Sensitometry

The study of the relationship between the intensity of exposure of the

film and the blackness after processing is called sensitometry.
Knowledge of the sensitometric aspects of radiographic film is essential
for maintaining adequate quality control.
Characteristic Curve The two principal measurements involved in
sensitometry are the exposure to the film and the percentage of light
transmitted through the processed film. Such measurements are used to
describe the relationship between optical density(OD) and radiation
exposure. This relationship is called a characteristic curve, or sometimes
the H & D curve after Hurter and Driffield, who first described this
relationship.
Two pieces of apparatus are needed to construct a characteristic
curve: an optical step wedge, sometimes called a sensitometer, and a
densitometer, a device that measures OD. An aluminum step wedge, or
penetrometer, can also be used as an alternative to the sensitometer.
Radiographic film is sensitive over a wide range of exposures. Film-
screen, for example, responds to radiation intensities from less than 1 to
greater than 1000 mR. Consequently, the exposure values for a
characteristic curve are presented in logarithmic fashion. Furthermore, it
is not the absolute exposure that is of interest but rather the change in OD
over each exposure interval. Therefore, log relative exposure (LRE) is
used as the scale along the x-axis.
The LRE scale usually is presented in increments of 0.3 because the
log of 2, doubling the exposure, is 0.3. Doubling the exposure can be
achieved by doubling the mAs.
The useful range of OD is approximately 0.25 to 2.5.
Most radiographs, however, show image patterns in the range of 0.5 to
1.25 OD. Attention to this part of the characteristic curve is essential.
However, very low OD may be too light to contain an image, whereas
very high OD requires a hot light to view the image.
ODs of unexposed film are due to base density and fog density. Base
density is the OD that is inherent in the base of the film. It is due to the
composition of the base and the tint added to the base to make the
radiograph more pleasing to the eye. Base density has a value of
approximately 0.1.
Film contrast is related to the slope of the straight-line portion of the
characteristic curve. The characteristic curve of an image receptor allows
one to judge at a glance the relative degree of contrast. If the slope or
steepness of the straight-line portion of the characteristic curve had a
value of 1, then it would be angled at 45 degrees. An increase of 1 unit
along the LRE axis would result in an increase of 1 unit along the OD
axis. The contrast would be 1.
An image receptor that has a contrast of 1 has very low contrast.
Image receptors with a contrast higher than 1 amplify the subject contrast
during x-ray examination. An image receptor with a contrast of 3, for
instance, would show large OD differences over a small range of x-ray
exposure.
Speed The ability of an image receptor to respond to a low x-ray
exposure is a measure of its sensitivity or, more commonly, its speed. An
exposure of less than 1 mR can be detected with a film-screen
combination, whereas several mR are necessary to produce a measurable
exposure with direct-exposure film.
Speed Point The speed of radiographic film typically is determined by
locating the point on a sensitometric curve that corresponds to the optical
density of 1.0 plus B+F. This point is called the speed point. This optical
density point is used because it is within the straight-line portion of the
sensitometric curve. The speed point serves as a standard method of
indicating film speed.
The characteristic curve of a fast image receptor is positioned to the
left—closer to the y-axis—of that of a slow image receptor.
Radiographic image receptors are identified as fast or slow according to
their sensitivity to x-ray exposure.
Usually, identification of a given image receptor as so many times
faster than another is sufficient for the radiologic technologist. If A were
twice as fast as B, image receptor A would require only half the mAs
required by B to produce a given OD. Moreover, the image on image
receptor A might be of poor quality because of increased radiographic
noise.
Latitude An additional image receptor feature easily obtained from the
characteristic curve is latitude. Latitude refers to the range of exposures
over which the image receptor responds with ODs in the diagnostically
useful range.
Latitude also can be thought of as the margin of error in technical
factors. With wider latitude, mAs can vary more and still produce a
diagnostic image. Image receptor B responds to a much wider range of
exposures than A and is said to have a wider latitude than A.
As development time or temperature increases, changes occur in the
shape and relative position of the characteristic curve.
 Digital Imaging The response of a digital image receptor to the intensity
of radiation exposure is different when compared with that of
radiographic film. The digital image receptor is more responsive to the
wide range of x-ray intensities exiting the anatomic part. In addition, a
digital imaging system can retain significantly more information than
radiographic film. The information received from the digital image
receptor and processed in the computer represents the dynamic range
capabilities of the digital system. Dynamic range refers to the range of
exposure intensities an image receptor can accurately detect. The greater
the number of x-ray photon intensities recorded and available to create an
image, the wider the dynamic range of the imaging system. Digital
imaging systems have the ability to visually display a wider range of
densities than film radiography.
As evidenced by the sensitometric curve for film, xray intensities
must fall within a smaller range to display radiographic densities that can be
visible. The linear response of a digital image receptor results in a greater
range of densities available for display within the digital image. The digital
image can display a shade of gray that represents low x-ray intensity, as well
as medium and high x-ray intensities.

Screen Contact Test

Without good contact between the film and screens of the cassette, detail will be
lost on the radiograph. Therefore, it is necessary to routinely perform a screen
contact test on all of your cassettes. Screen contact tests are required at intervals
not to exceed 24 months, per Minnesota Rule Chapter 4732.1100. (Installation
Calibration Tests and Equipment Perfomance Tests for Quality Assurance
Program).

Equipment needed for general radiography

 No significant areas of poor contact as measured by no less than:

(i) 8 wires/inch (8 wires / 2.54 cm ) mesh; or
 (ii) 7 holes/inch (7 holes/2.54cm) for regular film;
(iii) 40 wires/inch (40 wires / 2.54cm) mesh or greater for mammography film.
 These test tools are generally encased in acrylic for ease of handling
 Densitometer (if available)

Frequency of test

At intervals not to exceed 24 months

Procedure

 Ensure that cassettes to be tested have been allowed to sit for at least 15 minutes
after loading. This will allow for any trapped air to dissipate.
 Place a loaded cassette on top of the x-ray table and place the wire mesh on top
of the cassette.
 Select a standard focal film distance (usually 40") and center the x-ray beam to
the cassette. (Dental pan cassettes may need a greater distance to cover the full
cassette.)
 "Cone down" or restrict the primary beam to the outside edges of the cassette.
 Identify the cassette with lead numbers or letters corresponding to the I.D. on
the screen inside. (All screens need identifying marks; e.g., numbers or letters
that show up on each radiograph. This enables you to identify which cassette
has a problem when one is observed.)
 Select a technique that will produce an optical density of approximately 2.0 on
the developed film. For a 400 speed film-screen combination a technique of 65
kVp and 5 mAs is a starting point. Finding a technique to produce the 2.0 (± 0.5
O.D.) may take some trial and error. Remember that cassettes of a different
speed (e.g., extremity) will require a different exposure.
 Record for future use the technique that produced the appropriate optical
density on the film, the room used, and focal-film-distance used.
 Label, expose and process the film from each cassette.
 View each film on a view box in a dimly lit room from a distance of
approximately six feet or more.
 Look for areas that are darker and/or more blurry than the rest of the film. This
indicates poor contact. Do not try to identify poor contact by closely looking for
fuzzy wires on the film.
 Areas of poor contact need to be evaluated as to their land size. An area of poor
contact extending less than an inch from the edge into the film may not be a
problem depending on the type of radiographs you take. If the area of poor
contact could obscure important information on a radiograph, remove the
cassette from service
 SCREEN-FILM –CASSETTE SPEED MATCH: The minimum test interval is
is not to exceed 24 months. Densities within ± 0.10 OD for all cassettes of the
same speed used for imaging.
 CR IMAGING PLATES: Test at intervals not to exceed three months or upon
observation of image artefacts. Follow manufacturer’s recommendation

SCREEN-FILM CONTACT TEST :

OBJECTIVE: To assure that optimum contact is maintained between the

screen(s) and film in each cassette.
SUGGESTED PERFORMANCE CRITERIA: No large areas (> 2 cm in
diameter) of poor contact.
FREQUENCY: 1. Acceptance testing for new cassettes 2. Annually 3.
As needed, if reduced image sharpness is suspected
REQUIRED EQUIPMENT: 1. Brass or copper mesh screens (1/8 inch or
3 mm spacing). The mesh should be as large as the largest cassette to be
tested. The mesh can be placed between two thin sheets of acrylic or
cardboard to protect it. 2. Densitometer STEPS: 1. Load cassettes to be
tested and let rest for approximately 15 minutes to allow trapped air to
escape. 2. Place the cassette on the table and collimate the beam to the
cassette size. 3. Place the wire mesh on top of the cassette and expose the
cassette. (Suggested technique factors are: 5-10 mAs, 50 kVp; 2 mAs, 70
kVp; or 3-5 mAs, 60 kVp). 4. Process the film. The optical density of the
area between the wires of the mesh on the film should be between 1.5
and 2.0. 5. View the film on a viewbox in a room with low ambient
lighting. Stand 6 to 8 feet away from the viewbox to evaluate the film. 6.
Areas of poor contact will appear as dark areas on the film. 7. Record
results on the Annual QC Checklist (Form 7).
CORRECTIVE ACTON: Large areas (>2 cm in diameter) of poor
contact may indicate the need for corrective action. Clean the cassettes
and retest. Areas of poor contact around the periphery of the cassette may
indicate faulty latches or worn seals on the cassettes. If the area of poor
contact is not eliminated by cleaning, consider replacing the cassette.