BLY 111

GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

TOPIC: GENERAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

AND ANIMALS

BY

AHMED, H.O.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY LAFIA.

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GENERAL REPRODUCTION

Introduction

Reproduction is the production of a new generation of individual(s) of the same species

and is a fundamental characteristics in both plants and animals. It involves the
transmission of genetic material from the parent to the offspring for the ultimate purpose
of survival of the species (preventing extinction).

Plants and animals adopt various reproductive strategies but are generally categorized
into two basic types: Asexual and Sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction involves the production of offspring by a single organism without

the production of gametes. The offspring are usually genetically identical to the parent
with variation arising from random mutations among individual offspring. Identical
offspring from a single parent are referred to a CLONE.

Sexual reproduction on the other hand involves the production of offspring from the fusion
of two gametes (which form a ZYGOTE and further develops into a new organism) from
two different individual (parent) organism. The process of sexual reproduction leads to
genetic variation in the offspring which is of great advantage (when compared to asexually
reproduced offspring) to ensure the survival of a species.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Reproduction in plants can either be by asexual or sexual means (or sometimes a

combination depending on the prevailing circumstances) which are adopted for the
survival of the species. Each of these methods will be examined with relevant examples.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

This mode of reproduction does not involve the fusion of a male and female gamete and
produces individuals that are identical genetically to the parent. There are two methods:
Natural and Artificial methods. The different natural methods adopted by different plants
for reproduction include self-propagation, budding, vegetative propagation, fragmentation
and spore formation; while the artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and
micro-propagation.

SELF PROPAGATION

This occurs when plants propagate on their own naturally while still growing as seen in
ginger, onions, potatoes which grow from buds present on the surface of the stem, or as
seen in sweet potatoes where the new plant can grow from adventitious buds or stolons.

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BUDDING

This form of asexual reproduction occurs when a new plant develops from an outgrowth
called a BUD from a small part of the parent body. The new organism grows until it
matures and separates from the parent leaving scar tissues behind. An example can be
seen in potato kept for a long time and a number of small outgrowths occur which can
grow up like a clone of an original potato plant.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

It is any form of propagation which new plants are produced from either the roots, stem,
leaves (i.e. the vegetative part) of the parent plant. Specialized organs of the propagation
often develop, but must have buds which only occur on stems (no matter how small).
Examples include bulbs, corms, rhizomes, runners (stolons) and tubers.

It is important to note that vegetative propagation can be induced artificially also by

horticulturists aside from the natural process.

FRAGMENTATION

In this mode of reproduction, a new plant is produced from a portion of parent plant and
each section develops into a mature individual. This process also occurs in plants where
small parts of the plant fall off onto the soil and continue their growth naturally. Examples
are seen in mosses and liverworts. Note that the process of fragmentation is commonly
adopted in nurseries and greenhouses to produce plants quickly.

SPORE FORMATION

With the use of spores (asexual reproductive body covered with a protective layer to
withstand unfavorable environmental conditions), plants such as algae, mosses and ferns
germinate and grow under the right conditions into new plants.

ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION IN PLANTS

Artificial propagation methods are used by agriculturist and horticulturist for preserving
desired varieties of properties in plants (and their fruits). The traditional methods of
artificial propagation in plants include Cuttings, Grafting and Layering while the modern
method is by Micropropagation (also known as Tissue Culture).

Cutting is a simple procedure in which part of the plant is removed by cutting and paced
in a suitable medium for growth. The process is used commercially for blackcurrant
bushes while Chrysanthemums are propagated by cuttings from shoots.

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Grafting is the transfer of one plant (Scion) onto the lower part of another plant (Stock).
The scion is chosen for its fruit while the stock for characteristic properties such as
disease resistance and hardness. Examples are seen in apple trees, plum and peach.

Layering is an artificial propagation method where the new plant remains partially
attached to the parent plant while forming new roots which are later cut to detach them
from the parent. This method is commonly used mostly for Jasmine, Strawberry plants
and many other runners.

Micropropagation is the cloning or propagation of plants by tissue culture. In detail, it is

the use of a small size or group of isolated cells or tissue removed from plants which are
stimulated to grow in special culture solutions with nutrients and plant hormones such as
auxins and cytokinins which are required for continued cellular division facilitate growth.
This method is widely used for the rapid multiplication (propagation) of desired varieties.
Other advantages include genetic modification of plants, little space is required, plants
are grown in disease free conditions etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

While it has the main advantage of ensuring varieties of maintained in their pure form, it
does not guarantee genetic variation which is required for the long term survival of species
in the event of unfavourable environmental conditions.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Flowers are reproductive structures which are sometimes regarded as collection of highly
specialized leaves. The different parts of a flower and the associated terminologies
associated with flowering plants shall be examined.

Parts of a Flower

Figure showing the longitudinal section of a generalized flower

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Inflorescence: a collection of flowers borne on the same stalk.
Pedicel: this is the flower stalk from upon which the receptacle is situated.
Receptacle: this is the top most part of the flower stalk from which other parts of the
flower arise.
Perianth: comprises of both the outer calyx and inner corolla.
Calyx: is a collection of sepals.
Sepal: are leaf like structures that enclose and protect the flower buds.
Corolla: is a collection of petals.
Androecium: is the collection of stamens forming the male reproductive organs of the
flower.
Stamen: it is made up of an anther and a filament.
Anther: it contains the pollen sacs in which pollen is made.
Filament: it contains a vascular bundle that carries food and water to the anther.
Gynoecium: is the collection of carpels forming the female reproductive organs of the
flower.
Carpels: comprises of a stigma, style and ovary.
Stigma: it receives the pollen grains during pollination.
Style: it bears the stigma in a suitable position in the flower to receive the pollen.
Ovary: it is a swollen hollow base of the carpel which contains one or more ovules.
Ovules: are the structures in which the embryo sacs develop and which after fertilization
seeds become. Each ovule is connected to the ovary wall by a funicle (a short stalk) and
the point of attachment is called the placenta.
Hypogynous flower: a flower where the stamens and perianth are positioned below the
gynoecium.
Epigynous flower: a flower where the stamens and perianth are positioned above the
gynoecium.
Perigynous flower: a flower where the receptacle is flattened or cup-shaped with the
gynoecium at the centre, with the stamens and perianth attached around the rim.
Superior Ovary: an ovary located above the other flower parts on the receptacle i.e. the
ovary of a hypogynous flower.
Inferior Ovary: an ovary located below the other flower parts on the receptacle i.e. the
ovary of an epigynous flower.

Note: the following terms are applied to whole plants and their flowers
Hermaphrodite or Bisexual plants: consists of both male and female sex organs on the
same plant.
Dioecious or Unisexual plants: consists of male and female sex organs borne on separate
plants i.e. the plant is either male or female e.g. yew, willow etc.
Monoecious plants: are separate male and female flowers borne on the same plant e.g.
oak, hazel, beech etc. Such plants are hermaphrodite.

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POLLINATION

Pollination is the process of the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma and
must be achieved if the male gametes in the pollen are to reach the female gametes.
Special mechanisms have evolved to increase the chances of pollination and these
include wind and insect pollination.
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to a stigma of the same flower or
a flower of the same plant while Cross pollination is the transfer of anthers of one plant
to the stigma of another plant. Both types of pollination methods have advantages and
disadvantages but usually opt for self pollination if cross pollination attempts fail.

FERILIZATION
After successful pollination, a pollen tube germinates and grows down the style towards
the ovary. During the growth of the pollen tube, the generative nucleus of the pollen grain
divides by mitosis to produce two male nuclei which depend on the pollen tube to reach
the female gamete located in the embryo sac of the ovule (through the micropyle). One
of the male nucleus fuses with the female gamete forming a diploid Zygote while other
male nucleus fuses with the diploid nucleus forming a Primary endosperm nucleus (i.e.
a triploid nucleus). This feature called Double Fertilization only occurs in flowering plants
which leads to the two structures Embryo and Endosperm found in the seed.

Note that if more than one ovule is present in the gynoecium, each one must be fertilized
by a separate pollen grain if it is to become a seed, creating the possibility that each seed
can be fertilized by a pollen grain from a different plant.

After fertilization, what follows is that the ovule becomes the seed and the ovary becomes
the fruit. Development of the seed and fruit continues until the final stages which involve
water reduction in the seed from 90% to about 10% reducing the potential for metabolic
activity and vital for ensuring seed dormancy.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Advantages include genetic variability hence the ability of seed dormancy (in
unfavourable conditions) and seed germination (in favourable conditions). However, the
disadvantages include the reliance on chance for pollination via insects or wind and seeds
are eaten by animals for their food reserves.

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REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Animals generally produce offspring through either asexual or sexual means of

reproduction to ensure the survival of the species in order to prevent the species from
going extinct. Reproduction may be asexual when one individual produces genetically
identical offspring or sexual when the genetic material from two individuals is combined
to produce genetically diverse offspring. Though there may be different methods adopted
by different groups of animals for reproduction or slight variations of the same method
adopted by different groups, both methods have advantages and disadvantages which
will be examined in the course of study.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Asexual reproduction occurs in prokaryotic microorganisms (bacteria and archaea) and

in many eukaryotic, single-celled and multi-celled organisms. There are several ways that
animals reproduce asexually which occurs through either fission, budding, fragmentation,
or parthenogenesis.

FISSION

Fission also known as binary fission, is process in which a single parent cell appears to
split itself into two parts to form two daughter cells. In the case of a multicellular organism,
it can be split into two but will regenerate the missing parts of each new organism.

In single celled organism like prokaryotes like Bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus,
Escherichia coli etc.) or protozoans (e.g. Amoeba, paramecium etc.).

In multicellular organisms like Planaria (a turbellarian flatworm) e.g. Dugesia

dorotocephala, it is able to separate its body into head and tail region and then regenerate
the missing half in each of the two new organisms. Other examples include Sea
anemones (Cnidaria), such as the genus Anthopleura, sea cucumbers (Echinodermata)
of the genus Holothuria.

It is important to note that another form of fission that occurs in animals is MULTIPLE
FISSION. This is also a form of asexual reproduction which multiple daughter cells are
produced from the parent cell. Examples occur in sporozoans (various plasmodium
parasites etc.) and algae.

BUDDING

Budding is a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth (known as a
BUD) of a part of the parent body leading to a separation that eventually forms of two
individuals, one smaller in size than the other. Budding occurs when a parent cell forms
a bubble-like bud. The bud stays attached to the parent cell while it grows and develops.

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When the bud is fully developed, it breaks away from the parent cell and forms a new
organism e.g. budding occurs commonly in some invertebrate animals such as hydras
and corals.

FRAGMENTATION AND REGENERATION

Fragmentation is the breaking of an individual into parts followed by regeneration. If the

animal is capable of fragmentation, and the parts are big enough, a separate individual
will regrow from each part. Fragmentation may occur through accidental damage,
damage from predators, or as a natural form of reproduction. Reproduction through
fragmentation is observed in sponges, some cnidarians, turbellarians, echinoderms, and
annelids. In some sea stars, a new individual can be regenerated from a broken arm and
a piece of the central disc.

PARTHENOGENESIS

Parthenogenesis (Partheno = virgin, genesis = birth) is a form of asexual reproduction in

which an egg develops into an individual without being fertilized. The individual formed
by parthenogenesis which are called Parthenotes (i.e. resulting offspring) can be either
haploid or diploid, depending on the process in the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in
invertebrates such as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, and ants, wasps, and
bees. Ants, bees, and wasps use parthenogenesis to produce haploid males (drones).
The diploid females (workers and queens) are the result of a fertilized egg. Some
vertebrate animals such as certain reptiles, amphibians, and fish, they can also reproduce
through parthenogenesis e.g. Komodo dragons, a hammerhead shark, and a blacktop
shark have produced parthenogenic young when the females have been isolated from
males. It is possible that the asexual reproduction observed occurred in response to
unusual circumstances and would normally not occur.

Parthenogenesis may be of two types: viz (i) Natural Parthenogenesis and (ii) Artificial
Parthenogenesis

NATURAL PARTHENOGENESIS

When Parthenogenesis occurs spontaneously, it is said to be natural parthenogenesis.

Parthenogenesis is regular natural phenomenon in a few groups of animals. Some
animals reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis. In some other species,
parthenogenesis alternates with sexual reproduction. Based on this natural
parthenogenesis is divided into two groups, namely complete parthenogenesis and
incomplete parthenogenesis

Complete Parthenogenesis - In certain animals, parthenogenesis is the only method

of reproduction. This type of parthenogenesis is called complete or total or obligatory

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parthenogenesis. Populations exhibiting total parthenogenesis consist entirely of
females. There are no males e.g Lacerta (Lizard).

Incomplete Parthenogenesis. - In some animals, parthenogenetic reproduction and

sexual reproduction occur alternately. This is called incomplete or cyclical
parthenogenesis. For example, in aphids and rotifers, one sexual reproduction occurs in
summer after several parthenogenetic reproduction.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
because the offspring are all clones of the original parent. A single individual can produce
offspring asexually and large numbers of offspring can be produced quickly; these are
two advantages that asexually reproducing organisms have over sexually reproducing
organisms. In a stable or predictable environment, asexual reproduction is an effective
means of reproduction because all the offspring will be adapted to that environment. In
an unstable or unpredictable environment, species that reproduce asexually may be at a
disadvantage because all the offspring are genetically identical and may not be adapted
to different conditions.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Sexual reproduction is the combination of reproductive cells from two individuals to form
a genetically unique offspring. It may involve fertilization inside the body or in the external
environment. A species may have separate sexes or combined sexes; when the sexes
are combined they may be expressed at different times in the life cycle. The sex of an
individual may be determined by various chromosomal systems or environmental factors
such as temperature.

The nature of the individuals that produce the two kinds of gametes can vary, having for
example separate sexes or both sexes in each individual. Sex determination, the
mechanism that determines which sex an individual develops into, also can vary.

HERMAPHRODITISM

Hermaphroditism is the phenomena occurs in animals in which one individual has both
male and female reproductive systems occurs in invertebrates such as earthworms,
slugs, tapeworms, and snails. Hermaphrodites may self-fertilize, but typically they will
mate with another of their species, fertilizing each other and both producing offspring. It
is important to note that self-fertilization is more common in animals that have limited
mobility or are not motile, such as barnacles and clams. Many species have specific

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mechanisms in place to prevent self-fertilization, because it is an extreme form of
inbreeding and usually produces less fit offspring.

SEX DETERMINATION

Mammalian sex is determined genetically by the combination of X and Y chromosomes.

Individuals homozygous for X (XX) are female and heterozygous individuals (XY) are
male. In mammals, the presence of a Y chromosome causes the development of male
characteristics and its absence results in female characteristics. The XY system is also
found in some insects and plants.

Bird sex determination is dependent on the combination of Z and W chromosomes.

Homozygous for Z (ZZ) results in a male and heterozygous (ZW) results in a female.
Notice that this system is the opposite of the mammalian system because in birds the
female is the sex with the different sex chromosomes. The W appears to be essential in
determining the sex of the individual, similar to the Y chromosome in mammals. Some
fish, crustaceans, insects (such as butterflies and moths), and reptiles use the ZW
system.

More complicated chromosomal sex determining systems also exist. For example, some
swordtail fish have three sex chromosomes in a population.

The sex of some other species is not determined by chromosomes, but by some aspect
of the environment. Sex determination in alligators, some turtles, and tuataras, for
example, is dependent on the temperature during the middle third of egg development.
This is referred to as environmental sex determination, or more specifically, as
temperature-dependent sex determination. In many turtles, cooler temperatures during
egg incubation produce males and warm temperatures produce females, while in many
other species of turtles, the reverse is true. In some crocodiles and some turtles, moderate
temperatures produce males and both warm and cool temperatures produce females.

Individuals of some species change their sex during their lives, switching from one to the
other. If the individual is female first, it is termed PROTOGYNY or if it is male first,
PROTANDRY. Examples are seen in Oysters which are born as male, grow in size, and
become female and lay eggs. The wrasses, a family of reef fishes, are all SEQUENTIAL
HERMAPHRODITES. Some of these species live in closely coordinated schools with a
dominant male and a large number of smaller females. If the male dies, a female
increases in size, changes sex, and becomes the new dominant male.

FERTILIZATION

Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg – fertilization
which is the successful fusion of a sperm and an egg. This can occur either outside the

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bodies or inside the female. The method of fertilization varies among animals. Some
species release the egg and sperm into the environment, some species retain the egg
and receive the sperm into the female body and then expel the developing embryo
covered with shell, while still other species retain the developing offspring throughout the
gestation period. Humans provide an example of internal fertilization while frog
reproduction is an example of external fertilization.

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both eggs and sperm
are released into the water. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place.
Most external fertilization happens during the process of spawning where one or several
females release their eggs and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same
time. The spawning may be triggered by environmental signals, such as water
temperature or the length of daylight. Nearly all fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as
crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and echinoderms (such as sea
urchins and sea cucumbers). Frogs, corals, mayflies, and mosquitoes also spawn

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

Internal fertilization occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic
animals also use this method. Internal fertilization may occur by the male directly
depositing sperm in the female during mating. It may also occur by the male depositing
sperm in the environment, usually in a protective structure, which a female picks up to
deposit the sperm in her reproductive tract. There are three ways that offspring are
produced following internal fertilization. In oviparity, fertilized eggs are laid outside the
female’s body and develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the
egg. This occurs in some bony fish, some reptiles, a few cartilaginous fish, some
amphibians, a few mammals, and all birds. Most non-avian reptiles and insects produce
leathery eggs, while birds and some turtles produce eggs with high concentrations of
calcium carbonate in the shell, making them hard. Chicken eggs are an example of a hard
shell. The eggs of the egg-laying mammals such as the platypus and echidna are
leathery.

In ovoviparity, fertilized eggs are retained in the female, and the embryo obtains its
nourishment from the egg’s yolk. The eggs are retained in the female’s body until they
hatch inside of her, or she lays the eggs right before they hatch. This process helps
protect the eggs until hatching. This occurs in some bony fish (like the
platyfish Xiphophorus maculatus, some sharks, lizards, some snakes (garter

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snake Thamnophis sirtalis), some vipers, and some invertebrate animals (Madagascar
hissing cockroach Gromphadorhina portentosa).

In viviparity the young are born alive. They obtain their nourishment from the female and
are born in varying states of maturity. This occurs in most mammals, some cartilaginous
fish, and a few reptiles.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction

During sexual reproduction, the genetic material of two individuals is combined to produce
genetically diverse offspring that differ from their parents. The genetic diversity of sexually
produced offspring is thought to give sexually reproducing individuals greater fitness
because more of their offspring may survive and reproduce in an unpredictable or
changing environment. Species that reproduce sexually (and have separate sexes) must
maintain two different types of individuals, males and females. Only half the population
(females) can produce the offspring, so fewer offspring will be produced when compared
to asexual reproduction. This is a disadvantage of sexual reproduction compared to
asexual reproduction.

SUMMARY OF TERMS

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: a mechanism that produces offspring that are genetically

identical to the parent

BUDDING: a form of asexual reproduction that results from the outgrowth of a part of an
organism leading to a separation from the original animal into two individuals

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION: the fertilization of eggs by sperm outside an animal’s body,

often during spawning

FISSION: (also, binary fission) a form of asexual reproduction in which an organism splits
into two separate organisms or two parts that regenerate the missing portions of the body

FRAGMENTATION: the breaking of an organism into parts and the growth of a separate
individual from each part

HERMAPHRODITISM: the state of having both male and female reproductive structures
within the same individual

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION: the fertilization of eggs by sperm inside the body of the
female

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OVIPARITY: a process by which fertilized eggs are laid outside the female’s body and
develop there, receiving nourishment from the yolk that is a part of the egg

OVOVIPARITY: a process by which fertilized eggs are retained within the female; the
embryo obtains its nourishment from the egg’s yolk, and the young are fully developed
when they are hatched

PARTHENOGENESIS: a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into a

complete individual without being fertilized

SEX DETERMINATION: the mechanism by which the sex of individuals in sexually

reproducing organisms is initially established

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: a form of reproduction in which cells containing genetic

material from two individuals combines to produce genetically unique offspring

VIVIPARITY: a process in which the young develop within the female and are born in a
non-embryonic state

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