, h, i, k}
C = {a, c, d, e, k, r, s, t}
[b] A = {4, 5, 9, 15, 36, 70}
B = {5, 9, 37, 65, 81, 89}
C = {5, 6, 11, 15, 28, 65, 71, 79, 86}
[c] A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
B = {2, 4, 7, 8, 9}
C = {1, 2, 4, 7, 10, 12}
[d] A = {x | x is +ve integer x < 8 }
B = {x | x is integers 2 < x < 4}
C = {x | x is an integer x2 < 16 }
[e] A = {a, b, c, f, g}
B = {a, c, d, m, n}
C = {a, d, n, o, p, s}

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
12 Determine the number of positive integers n where 1 ≤ n ≤ 100 and n is not divisible by 2, 3
or 5.

13 Suppose that 109 of the 150 computer science students at one of the Mumbai college take at
least one of the following computer language:- VB, VC++ and Java. Suppose 45 study VB,
61 study V C ++, 53 study Java, 18 Study VB and VC ++, 53 study VC + + and Java, and 23
study VB and Java.
(i) How many students study all three languages?
(ii) How many students study only VC++?
(iii)How many students do not study any of the language?
14 A survey on a sample of 25 new cars being sold of a local auto dealer was conducted to see
which of three popular options, air conditioning A, radio R, and popular
windows W, were already installed. The survey found,
15 had air conditioning
12 had radio
11 had power windows
5 had air conditioning and power window
9 had air conditioning and radio
4 had radio and power windows
5 had all three options.
Find the no. of cars having:
(i) only one of these options
(ii) radio & power windows but not air conditioning (iii) none of these options.

15 In a survey of 60 people, it was found that

25 read Business India.
26 reads India Today.
26 reads Times of India.
11 reads both Business India and India Today.
09 reads both Business India and Times of India.
08 reads both India Today and Times of India.
08 reads none of the three.
(i) How many read all three?
(ii) How many read exactly one?

16 Out of 250 candidates who failed in an examination, it was revealed that 128 failed in
mathematics, 87 in physics and 134 in aggregate. 31 failed in mathematics and in Physics, 54
failed in the aggregate and in mathematics, 30 failed in the aggregate
and in physics. Find how many candidates failed.
(i) in all the three subjects.
(ii) in mathematics but not in physics.
(iii)in the aggregate but not in mathematics.
(iv) in physics but not in aggregate or in mathematics.

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
17 In a survey of 60 people, it was found that 25 reads Newsweek Magazine, 26 reads Times and
26 reads Fortune. Also 9 reads both Newsweek and Fortune, 11 reads both Newsweek and
Times, 8 reads Time and Fortune and 8 reads no magazine at all.
(i) Find the number of people who read all three magazines.
(ii) Determine number of people who read exactly one magazine.

18 Among the integers 1 and 300,

(i) How many of them are divisible by 3 or 5 or 7
(ii) How many are not divisible by 3 nor by 5 nor by 7 ?
(iii)How many of them are divisible by 3 but not by 5 nor by 7 ? Ans: i) 162, ii) 138, iii) 68

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
Relations:
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. If R  A  B Then R is called relation from set A to set B

If R  A  B and  a, b   R , we say that a R b (a is related to b)

If a is not related to b we write this notation as a Rb .

If A  B , we say that R  A  A is a relation on A. instead of from A to A
Domain of the relation
Let A and B be two non-empty sets and R be a relation from A to B. i.e. R  A  B domain of R is
the subset of A such that the collection of first elements of all ordered pairs of R .
i.e. Domain of R  {a  A /(a, b)  R}
Range of the relation
If R be the relation from A to B, then the range of R is subset of B such that the collection of second
element of all ordered pairs of R
i. e. Range of R  {b  B /(a, b)  R}
Inverse relation
Let R is a relation from A to B then the inverse relation of R is the collection of all (b, a) such that
(a, b)  R . It is denoted by R 1 , is defined as R1  {(b, a) /(a, b)  R}
Complement of a relation
Complement of R is denoted by R or RC and defined by

R  {( x, y) /( x, y)  A  B but ( x, y)  R}
Representation of a relation by Matrix:
We can represent a relation between two finite sets containing m and n elements i. e.
A  {a1 , a2 , a3 ,....am }& B  {b1 , b2 , b3 ,....bm} in a matrix

1 if (ai , b j )  R i.e. ai Rb j
M R  [mij ]mn Where mij  
0 if (ai , b j )  R i.e. ai R b j

Then the matrix M R is called the matrix form of relation from A to B

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Composition of a relation:-
Suppose A, B, and C are sets, R is a relation from A to B, and S is a relation from B to C. we can
define a new relation, the composition of R and S, written as SoR , The relation SoR is a relation from
A to C and is defined as follows. If a is in A and c is in C, then a(SoR)c if and only if for some b in
B, we have aRb and bSc .

Type-1
1) Find domain, range, matrix of the relation R.
a) A={a, b, c, d}, B={1, 2, 3}, R={(a,1), (a,2), (b,1), (c,2), (d,1)}
b) A = {daisy, rose, violet daffodil, peony}, B = {red, white, purple, yellow, blue, pink orange}
R= {(daisy, red), (violet, pink), (rose, purple), (daffodil, white)}
c) A= {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9}; a R b if and only if b=a2
d) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8} = B; a R b if and only if a=b
e) A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 8}, B = {1, 4, 6, 9}; a R b if and only if a divides b
f) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} =B; a R b if and only if a is multiple of b
g) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = B; a R b if and only if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏
h) A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8}; a R b if and only if a<b
i) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 8} = B; a R b if and only if 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 9
2) Let 𝐴 = ℤ+ , the positive integer, and R be the relation defined by 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if there exist a
𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ so that a=bk (k depends on a and b). Which of the following belongs to 𝑅?
(a) (4, 6), (b) (1, 7), c) (8, 2), d) (3, 3), (e) (2, 8), (f) (2, 32)
3) Let 𝐴 = 𝐵 = ℝ(set of real numbers) , consider the following relation R on 𝐴: 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 25. Find domain and range of 𝑅.
4) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9}; 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if b=a2 Find R(A1) for each of the following:
(a) A1 = {1, 8} (b) A1 = {3, 4, 5}
5) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6} = B; 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if 𝑎 is multiple of 𝑏 the find each of the following
(a) R (3) (b) R (6) (c) R ({2, 4, 6})
6) If A= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B= {2, 4, 6, 8}; a R b if and only if a < b. Find each of the following

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
(a) R ({3, 7}) (b) R (9) (c) R ({1, 3})
7) Let 𝐴 = ℤ+ , the positive integer, and 𝑅 be the relation defined by 𝑎𝑅𝑏 if and only if there exist a
𝑘 ∈ ℤ+ so that a=bk (k depends on a and b). Find each of the following
(a) R(3) (b) R(4) (c) R({4, 3}) (d) R({2, 4})
8) Find the relation R defined on A .
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
0   0 1 1 0 
1 1 0
(a) A= {1, 2, 3, 4} and M R   , (b) A= {a, b, c, d, e} and M R  0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1  
  0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 
Type-2
1) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and B = {a, b, c, d}, & C = {x, y, z}. Consider the relations R from A to B and
S from B to C defined by R = {(1, a), (2, d), (3, a), (3, b), (3, d)}, and
S = {(b, x), (b, z), (c, y), (d, z)}. Compute (i) the composition relation 𝑆𝑜𝑅,
(ii)Find the Matrices 𝑀𝑅 , 𝑀𝑆 , & 𝑀𝑆𝑜𝑅 , representing the relations 𝑅, 𝑆, 𝑆𝑜𝑅.
(iii) Is 𝑀𝑅 . 𝑀𝑆 = 𝑀𝑆𝑜𝑅 ?
2) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and B = {a, b, c}. Let R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, a)}, and
S = {(1, b), (2, c), (3, b), (4, b)}. Compute (a)𝑅̅ ; (b) 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆; (c)𝑅 ∪ 𝑆; and 𝑅 −1
3) Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and
R = {(a, b), (a, d), (a, c), (b, c), (b, d), (b, e), (c, c), (d, c), (d, d), (e, e)}
S = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, b), (b, c), (c, b), (c, c), (c, e), (d, b), (e, d), (e, a)}
find (a) 𝑅̅ ; (b) 𝑅 −1; (c) 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆; (e) 𝑆̅; (f) 𝑆 −1
4) Let R and S be the given relations from A to B. Compute 𝑅̅ , 𝑆̅, 𝑅 −1 , 𝑆 −1 , 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆
(a) A=B= {1, 2, 3}, R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3),(3, 1)}, and S= {(2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}
(b) A= {a, b, c}; B= {1, 2, 3}, R= {(a, 1), (b, 1), (c, 2), (c, 3)}, S= {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2)}
5) Let A= {2, 3, 6, 12} and let R and S be the following relations on A;
(i) x R y if and only if 2|(x-y); (ii) x S y if and only if 3|(x-y).
Compute 𝑅 −1 , 𝑆 −1 , ̅𝑅 , ̅𝑆, 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆
6) Let R and S be the relations defined on A = {1, 2, 3, 4} by
R= {(1, 1), (3, 1), (3, 4), (4, 2) (4, 3)}, & S= {(1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}
Find 𝑅𝑜𝑆, 𝑆𝑜𝑅, 𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝑜𝑅, 𝑀𝑅2 , 𝑆 2 = 𝑆𝑜𝑆, 𝑀𝑆2 , 𝑅 3 , 𝑅 −1 , 𝑅𝑜𝑅 −1 , 𝑅 −1 𝑜𝑅

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
7) Let R and S be the relations defined on A = {1, 2, 3, 4} by
R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4) (3, 2)}, & S= {(1, 4), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 1)}
Find 𝑅𝑜𝑆, 𝑆𝑜𝑅, 𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝑜𝑅, 𝑀𝑅2 , 𝑆 2 = 𝑆𝑜𝑆, 𝑀𝑆2 , 𝑅 3 , 𝑅 −1 , 𝑅𝑜𝑅 −1 , 𝑅 −1 𝑜𝑅
8) Let A = {a, b, c} and let R and S be relations on A whose Matrices are
1 0 1  1 0 0 
M R  1 1 1  and M S  0 1 1  Find RoS,&SoR also find MRoS & MSoR
 
0 1 0  1 0 1 

Properties of relations:
i) Reflexive relation:- if  x, x   Rx  A i.e. xRx x  A

ii)Diagonal Relation:- Diagonal relation is denoted by  and is defined by    x, x  x  A it is

also known as equality relation.

iii)Irreflexive Relation:- x Rx x  A
Note: - 1) A relation R on A is said to be reflexive relation if   R
2) A relation R on A is said to be irreflexive relation if   R  
3) A relation R may be either reflexive or irreflexive but cannot be both
iv) Symmetric relation: - a relation R on a set A is symmetric if whenever xRy ,

Then yRx i.e. if  x, y   R then  y, x   R

v) Not symmetric relation: -  x, y   R , but ( y, x)  R for some x, y  A

vi) Asymmetric relation: - a relation R on a set A is asymmetric if whenever xRy , then y R x

vii) R is not asymmetric: - If for some x, y  A both xRy & yRx
viii) Anti-symmetric relation:- a relation R on set A is said to be anti-symmetric if whenever xRy

& yRx then x  y i.e. if x  y then either x R y or y R x

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
Note:- If R is a relation on A Then
1) R is symmetric iff R  R 1
2) R is asymmetric iff R  R1  

3) R is anti-symmetric if R  R 1  
4) Every asymmetric relation is anti-symmetric

ix) Transitive: - ( x, y)  R &( y, z)  R then ( x, z)  R then the relation R is called transitive relation

Note:

1) If M R2  M R then R is transitive but converse need not be true

2) If the non-zero entries in M R 2 are present in M R at the same position then R is transitive

i.e. R 2  R

3) The matrix M R of a symmetric relation satisfy the property that if mij  1 then m ji  1 and

mij  0 , then m ji  0

4) The matrix M R of an asymmetric relation is such that if mij  1 then m ji  0 for all i&j

mii  0 for all i

5) The matrix M R of an anti-symmetric relation is such that if i  j then either mij  0 or m ji  0 or

both zero

Type-3
1) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine whether the relation is reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric,
anti-symmetric, or transitive.
(a) R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 3), (4, 4)}
(b) R= {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
(c) R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
(d) R= {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
(e) R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 2)}
(f) R= {(1, 3), (4, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (2, 2)}

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
2) Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Determine whether the relation R whose length is given is reflexive,
irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric, anti-symmetric, or transitive.
(a) R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 3)}
(b) R= {(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
3) A = {1, 2, 3, 4} Determine whether the relation R whose matrix 𝑀𝑅 is reflexive, irreflexive,
symmetric, asymmetric, anti-symmetric, or transitive.
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 
(a) R 
M  , (b) R 
M 
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
   
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

4) Determine whether the relation R on the set A is reflexive, irreflexive, symmetric, asymmetric, anti-
symmetric, or transitive.
(a) A=Z; a R b if and only if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 + 1
(b) A=Z+; a R b if and only if |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≤ 2
(c) A=Z+ ; a R b if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑘 for some 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍 +
(d) A=Z; a R b if and only if 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
(e) A=Z; a R b if and only if |𝑎 − 𝑏| = 2
(f) A=R; a R b if and only if 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 4
5) (Particular Example) Define relation on set A = {a, b, c, d}
(i) Reflexive and symmetric but not transitive,
(ii) Reflexive and transitive but not, symmetric
(iii) Transitive symmetric, and symmetric, (iv) a Symmetric and transitive

Equivalence Relation:-
A relation R defined on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.
Type-4
1) Let A = {a, b, c}. Determine whether the relation R whose Matrix 𝑀𝑅 is given is an equivalence
relation

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
1 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 
1 0 0  1 0 1  1 1 0  
0 0 1 1 0 1
(a) M R  0 1 1  , (b) M R  0 1 0  , (c) M R  0 1 1  , (d) M R   
     
0 1 1  0 0 1  1 0 1  0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 1 0 1
2) Determine whether the following relation R on the set A is an equivalence relation
(a) A = {a, b, c, d}, R = {(a, a), (b, a), (b, b), (c, c), (d, d), (d, c)}.
(b) A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, R= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (2, 3), (3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 2), (5, 5)}.
(c) A={1, 2, 3, 4}, R= {(1, 1), (1, 2),(2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 1), (3, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4), (4, 1)}.
3) Let A be a set of non-zero integers and let R be a relation on 𝐴 × 𝐴 defined by
(𝑎, 𝑏)𝑅(𝑐, 𝑑) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐, Then prove that R is an equivalence relation
4) Let A be a set of non-zero integers and let R be a relation on 𝐴 × 𝐴 defined by
(𝑎, 𝑏)𝑅(𝑐, 𝑑) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 𝑏 + 𝑐, Then prove that R is an equivalence relation

Equivalence Relation and Partitions

Theorem: - Let 𝑝 = {𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 , … 𝐴𝑛 } be a partitions of a set A. Let a relation R on A is defined as
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝐴
i.e. Each partition induces an equivalence relation in the above sense. Also each equivalence relation
gives partitions of a set A.
Definition: - If 𝑎 is an element of A and R is an equivalence relation on A, then the set of 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 such
that 𝑎𝑅𝑥 is called equivalence class of 𝑎 induced by equivalence relation R and is denoted by
𝑅(𝑎) 𝑜𝑟 𝐸(𝑎) 𝑜𝑟 [𝑎]
Note: - The partition of a set A induced by equivalence relation R is denoted by 𝐴⁄𝑅
Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation defined on a set A. then the set of distinct equivalence
classes induced by relation R forms partitions of A
Note: 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑛
Note: 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 yield the same remainder when divided by 𝑛 then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛
Type-5
1) Let R be the relation defined on the set ℤ by

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5). Show that the relation R is an equivalence
relation on A. Determine an equivalence classes. Also find ℤ⁄𝑅
2)Let R be the relation defined on the set ℤ by
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)⁄𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 & 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 3 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)}. Show that the relation R is an
equivalence relation on A. Determine an equivalence classes. Also find ℤ⁄𝑅
3)Let R be the relation defined on the set ℤ by
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)⁄𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 & 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 4 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 4)}. Show that the relation R is an
equivalence relation on A. Determine an equivalence classes. Also find ℤ⁄𝑅 .
4)Let R be the relation defined on the set ℤ by
𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)⁄𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 & 𝑎 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 6 (𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 6)}. Show that the relation R is an
equivalence relation on A. Determine an equivalence classes. Also find 𝑍ℤ⁄𝑅
Note: - The partition of a set ℤ induced by equivalence relation R is denoted by ℤ⁄𝑅
5) For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 2𝑎 + 5𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 7 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 is an
equivalence relation on Z? Find equivalence classes and ℤ⁄𝑅
6) If R is a relation on the set of integers such that
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5. find the equivalence classes. Find ℤ⁄𝑅
7) If R is a relation on the set of integers such that
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 1𝑎 + 4𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5. find the equivalence classes. Find ℤ⁄𝑅
8) If R is a relation on the set of integers such that
𝑎𝑅𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 2𝑎 + 5𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 7.find the equivalence classes. Find ℤ⁄𝑅
9) Let 𝑆 = {1, 2, 3, 4} and let𝐴 = 𝑆 × 𝑆. Define the following relation R on A as
(a, b) R (a,b) if and only if ab=ab (a) Show that R is an equivalence relation, (b)Compute ℤ⁄𝑅

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
FUNCTIONS

A relation from set A to set B in which each element of A is related to a unique element of B is said
to be a function.
Let X and Y be sets. A function f from X to Y is a rule that assigns every element x of X to a unique
y in Y.
We write f: X →Y and f(x) = y
X is said to be domain of the function & Y co-domain of the function.

Let f be a function from A to B. If every element of the set B is the image of at least one element of
the set A i.e. if there is no unpaired element in the set B then we say that the function f maps the set A
onto the set B. Otherwise we say that the function maps the set A into the set B.

Injective/one-one Function :
Functions for which each element of the set A is mapped to a different element of the set B are said
to be one-to-one/injective function

A function can map more than one element of the set A to the same element of the set B. Such a type
of function is said to be many-to-one.

Surjective/onto Function :
Let f : A → B be a function then f is said to be surjective (onto)
if for all y  B (codomain) there exist pre image x  A (domain)
or Range of f = codomain.

Bijective Function :
Let f : A → B be a function then f is said to be bijective if f is injective and surjective both.

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs

Even Function
A function is said to be an even function if for each x of domain
F(-x) =F(x)

Odd Function
A function is said to be an odd function if for each x
F(-x) = -F(x)

The composition, say, gof of function g and f is defined as function g of function f.

If f : A →B and g : B →C then g o f : A to C

For Example:

Q.1
If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 + 5 , find 𝑓(1), 𝑓(−2)

Ans: 𝑓(1) = 7, 𝑓(−2) = −5

Q.2 If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 11, solve the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(3𝑥 − 1).

1 5
Ans: 𝑥 = 2 , 4

Q.3 1+𝑥 𝑎+𝑏

If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = log (1−𝑥) , show that 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓 (1+𝑎𝑏).

Q.4 The function ‘t’ which maps temperature in degree Celsius into temperature in degree
9𝐶
Fahrenheit is defined by𝑓(𝐶) = 𝑡(𝐶) = 5 + 32.
Find (i) t (0) (ii) t (28) (iii) t (–10) (iv) The value of C, when t(C) = 212
412
Ans: i) 𝑡(0) = 32 ii) t (28) = 5
(iii) t (–10) = 14 (iv) The value of C, when t(C) = 212 is 100

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Unit 1 : Sets Relations and Functions : 6 Hrs
Q.5 State whether the function f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 + 1
4

is even or odd.

Ans: even function.

Q.6 If f, g : R → R, defined by f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = x2 , find (i) (fog) (x) (ii) (gof) (x) (iii)
(fof) (x) (iv) (gog) (x) (v) (fog) (3) (vi) (gof) (3)

Ans : (i) (fog) (x) = x2 +1 (ii) (gof) (x) = (x+1)2 (iii) (fof) (x) = x+2
(iv) (gog) (x)= x4 (v) (fog) (3) = 10 (vi) (gof) (3) = 16

Q.7 𝑥+2 2+3𝑥

If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑡 = , show that𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑥 .
4𝑥−3 4𝑥−1

Q.8 1
If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 , show that a) 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(−𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥). b)
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) .

Q.9 If f : R → R defined as 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , show that 𝑓[𝑔(2)] = 3. 𝑓(2).

Q.11 1
If f : R  2  R defined as f ( x)  . Determine whether ‘f ’ is bijective and if
x2
yes, find the rule for f −1.
Q.10 7  4 4x  5
If f : R     R    defined as f ( x)  . Prove that ‘f ’ is bijective and
3 3 3x  7
find the rule for f −1.

Q.12 1
If f : R  3  R  0 defined as f ( x)  . Determine whether ‘f ’ is bijective
x 3
and if yes, find the rule for f −1.

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