JHINUK SHARMA

AU2320092
COURSE - HST199 THE SWEEP OF HISTORY
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Main Research question - "How did the journey of select luxury items transform their
cultural meaning, value, and use as they moved along the Silk Roads, and what do these
transformations reveal about cross-cultural exchange and adaptation?

Individual Research question - How did the movement of enslaved individuals along the Silk
Roads lead to their cultural transformation, economic exploitation, and shifts in social status
across different societies?

Sub questions -
1. How did forced labor contribute to the economies of major Silk Road empires, such as the
Abbasid Caliphate and Tang Dynasty?
2. How did the language, clothing, and traditions of enslaved people evolve in different
regions?
3. What skills or professions did enslaved individuals bring to new societies ?
4. How did trade groups such as the Radhanites, Sogdians, Arabs, and Central Asian nomads
profit from the slave trade?

1. PRIMARY SOURCE -

Barbier de Meynard, C. The Book of Roads and Kingdoms by Ibn Khordadbeh.

Journal Asiatique, Sixième Série, Tome V, 1865.

This book is a translation and critical analysis of Ibn Khordadbeh's Book of Roads and
Kingdoms, an ancient surviving work on Islamic geography, composed in the 9th century
CE. The book provides detailed descriptions of trade routes between the Middle East and
China, and the fabled Silk Roads. It describes not only the trade of commodities like silk
and spices but also the movement of enslaved people, highlighting the Silk Routes'
involvement in human trafficking as well as trade. Barbier de Meynard's meticulous
annotations offer rich details about how these routes were economic lifelines of various
empires, as well as about the darker aspects of forced migration and slavery.
For my study of how the movement of slaves along the Silk Routes resulted in their
cultural assimilation, economic exploitation, and social status change in various societies,
this source is irreplaceable. It fills in the gaps between the economics of trade and human
trafficking by openly stating the routes along which slaves were moved from Central
Asia to major commercial towns. The work also describes how slaves were assimilated
into various cultures, learned new languages and traditions, and in some cases rose to the
ranks of leadership, primarily in Islamic and Chinese courts. Economically, it highlights
that their forced labor sustained local economies and solidified social hierarchies,
mirroring larger patterns of exploitation and status mobility. Ibn Khordadbeh does not
merely speculate; he records the movement of enslaved people across known trade
routes. His detailed accounts serve as concrete proof that slavery was an
institutionalized part of Silk Road commerce, reinforcing my argument that enslaved
individuals were central to economic exchanges.
The source provides the possibility of comparative analysis between documented history
and the writings of Ibn Khordadbeh and allows for a complex appreciation of how
slavery, trade, and social dynamics were entwined along these ancient roads. .

SECONDARY SOURCES

1. Foltz, Richard. Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization.

Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
 In his book, Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization, Richard
Foltz provides a detailed examination of the numerous religious traditions that traversed
the Silk Road over several millennia. The book focuses mainly on the spread and
evolution of religions like Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and others, but Foltz also sheds
light on the broader socio-economic exchanges made possible by these trade routes. He
highlights the fact that the Silk Road was not merely a conduit for the exchange of
commodities but also a platform for the exchange of ideas, cultures, and humans,
including the transportation of enslaved people. This methodology is particularly
beneficial for slave trade studies along the Silk Routes because it situates the practice
within a broader context of cultural and economic exchange. Foltz's interdisciplinary
methodology, blending history, religious studies, and cultural analysis, offers a rich
appreciation of how the traffic in people, both voluntary and involuntary, contributed
significantly to the construction of the dynamic, interconnected world of premodern
Eurasia.

2. Whitfield, Susan. Silk, Slaves, and Stupas: Material Culture of the Silk Road.
University of California Press, 2018.
Susan Whitfield's Silk, Slaves, and Stupas sheds light on the generally overlooked agency
of enslaved people in the cultural and economic construction of the Silk Roads.
Employing an analysis of varied artifacts, inscriptions, and historical accounts, Whitfield
shows that enslaved people were not merely commodities but active participants in
cultural exchange. Moving through multiple regions, these people enabled the exchange
of linguistic, artistic, and technological influences, at times integrating into new societies
in a way that reshaped their own identities and the cultures into which they integrated.
Economically, Whitfield shows that the work of slaves supported Silk Road trade, from
household bondage to extensive field and artisan production, supporting structures of
wealth building for ruling elites. Status reversals, however, were not universally the same
while some were ensnared in bondage, others formed the basis of assimilation,
emancipation, or even dominance, depending on local culture and economic needs.
This book is essential to the study of the intersection of cultural transformation, economic
exploitation, and changing social hierarchies of the Silk Road slave trade. With the
 syncretic integration of archaeology, historical study, and material culture analysis,
Whitfield creates an integrated picture of the effects of forced migration on the societies
encountered, and her work is essential to this field of inquiry.

3. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East
from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century. Routledge, 2015.
Kennedy's work offers a basic model for understanding the enslavement of individuals
along the Silk Roads and the influence of this phenomenon on cultural change, economic
control, and shifts in social hierarchy. He discusses how enslaved groups, especially
Turkish military slaves (Mamluks), were integrated into Islamic society, shaping
government, warfare, and cultural interactions at the same time as they accommodated
diverse languages and religious practices. Economically, he finds massive exploitation of
slave labor, particularly in Iraq's Zanj plantations, where forced labor maintained Abbasid
economic hegemony. Kennedy also examines how some enslaved individuals, especially
military elites, attained social mobility, rising to ranks of power and challenging
traditional class hierarchies. This book is a critical guide to the study of the ways in
which the Silk Road slave trade reconstructed societies, featuring historical case studies
that map out the complexities of forced migration within the Islamic world. Kennedy’s
work provides a crucial framework for analyzing the movement of enslaved individuals
along the Silk Roads and its impact on cultural transformation, economic exploitation,
and shifts in social status. His research helps structure the argument by offering
historical case studies that illustrate how enslaved individuals influenced and were
shaped by their new environments.

4. Bo, Bi, and Nicholas Sims-Williams. "Sogdian Documents from Khotan, I: Four
Economic Documents." Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 130, no. 4,
2010, pp. 497-508.
Bo and Sims-Williams examine newly discovered Sogdian economic documents from
Khotan that are informative of commercial and social trends on the Silk Roads. The
documents, where financial transactions, trade negotiations, and social ranks are
documented, are primary evidence of the presence of enslaved persons in the local
 economy. The analysis takes into consideration the movement of goods and humans,
referring to the sale of slaves and their integration into economic systems, and thus
evidencing economic exploitation through forced labor. Furthermore, enslaved persons'
presence in mercantile and administrative records suggests a degree of cultural
accommodation, as they gained knowledge of new economic and linguistic settings.
Social mobility is also discussed in the study, wherein some persons, possibly enslaved or
of servile status, held important positions in trade and finance. The source is used in the
development of the argument through tangible evidence of the networks of humans trade
on the Silk Road, and how slavery was inseparably connected in both economic and
cultural dynamics. The documents contain detailed records of financial transactions and
trade exchanges, some of which include references to the sale of individuals. These
findings reinforce the idea that enslaved people were not only transported as commodities
but were also integral to sustaining Silk Road economies, fueling agriculture, trade,
and urban economies through forced labor.

5. Gottesman, Brian. "The Radhanite Merchants." ABC-CLIO Encyclopedia.

Gottesman's discussion of the Radhanite merchants, a Jewish commercial network that

flourished along the Silk Roads of the early Middle Ages, provides important insight into
the role of the slave trade within transcontinental commerce. The Radhanites were
polyglot merchants who were able to navigate complex webs of politics, transporting
goods—including slaves—between the Islamic, Byzantine, and Chinese empires. Their
involvement in the slave trade is a great example of how slavery was integrated into long-
distance commerce, thus making economic exploitation possible. In addition, their
capacity to operate across a range of religious and cultural boundaries is reflective of
cultural transformation, as slaves were often traded back and forth between drastically
different societies. The Radhanites' influence on finance and commerce further supports
social mobility, both for themselves as merchants and slaves who, in some cases, were
able to acquire new roles in society. This source is important in building the argument
that slavery along the Silk Roads was not only a system of forced labor but also a system
of cross-cultural exchange and economic domination. The Radhanites were heavily
involved in the transcontinental slave trade, treating human beings as commodities
alongside luxury goods like silk and spices. Their role exemplifies how slavery was not
just a byproduct of war but a structured economic enterprise, integrated into global trade
networks. This supports my argument that enslaved individuals were central to the
economic machinery of the Silk Roads, reinforcing systemic exploitation and wealth
accumulation for traders and empires.Gottesman’s study anchors my analysis in
historical reality, offering primary and secondary accounts of how enslaved people were
moved, used, and, in some cases, assimilated into different societies. It helps transition
my argument from a broad discussion of the Silk Road slave trade to a more nuanced
exploration of who controlled the trade, how enslaved individuals adapted, and what
long-term economic and cultural effects their movement had on Silk Road
civilizations.

BROAD OUTLINE

The Silk Roads were not only highways for the transfer of commodities such as silk
and spices; they were also conduits for the movement of people, including those who
were enslaved, over vast distances that spanned China to the Middle East and
beyond. Whereas much scholarship concerns material trade, this study is interested
in the human cost of Silk Road trade and explores the effects of coerced migration
on society formation. Through an investigation of the cultural, economic, and social
dimensions of enslavement, it is possible to better comprehend the nuances of
historical globalization, power dynamics, and identity formation. This study is of
critical significance because it uncovers how systems of exploitation were so deeply
embedded in historical systems of trade and demonstrates how enslaved people,
despite their deplorable circumstances, contributed to the construction of the very
societies that enslaved them.
I will begin by examining historical records, travel accounts, and economic
documents to map out the major trade routes used for enslaved individuals and the
regions most involved in the Silk Road slave trade (e.g., the Abbasid Caliphate,
Tang China, Central Asia). By studying financial records, taxation systems, and
commercial laws, we will explore how enslaved individuals were commodified and
used in various industries. I will compare the economic role of enslaved individuals
to other major commodities, such as silk and spices, to demonstrate their economic
value within Silk Road trade networks.
Using case studies from Islamic, Chinese, and Central Asian sources, we will analyze
how enslaved individuals assimilated into new cultures or resisted cultural erasure. I
will look at language acquisition, religious conversion, and skill transfers to assess
how enslaved populations impacted and were shaped by their host societies. Finally,
we will connect our findings to broader historical patterns, comparing Silk Road
slavery to other global systems of forced migration (e.g., the Atlantic and Trans-
Saharan slave trades). I will compare the economic value of enslaved people to other
Silk Road commodities like silk, gold, and spices.
I will conclude by highlighting how the forced movement of people shaped societies
far beyond their lifetimes, influencing cultural diversity, economic structures, and
power dynamics that persisted for centuries.

How does sub research question Connects to the Main Research Question:

The main research question explores how luxury items transformed in meaning, value,
and use as they traveled along the Silk Roads, revealing broader patterns of cross-cultural
exchange and adaptation. My sub-research question expands on this by examining
enslaved individuals as both commodities and agents of cultural transformation. Unlike
silk or spices, enslaved people were not just objects of trade they actively shaped the
societies they were forced into, influencing economies, traditions, and social hierarchies.
By analyzing their movement and adaptation, I can illustrate how the Silk Roads were not
just a commercial network but also a system of forced migration that reshaped cultural
identities and economic structures.