NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: MTH315

COURSE TITLE: ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MTH315 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE
GUIDE

MTH315
ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Course Team Dr. S.O. Ajibola (Developer/Writer) - NOUN

Dr. B. Abiola (Coordinator) - NOUN
Dr. S.O. Ajibola (Co-coordinator) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

ii
MTH315 COURSE GUIDE

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-405-6

All Rights Reserved

CONTENTS PAGE

iii
MTH315 COURSE GUIDE

Introduction …………………………………………………..……. 1
What you will Learn in this course………………………………… 1
Course Aims …………………………………………………..…… 1
Course Objectives …………………………………………………. 1
Working through this Course………………………………………. 2
Course Materials …………………………………………….……... 2
Study Units ……………………………………………….………… 2
Textbooks and References …..…………………………………….. 3
Assignment File……………………………………………………. 3
Presentation Schedule……………………………………………… 3
Assessment ………………………………………………………… 3
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………………. 4
Final Examination and Grading……………………………………. 4
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………………… 4
How to Get the Best from this Course……………………………… 4
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials…………………………………... 6
Summary…………………………………………………………… 6

iv
Introduction

MTH315 - Analytical Dynamics is designed to teach you how

mathematics could be used in solving problems in the contemporary
Science/Technology and Engineering world. Therefore, the course is
structured to expose you to the skills required to attain a level of
proficiency in Analytical Dynamics.

What you will Learn in this course

You will be taught the basics of Analytical Dynamics; an aspect of
Applied Mathematics.

Course Aims

There are thirteen study units in the course and each unit has its
objectives. You should read the objectives of each unit and bear them in
mind as you go through the unit. In addition to the objectives of each
unit, the overall aims of this course include to:

(i) introduce you to the words and concepts in Applied Mathematics

(ii) familiarise you with the peculiar characteristics in Analytical
Dynamics
(iii) expose you to the need for and demands of mathematics in the
Science/ Technology and Engineering world
(iv) prepare you for the contemporary Science/Technology and
Engineering world.

Course Objectives

By the end of the course, you should be able to:

• define the term “constraint”

• mention the types of constraint
• differentiate between the various types of constraint
• state D’Alambert’s Principle and relevant theorems
• apply the Lagrange’s equations to find the differential equations
• state the Lagrange function of particle(s) moving in a
conservation force field
• derive Lagrange’s equations for holonomic and non-holonomic
constraint respectively
• define and explain simple harmonic motion
• state the forces causing simple harmonic motion
• explain the suspension by an elastic string
• define conical pendulum
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

• relate discreet and continuous system to degree of freedom

• define conical pendulum
• identify the forces causing simple harmonic motion
• discuss the suspension by an elastic string

Working through this Course

You have to work through all the study units in the course. There are
seven modules and thirteen study units in all.

Course Materials

Major components of the course are:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Textbooks
4. CDs
5. Assignments File
6. Presentation Schedule

Study Units

The breakdown of the seven modules and thirteen study units are as
follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 Degree of Freedom

Unit 2 Constraints

Module 2

Unit 1 Lagrange’s Equation

Module 3

Unit 1 Impulsive Motion

Module 4

Unit 1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Unit 2 Collation of Smooth Spheres

ii
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Module 5

Unit 1 Newton’s Law of Motion

Unit 2 Work, Power and Energy
Unit 3 Rectilinear Motion

Module 6

Unit 1 Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid Body to a

Force and a Couple
Unit 2 Moment of a Force

Module 7

Unit 1 The Hamiltonian

Unit 2 The Calculus of Variation

Textbooks and References

Every unit contains a list of references and further reading. Try to get as
many as possible, of those textbooks and materials listed. The textbooks
and materials are meant to deepen your knowledge of the course.

Assignment File

In this file, you will find all the details of the work you must submit to
your tutor for marking. The marks you obtain from these assignments
will count towards the final mark you obtain for this course. Further
information on assignments will be found in the Assignment File itself
and in the section on assessment of this Course Guide.

Presentation Schedule

The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you

the important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and
attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your
assignments by the due date. You should guard against falling behind in
your work.

Assessment

Your assessment will be based on Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

and a final examination which you will write at the end of the course.

iii
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

Every unit contains at least one or two assignments. You are advised to
work through all the assignments and submit them for assessment. Your
tutor will assess the assignments and select four which will constitute
the 30% of your final grade. The tutor-marked assignments may be
presented to you in a separate file. Just know that for every unit there are
some tutor-marked assignments for you. It is important you do them and
submit for assessment.

Final Examination and Grading

At the end of the course, you will write a final examination which will
constitute 70% of your final grade. In the examination which shall last
for two hours, you will be requested to answer three questions out of at
least five questions.

Course Marking Scheme

This table shows how the actual course marking is broken down.
Assessment Marks
Assignments Four assignments, best three marks of the four
count at 30% of course marks
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

How to Get the Best from this Course

In distance learning, the study units replace the university lecture. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suits you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to the lecturer. In the same way a lecturer might give
you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read, and which
are your text materials or set books. You are provided exercises to do at
appropriate points, just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise.
Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit, and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next to this is
a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. These
learning objectives are meant to guide your study. The moment a unit is
finished, you must go back and check whether you have achieved the
objectives. If this is made a habit, then you will significantly improve
your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides

iv
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

you through the required reading from other sources. This will usually
be either from your set books or from a Reading section. The following
is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any
trouble, telephone your tutor. Remember that your tutor’s job is to help
you. When you need assistance, do not hesitate to call and ask your tutor
to provide it.

In addition, do the following:

1) Read this Course Guide thoroughly, it is your first assignment.

2) Organise a Study Schedule. Design a ‘Course Overview’ to guide

you through the Course. Note the time you are expected to spend
on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units.
Important information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date
of the first day of the semester is available from the study centre.
You need to gather all the information in one place, such as your
diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use,
you should decide on and write in your own dates and schedule
of work for each unit.

3) Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything to

stay faithful to it. The major reason that students fail is that they
get behind with their course work. If you get into difficulties with
your schedule, please, let your tutor know before it is too late for
help.

4) Turn to unit 1, and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.

5) Assemble the study materials. You will need your set books and
the unit you are studying at any point in time.

6) Work through the unit. As you work through the unit, you will
know what sources to consult for further information.

7) Keep in touch with your study centre. Up-to-date course

information will be continuously available there.

8) Well before the relevant due dates (about 4 weeks before due
dates), keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the
assignment carefully. They have been designed to help you meet
the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you pass the
examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date.

v
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

9) Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your tutor.

10) When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s
objectives, you can start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit
through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.

11) When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-
marked assignment form and also the written comments on the
ordinary assignments.

12) After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in the Course Guide).

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

The dates, times and locations of these tutorials will be made available
to you, together with the name, telephone number and the address of
your tutor. Each assignment will be marked by your tutor. Pay close
attention to the comments your tutor might make on your assignments as
these will help in your progress. Make sure that your assignments reach
your tutor on or before the due date.

Your tutorials are important. Therefore, try not to skip any. It is an

opportunity to meet your tutor and your fellow students. It is also an
opportunity to get the help of your tutor and discuss any difficulties
encountered on your reading.

Summary

Analytical Dynamics is designed to teach you how mathematics could

be used in solving problems in contemporary Science/Technology and
Engineering world. Therefore, MTH315 is duly structured to expose you
to the skills required to attain a level of proficiency in Analytical
Dynamics.

Wishing you the best of luck as you read through this course.

vi
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Course Code MTH315

Course Title Analytical Dynamics

Course Team Dr. S.O. Ajibola (Developer/Writer) - NOUN

Dr. B. Abiola (Coordinator) - NOUN
Dr. S.O. Ajibola (Co-coordinator) - NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

vii
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By:
National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2011

ISBN: 978-058-405-6

All Rights Reserved

viii
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 …………………………………………………………. 1

Unit 1 Degree of Freedom……………………………………. 1

Unit 2 Constraints…………………………………………….. 13

Module 2 …………………………………………………………. 22

Unit 1 Lagrange’s Equation………………………………….. 22

Module 3 …………………………………………………………. 37

Unit 1 Impulsive Motion………………………………….….. 37

Module 2 …………………………………………………………. 46

Unit 1 Simple Harmonic Motion……………………………. 46

Unit 2 Collation of Smooth Spheres………………………… 56

Module 5 Newton’s Law of Motion and Applications to Simple

Problems……………………………………………… 70

Unit 1 Newton’s Law of Motion.............................................. 70

Unit 2 Work, Power and Energy.............................................. 76
Unit 3 Rectilinear Motion......................................................... 85

Module 6 …………………………………………………………. 91

Unit 1 Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid

Body to a Force and a Couple...................................... 91
Unit 2 Moment of a Force....................................................... 97

Module 7 Hamiltonian Theory………………………………… 109

Unit 1 The Hamiltonian……………………………………….109

Unit 2 The Calculus of Variation……………………………. 114
Unit 3 The Hamilton-Jacobi Equation………………………..127

ix
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Degree of Freedom

Unit 2 Constraints

UNIT 1 DEGREE OF FREEDOM

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Degree of Freedom
3.2 Total Kinetic Energy
3.3 Total Angular Momentum
3.4 Conservation Theory of Total Angular Momentum
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Elementary classical dynamics evolved as a result of the dynamics of an

object which may be seen as a point-mass or a particle. Practical
situations often involve studying the dynamics of collections or systems
of particles. If the particles of such a system are separated from each
other, the system is said to be discrete; otherwise, called a continuous
system. However, a discrete system having a large but finite number of
particles can be said to be continuous as well.

Conversely, in practical cases a discrete system having a very large but

finite number of particles can be called a continuous system.

2.0 OBJECTIVE

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• relate discreet and continuous system to degree of freedom.

1
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Degree of Freedom

The number of coordinates required to specify the position of a system

of particle is called the number of degrees of freedom of the system.

For instance, a system of N particles, moving freely in space has 3N

independent coordinates or degrees of freedom. Consider the system
represented below:

M2
2 M1

Cm MN
~
r1 ~
r2
2

R 2 ~
rN

Where Cm denotes the centre of mass

Let r~1 , ~
r2 ,..........~
rN denote the positive vectors of System of N particles of
constants masses m1, m2… mN. If the centre of the system of the
particle (i.e. centre of mass) is defined as the point Cm where its position
~ ~
vector R , then R is given as:
N

~
∑M r i i
1 N
R = i =1
N
=
M
∑ M r …………………………………...………. (1)
i i

∑M
i =1
i
i =1

N
Where M = ∑M .
i =1
i This is the total mass of the system.

2
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Then the total momentum P of the system is given as:

~

N N
P = ∑ M i ri = ∑ M iVi
~
i =1 i =1

dr ~
Where Vi = =r
~ dt ~

N
d N
But P =
~
∑ M iVi =
i =1
∑ M i ri
dt i =1

d ~
= MR
dt
~
dR
= M = MV ……………………………………. (3)
dt

~
dR
Where = is the velocity of the centroid.
dt

Consequently,

P = M V ………………………………………………………. (4)
~ ~

3.2 Total Kinetic Energy

The total kinetic energy T of a system of N particles is given by:

2
1 N 1 d N
T= ∑ M i Vi = ∑ M i r~ ……………………………………… (5)
2

2 i =1 2 dt i =1

Motion of the Centre of Mass

In considering the motion of the centre of mass of a system of N

particles, we must distinguish between external forces acting on the
particles due to the influence outside the system and internal forces.
Then, by Newton’s second law of motion, the equation of motion for the
ith particles is obtained as:

o N
Pi = ∑ F ji + Fi (e) …………………………….……………………… (6)
~ j =i ~
j +i

3
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Where Fi (e) is the resultant external force on the ith particles due to the
~

jth particle but Fi i = 0 …………………………………………….. (7)

~

Assuming that the system obeys Newton’s third Law of Motion which
states that “If particle I acts on particle J with a for Fij in a direction
along the line joining the ith and jth particles, while particle j acts on
particle i with a force Fji, conversely, then action and reaction are equal
and opposite.

Mathematically, it can be shown that:

F12 = - F21 ……………………………………………….……………………(8)

~ ~ ~ ~
But F12 + F21 = 0 ⇒ F12 + F21 = 0 ……………………...………………. (9)

Consequently,
N

∑ F ji = 0 ………………………….………………………………... (10)
i= j
~
i+ j

In view of equation (10), equation (6) can.

Substituting equation (1) into equation (6), we obtained:

N
d2 N N

∑ &
P
i =1 ~
i =
dt 2
∑ M i ri = ∑ Fi (e) ………………………………………. (11)
i =1 i =1

Consequently, equation (1) can be written as

d2 N
M
dt 2
R = ∑ Fi (e) ≡ F (e) …………………………..……………….. (12)
i =1 ~
~

Remarks

Equation (12) above states that the centroid (centre of mass) moves as if
the total external force Fe were acting on the centre of mass. Thus,
~

purely internal forces therefore have no effects on the motion of the

centre of mass. It is clear that if F (e) = 0.
~
Then:

d  dR  d
M =
dt  dt  dt
( )
M V = 0 ……………………………………………..(13)
~

4
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Equation (12) implies that the total linear momentum is conservative.

This is called the Conservative Theorem for linear momentum of a
system of particle.

3.3 Total Angular Momentum

The angular momentum Li of the ith particle is given by:

~

Li = ri x Pi ……………………………………..……. (14)
~ ~ ~

Hence, the total angular momentum Li of the system is given by:

~
N N
Li =
~
∑L
i =1 ~
i = ∑r
i =1 ~
i x Pi ……………………………………………… (15)
~

N N
d
Thus, L& = ∑ (ri x Pi ) = ∑ (ri x P& i ) …………………………….…. (16)
i =1 dt ~
~ ~ i =1

Using equation (6) equation (10) becomes:

N N
L& = ∑ ri x Fi (e) + ∑ ri x Fji …………………………………….……. (17)
~
i =1 ~ ~ i =1 ~ ~

But, the last term on the right hand side of (17) may be considered as a
sum of pairs of the form

 
ri x F + ri x F =  ri − r j  x F ji ………………………………………. (18)
~ ~ ji ~ ~ ij
~ ~ ~

Going by the equality of action and reaction, since ri − r j = ri is the

~ ~ ~

vector form j to i, the law of action and reaction yields

rij x F ji = 0 ………………………………..………………… (19)

~ ~

Since F ji is along the line between the two particles,

~
N

∑r xF
i =1 ~
i
~
ji = 0 …………………………..…………………….. (20)

Substituting (20) into (17) we can now write:

dL N
L& = = ∑ ri x Fi (e) ≡ N (e) ………………………………….……. (21)
~ dt i =1 ~ ~ ~

5
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Where N (e) is the applied (i.e. external) torque of the system?

~

3.4 Conservation Theory of Total Angular Momentum

Li is said to be conserved if the applied (external) torque is zero. In

~

other words, the total angular momentum remains constant if the

resultant external torque acting on a system of particles is zero.

Remarks

Note that the conservation of angular momentum of a system in the

absence of applied torques holds, only if the law of action and reaction
is valid. In a system involving moving charges, where the law is
isolated, it is not the total mechanical angular momentum which is
conserved but the sum of the mechanical and the electromagnetic
“angular momentum” of the field.

Considering the diagram below:

Z Mi Cm

ri
~
B

y
0

Let ri be the radius vector from the centre of mass to the ith particles.
~

Then:
ri = ri′ + R …………………………………………….. (22)
~ ~ ~

and Vi = Vi′ + V ,…………………………………………….. (23)

~ ~ ~

6
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

d ri dR
where Vi′ = ~
, and V = ~
, ………………………….. (24)
~ dt ~ dt

In view of (22), we have that

N M i ri N M i ri
R=∑ N
~
=∑ N
~
+ R. ………………….…………………… (25)
~
i =1
∑M
i =1
i
i =1
∑M
i =1
i

N
Hence, ∑M
i =1
i ri = 0 …………………………………………………. (26)
~

This in turn implies

N

∑M
i =1
i Vi′ = 0 …………………………………………...…………….. (27)
~

N
Next, with L = ∑ ri Pi ,
~
i =1

from equation (22) we obtain

~
i =1
~
( )
L = ∑ ri′ R xM i Vi′+ V 
N

 ~ ~

N N
 N ′ d N ′
= ∑ R xM i V + ∑ ri′xM i Vi′+  ∑ M i ri  x V + R x ∑ M i ri ………….. (28)
i =1
~ ~
i =1 ~  i =1 ~  ~ ~ dt i =1 ~

Hence, using equation (22) and (26) we obtain

N
L = R xM V + ∑ ri x P ′ i …………………………….………. (29)
~ ~ ~
i =1 ~ ~

Thus, the total angular momentum about a point O is the angular

momentum of the system concentrated at the centre of mass plus the
angular momentum of motion about the centre of mass. Equation (29)
shows that in general, L depends on the region O through vector R only
~ ~

if the centre of mass is at rest with respect to O will L be independent of

~
the point of reference.

In the latter case, RxM V = 0 and L reduces to the angular momentum

~ ~

about the centre of mass.

7
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have been able to show that if the net external torque acting on a
particle is zero, the angular momentum will remain unchanged. This is
often called the principle of conservation of angular momentum.

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has briefly discussed elementary classical dynamics of an

object viewed as a particle (point mass). Discrete and continuous
systems, degree of freedom were focused mathematically.

These terms are briefly defined below:

• Discrete and Continuous System

A discrete system having a very large but finite number of particles can
be considered as a continuous system. On the other hand, a continuous
system can be considered as a discrete system consisting of a large but
finite number of particles.

• Degree of Freedom

This is the number of coordinates required to specify the position of a

system of one or more particles. For instance, a particle moving freely =
space requires 3 coordinates e.g. (x, y, z) to specify its position. Thus,
the number of degrees of freedom is 3.

We also discussed the centroid (centre of mass) of the system of particle.

• Centre of Mass (Centroid)

Let r1 , r2 ,.........rN be the position vectors of a system of N particles of

masses m1 , m2 ,......m N respectively.

8
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

m1

m2

m3

mN
r2

rN
r1
C

r3
r
y

Hence, the center of mass or centroid of the system of particles is

defined as that point C having position vector.

~ mi ri + m2 r2 + ......... + m N rN
r=
mi + m2 + ..........m N
1 N
= ∑ mi ri
M i =1

N
Where M = ∑m
i =1
i is the total mass of the system.

• The kinetic energy of a system of particles can be defined as:

2
1 N
T = ∑ m i r&i
2 i =1

• We further discussed extensively the total angular momentum of

the system of particles about origin O as
N

∑ m (r xV )
i =1
i i i

• The total external torque acting on a system. The total external

torque about the origin is
N

∑ r xF . Where Fi is the external force acting on the particle i.

i =1
i i

9
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

• Conservation of Angular Momentum

If the resultant external torque acting on a system of particles is zero,

then the total angular momentum remains constant i.e. conserved that is:
N

∑ m (r xV ) = constant.
i =1
i i i

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Describe the motion of a particle in free space.

Solution

Here, no constraints are involved and hence, we may use the Cartesian
coordinates x, y, z as the components of the position vector of the
particle, i.e. r = xi + y i + z k
~

Let F be the force applied on the particle. The compounds of

~
generalised force are then:

dr 
Qx = F . = F . i = Fx 
~ dx ~ ~

dr 
.Q y = F . = F . j = Fy  ……………………………………..….……. (1)
~ dy ~ ~

dr 
Q z = F . = F ..k = Fz 
~ dz ~ 

Thus, they coincide with the components of F , the applied or motive

~
force.

The kinetic energy T of the particle is

1
T= m( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ). ………………………………………...………. (2)
2

Using equation (1) and (2) we obtain

d  dT  dT
 − = Fx ……………………………………………….…… (3)
dt  dx  dx

..
i.e. m&x& = Fx , m&y& = Fz , and m z = Fz .

These equations may be combined to obtain

10
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

F x i + Fy j + kFz = m&x& + m&y& + m&z&

= m(i&x& + j&y& + k&z&)

F = ma ………………………………………………. (4)

Where = a = i &x& + j&y& + k&z& and

~

F = iFx + jFy + kFz .

~

Equation (4) is Newton’s second law of motion.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1. Describe the motion of a particle in space using Polar

Coordinates (r, θ).
2. Describe the motion of a system of two particles connected by a
string over a fixed, frictionless pulley.
3. Determine the number of degree of freedom in fine particles
moving freely in a plane.
4. Prove that the total momentum of a system of particles can be
found by multiplying the total mass M of the system by the
velocity v of the centroid.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define the following terms with examples:

a. Centre of mass
b. Degree of freedom.

2. Determine the number of degrees of freedom in a particle moving

on a given space curve.
3. A system of a particles consists of a 2 gram mass located at (0, 0,
1), a 1 gram mass at (-1, 0, 1) and 3 gram mass at (2, 1, -1). Find
the coordinates of the centre of mass.
4. Prove that if the total momentum of a system is constant i.e. is
conserved, then the centre of mass i.e. either at rest or in motion
with constant velocity.
5. State and prove the conservation theorem for Total Angular
Momentum.

11
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T.W.B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

12
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

UNIT 2 HOLONOMIC AND NON-HOLONOMIC

CONSTRAINTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Holonomic and Non-Holonomic Constraints
3.2 Generalised Coordinate
3.3 D’Alambert’s Principle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The motion of a particle or system of articles is restricted in some ways.

For example, gas molecules in a container are constrained by the wall of
the vessel to move only inside the container, while a particle placed on
surface of a solid sphere is restricted by the constraint so that it can
move on the surface or in the region exterior to the sphere.
Consequently, a constraint can be defined as the limitations on the
motion of a particle.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define the term constraint

• state the types of constraint
• distinguish the different types of constraint
• define D’Alambert’s principle and relevant theorems.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Holonomic and Non-Holonomic Constraints

In practice, equation (6) in Module 1 Unit1, may not completely

describe the motion of the ith particles of a system of N particles; for it
may be necessary to take into account the constraints which limit the
motion of system. For example, in rigid bodies the motion must be such
that the distance between any two particular particles of the rigid body is
always the same. Such limitations on the motion of a particle are

13
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

referred to as constraints. The constraint condition can be expressed

mathematically as

Ø (r1 , r2 ,............rN , t ) = 0 ……………………………………… (30)

If the position vectors of the particle are considered along with the time
taken, then the nature of constraint condition involved could be regarded
as holonomic otherwise and non-holonomic constraints shall be
discussed in detail next.

Furthermore, if the constraints are independent of time, we say they are

Scleronomous; but if they depend explicitly on time. It can be said that
the constraint condition is rheonomous.

Remarks

In the presence of constraints, the coordinates ri = ri are no longer all

independent, hence the equations given by equation (6) in Module 1
Unit 1 above are not all independent; the forces of constraints are no
longer known.

They are among the unknown of problem and must be obtained from the
solution we seek. In fact, the presence of constraints is an
acknowledgement of the fact that there are forces acting on the system
which cannot be specified directly but are known only in terms of their
effect on the motion of the system.

3.2 Generalised Coordinate

Remarks

If the constraints imposed on a system of N particle are holonomic and

are expressed by means of k equations of the form as in equation (30),
then the equations may be used to eliminate k of the 3N coordinates
which describe the system. There are then left only 3N–k independent
coordinates and the system thus possesses 3N–k degrees of freedom.

The elimination of k dependent coordinates may be regarded as an

exercise in transformation theory involving the introduction of 3N–k
new independent variables q1, q2, ……….q3N-k connected to the
coordinates r1 , r2 , ........ rN . Thus,
~ ~ ~

14
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

r1 = r1 (q1 , q..........., q 3 N − K , t ) 
~ ~ 
r2 = r2 (q1 , q..........., q 3 N − K , t ) 
~ ~ 
r3 = r3 (q1 , q..........., q 3 N − K , t ) 
~ ~ 

: : :  ……………………………………….. (31)
: : : 

: : : 
rN = rN (q1 , q..........., q 3 N − K , t )
~ ~



These equations contain the constraints explicitly. The new variable q1,
q2, ………..q3N-k are called generalised coordinates. We shall employ
them a great deal in the sequel.

3.3 D’Alambert’s Principle

Virtual Displacement (Assumed Infinitesimal)

A virtual displacement of a system of N particle with position

vectors  r1 , r2 , ........ rN  , is a change in the configuration of the system
 ~ ~ ~ 
arising from an arbitrary infinitesimal changes δri of the coordinates
ri the changes δri being assumed consistent with the forces and
~

constraints imposed on the system at the given time t.

The symbol has the usual properties of the differential δ . For instance,

δ (sin θ ) = cos θ δ θ.

Consequently, the displacement described in equation (30) above is

called virtual displacement to distinguish it from an actual displacement
of the system occurring in a time interval [t, t + dt] during which the
forces and constraints may be changing.

Principle of Virtual Work

For a system of N particles, with position vectors ri to be in equilibrium,

~

the resultant force acting on each particle must be zero. Then Fi = 0 , for
i = 1,2,......, N .

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

However, it is obvious that the virtual work Fi .δri = 0, for i = 1,2,......, N .

But if the total virtual work is considered, we obtained
N

∑ F .δr
i =1
i i = 0 …………………………………………. (31)

Remarks

If constraint are present, the motion, then we obtain the total force
involved in the displacement is sum of the actual force and the
constraint force acting on the ith particle. Then

Fi = Fi (actual) + Fi (virtual)…………………………………. (32)

In view of equation (30) and (31) we obtain

N N

∑ ri (actual). δri +
i =1
∑F
i =1
i (virtual) δ .ri = 0 ……………………..……. (32)

Theorem

Suppose in the following that we are considering only systems of

particles for which the virtual work of the forces of constraint kanish.
This theorem is valid, for example for all rigid bodies. On the strength of
the mentioned theorem, we obtain from equation (32) that
N

∑F
i =1 ~
i (actual). δri = 0 ………………………………………..………. (33)

This equation is generally referred to as the Principle of Virtual work.

Note that since the coordinates ri for i = 1, 2 …….N are connected by
~

the equations of constraints, the infinitesimal changes δri are not

independent, and hence

Fi (actual). ≠ 0 , in general ……………………….……………..…. (33)

~

In order to obtain an equation of the form (34) in which the coefficient

of δri may be set to zero, we must recast (34) by using the independent
coordinates qi. To achieve this, we may write the equations of motion

Fi − P& i = 0, (for i = 1, 2 …….N)…………………………...…………(34)

~ ~

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Consequently, equation (32) may be re-written in the form

 
N
 F− P& .δ r = 0 ……………………………………….………….. (35)
∑  ~ ~i  ~i
i −1 
 

This becomes:

   
N
 F (actual) − P& .δ r + N  F (virtual) − P& .δ r = 0 …………...….. (36)
∑  i
i −1  ~
i 
~  ~
i ∑  i
i −1  ~
i 
~  ~
i

   

From the remark that led to equation (32) we can deduce another
theorem thus. A system of particles with position vector ri . for i = 1, 2
…….N moves in such a way that the total virtual work

 
N
 F (actual) − P& .δ r = 0 …………………………………...…….. (37)
∑  i
i −1 
i 
~  ~
i

 

With the theorem, equation (36) is referred to as the D’Alambert’s

Principle; hence we can consider dynamics as a special case of statics.

4.0 CONCLUSION

From the remark that led to equation (32), one obtains that a system of
particles moves in such a way that defines the total virtual work as in
equation (36).

5.0 SUMMARY

This unit has briefly discussed the motion of particles, the constraint of
motion, types of constraints, which are defined as follows:

• The limitation to the motion of a particle is called a constraint.

The components are usually expressed in the form
Ø (r1 , r2 ,............rN , t ) = 0 where r1 , r2 ,............rN are position vector
of the particles.
• Holonomic Constraint is a typical constraint condition that is
involved if the position vector of the particle is considered along
the time-taken.
• But for non-holonomic it means that the position vector of the
particle is not considered along the time taken.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

• Scleronomous constraint condition occurs when the constraint is

independent of time.
• While rheonomous constraint is a constraint condition which is
explicitly dependent on time.

We further discussed the transformation theory involving the

introduction of 3N-k new independent variables q1, q2 ……..q3N-k that are
connected to the coordinates ri , r2 ,...... rN . where k are dependent
~ ~ ~

coordinates.

Thus,

r1 = r1 (q1 , q..........., q 3 N − K , t ) 
~ ~

r2 = r2 (q1 , q..........., q3 N − K , t )
~ ~

r3 = r3 (q1 , q..........., q3 N − K , t ) 
~ ~ 

As in equation (31) in Module 1, Unit 1

Consequently, the generalised coordinates are referred to as the new

variables q1, q2 ……..q3N-k – the above.

We discussed the equation of the Principle of Virtual work as:

N

∑F
i =1 ~
i (actual). δri = 0 also, for total virtual work equation is

 
N
 F (actual) − P& .δ r = 0
∑  i
i −1 
i 
~  ~
i

 
This is called D’Alambert’s Principle.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Two particles having masses m1 and m2 are located on a frictionless

double inclined curves and connected by an inextensible mass less string
passing over a smooth pulley. Use the principle of virtual work to show
Sin ∝1 m1
that for equilibrium we must have = , where ∝1 and ∝ 2 are
Sin ∝ 2 m2
the angles of the incline.

18
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Solution

Let r1and r2 the respective position vectors of masses m1 and m2 relative

to O.

The actual forces (due to gravity) acting on m1 and m2 are respectively:

= m1 g , = m 2 g . …………………………………….……. (1)
(a) (a)
F1 F2

According to the principle of virtual work,

∑F v
a
.δrv = 0.

Alternative solution

F1 .δr1 + .δr2 = 0 …………………………………………… (2)

(a) (a)
F2

Where δr1 and δr2 are virtual displacement of m1 and m2 down the
incline.

Using equation (1) in (2)

We obtain,

O
A

m1 m2
m2g

∝1 ∝2
mg mg
m1 g

m1 g.δr1 + m2 g.δr2 = 0. …………………………………………………. (3)

Or m1 g.δr1 Sin ∝1 +m2 g.δr2 Sin ∝ 2 = 0. ……………………………. (4)

Then, since the string is inextensible,

i.e. δr1 + δr2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Consequently, equation (4) becomes

(m1 g.δr1 Sin ∝1 − m2 g.δr2 Sin ∝2 ) δr1 = 0.

But since δr1 is arbitrary we must have m1 g.δr1 Sin ∝1 +m2 g.δr2 Sin ∝ 2 = 0.

Sin ∝1 m1
i.e. = ………………………………………….………….. (5)
Sin ∝ 2 m2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Use D’Alambert’s principle to describe the motion of the masses in

example 1.

Solution

We introduce the reversed effective forces m1&r&1 and m 2&r&2 in the equation
(3) of example 1 to obtain:

(m1g - m1&r&1 ). δr1 + (m 2 g - m2&r&2 ). δr2 = 0. ………………………. (1)

This can be written as:

(m1g Sin ∝1 - m1&r&1 ). δr1 + (m 2 g Sin ∝ 2 - m2&r&2 ). δr2 = 0. …...…….(2)

Now since the string is inextensible so that

r1 + r2 = constant, we have

δr1 + δr2 = 0, &r&1 + &r&2 = 0. …………………..……… (3)

Consequently, in view of (3), equation (2) becomes

m1g Sin ∝1 − m1&r&1 − m 2 g Sin ∝ 2 − m2&r&2 = 0.

m1g Sin ∝ 1 − m 2 g Sin ∝ 2

&r&1 =
m1 + m2

In conclusion, particle 1 goes down or up the incline with constant

acceleration according as m1 g Sin ∝1 > m2 g Sin ∝ 2 . While particle 2 goes
up or down respectively with the same constant acceleration.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Two particles having masses m1 and m2 move so that their

relative velocity is V and the velocity of their centre of mass is
m1 m2
V . If M = m1 + m2 is the total mass and M = is the
(m1 + m2 )
reduced mass of the system, prove that the total kinetic energy is
1 &2 1
MV − MV 2 .
2 2

2. Find the centroid of a uniform semi circular wire of radius ∝ .

3. A uniform chain has its ends suspended from two fixed points at
the same horizontal level. Find an equation for the curve in
which it hangs.

y
A B

T + ∆T
θ + ∆θ
θ
T

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U. S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

21
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Lagrange’s Equation

UNIT 1 LAGRANGE’S EQUATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
4.0 Main Content
3.1 Lagrange’s Equations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Scientists (applied mathematicians) have dealt primarily with the

formulation of problems in mechanics by Newton’s Laws of Motion.

However, it is possible to give treatments of mechanics from rather

general view points, in particular those due to Language and Hamilton.
Although such treatments reduce to Newton’s laws, they are
characterised not only by the relative ease with which many problems
can be formulated and solved but by their relationship in both theory and
application to such advanced fields as quantum mechanics, statistical
mechanics, celestial mechanics and electrodynamics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• apply Lagrange’s equations in solving dynamical problems

• trace find the Lagrange function of particle(s) moving in a
conservation force field
• derive Lagrange’s equations for holonomic and non-holonomic
constraint respectively.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Lagrange’s Equations

Definition

Consider a system of N particles, with position vectors ri and constant

~

masses m i . suppose that k holonomic constraints are imposed on the

system such that there are only n independent coordinates. Then n + k =
3N and we may introduce n new independent coordinates qi for i = 1,
2…, n, by means of equation

r1 = r1 (q1 , q 2 ,............., q n , t )
~

r2 = r2 (q1 , q 2 ,............., q n , t )
~

r3 = r3 (q1 , q 2 ,............., q n , t )
~

: :
: :
rn = rn (q1 , q 2 ,............., q n , t )
~

We shall assume that there are sufficient differentiable transformations.

From the general equation:

ri = ri (q 1 , q 2 ,............., q n , t )………………………………………. (37)

~ ~

We have

n δ ri δ ri
v i = r&i = ∑ ~
q& j + ~
…………………………………………… (38)
~ j=1 δq j δy

Also, we have the virtual displacement

N
δri
δ ri = ∑ δq j ……………..……………………….……… (39)
~ j=1 δq i

No time variation δt is involved in equation (39) above since only a

virtual displacement is involved in the displacements of coordinates.
N

∑ (F (actual) − P& ).δ r

i =1 ~
i
~
i
~
i
and set the result to zero.

23
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

N
Now, ∑ (F (actual) − P& ).δ r
i =1 ~
i
~
i
~
i

N N
δdr
= ∑ ∑ Fi (actual). i .δq j .
j=1 ~
i =1 δq j
N
= ∑F Q
j=1 ~
i j δq j . ……………………………………………... (40)

N
δri
Where Q j = ∑ Fi (actual). . ……………………………….…. (41)
i =1 δq j

The scalars Q j are called components of the generalised force.

Similarly,
N N

∑ P& i .δ ri
i =1 ~ ~
= ∑ m &r& .δ r .
i =1
i
~
i
~
i

N N
δdr
= ∑ ∑ m i &r&i . i .δq j .
j=1 ~ ~ δq
i =1 j

d    
 m i r&i . δdri  − m i r&i . d  δri  ………….…. (42)
N N
= ∑ ∑ δq j    
i =1 j=1
 dt  ~ δq j  ~ dt δq j 
 

From equation (39), we obtain

dr  δ 2 ri δ 2 ri
d  ~i  N

dt  δq j 
= ∑ δq .δq
k =1
~
q& k + ~

δq j .δt
………………...…...…. (43)
  j k

δ Vi
~
= by (38)
δq j

Also from equation (38), we obtain

δ Vi δ ri
~ ~
= ……………………………………..……………....…. (44)
δq j δq j

24
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

This may be viewed as “cancellation of dots”, since

δ Vi
~ δr&i δri
= = .
δq j δq& j δq j

Hence, using equation (43) and (44) in (42) we have:

d    δri 
 m i Vi . δVi  − m i Vi . δVi
N N N

∑ P&i .δ ri = ∑ ∑ δ j
  δq
 δq 
q
 δq& j 
i =1 ~ ~ i =1 j=1  dt  ~
 ~ dt  j 

 d 1  δ 1 
 m i Vi . δVi
N N
= ∑ ∑ δq j
−  m i V 2 i  δq j
 δq& j  δq  2 
i =1 j=1  dt  2 ~
 j
~

N  δ  N 1 2  δ 1 2 

= ∑ δq   ∑ m V i  −  m V i   δq j
 δq& j  i =1 2  δq j  2
j i i
j=1
~ ~


N  d  δT  δT 
= ∑   − δq
 δq  j
j=1 dt δq
  j & 
j

Where we have set

N
1
T= ∑2m V
i =1
i
~
2
i ……………………………………………..(44a)

which is referred to as total kinetic energy of the system.

From the preceding; D’Alambert’s Principle now yields

N   d  δT  δT 
∑ Q j −   −  δq j = 0 …………………………….… (45)
j=1    j  δq j 
dt  δq

Since the constraints have been assumed holonomic, the coordinates qi

for i = 1, 2, 3, ……N, have that:

d  δd  δT
− = Q j …………………………………….…………. (46)
dt  δq& j  δq j

for j = 1, 2…, n.

25
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Equation (44a) are often referred to as the Lagrange’s equation.

Remarks

Suppose that the system considered above is in fact conservative. With

this assumption, there is a scalar potential function ø called the potential
energy of the system such that

Fi (actual) = − ∇ i ø ………………………………….…..………….. (47)

Then the components Q j of generalised force become:

N
δri N
δr
Q j = ∑ Fi (actual). = −∑ Fi ∇ø. i
i =1 δq j i =1 δq j
δø
= ………………………………..……………………..…….. (48)
δq j

Using equation (48) in (47), we now have:

d  δT  δ(T − ø)
− = 0 ………………………………….…………. (49)
dt  δq& j  δq j

If ø depends only on q1 , q 2 , q3 .........q N i.e. ø is independent of z, then

equation (49) may be written thus:

d  δ(T − ø)  δ(T − ø)
− = 0 ………………………..………………. (50)
dt  δq& j  δq j

for j = 1, 2…, N.

Consequently, setting

T − ø = L ……………………………………………………………. (51)

Equation (50) may now be written thus:

d  δL  δL
− = 0, ……………………………………………….... (52)
dt  δq& j  δq j

for j = 1, 2…, n.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

The equation given by (52) rather than equations given by (46) are what
are often referred to as LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS. The function L
= T - ø in equation (51) is referred to as the Lagrangian function or
simply the Lagrangian.

Remarks

The equations given by (52) are Lagrange’s equations for a conservative

system.

Now, suppose that the system is non-conservative, but that the

components Q j of generalised force are given by a velocity – dependent
function.

(q q& ) → u (q q& )
j j j j as follows Q j =
δu d  δu 
x …………………………………..…………………. (53)
δq j dt  δq& j 

Then equation (52) remains valid with

L = T – u. ……………………………………………….…………. (54)

The function U is called a generalised potential or a velocity –

dependent potential, and it is a dissipation function.

Remarks

δL
i) The function Pj = , where L is the Lagrangian and is called
δq& j
the generalised momentum associated with the generalised
coordinates q j .

ii) The kinetic energy T is given by

N
1 2
T = ∑ m i V ………………………………………………. (55)
i =1 2
~

But from equation (3)

N δ ri δ ri
Vi = r&i = ∑ ~
q& + ~

~ ~ j =1 δq i δit

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Substituting this in the expression

For T, we have

N
1 2
T = ∑ mi V
i =1 2
~

δ ri
2
N
1  N δri 

= ∑ m ∑ q& j + ~ 
i =1 2 j=1 δq δt
 j


=
N N
λ + ∑ λ j q& j + ∑ λ jk q& j q& k …………………………….……. (56)
j=1 j, k =1

1 δr δr
N
Where λ = ∑ mi i . i
j=1 2 δt δq j

N
1 δr δr
λjk = ∑ m i i . i
j=1 2 δq t δq k

If the transformation equations (37) do not involve t, i.e. in the presence

of Scleronomous constraints then λ = 0 = λ = j , for j = 1, 2, …, n and
T is reduced to the following homogenous quadratic expression in the
generalised velocities.
N
T= ∑ λjk δq& δq&
j, k =1
j k …………………………………………..………. (57)

Examples on Lagrange’s Equation

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Find the motion of a system of two particles connected by a string over a

fixed, frictionless pulley.

Solution

Let L be the length of the string connecting the masses and let D denote
the diameter of the pulley.

Setting L – D = l .

28
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Then, it is clear that there is only one independent variable, x, say since
from the diagram we must always have distances indicated.

Now the potential energy V of the system is:

V = −m1gx − m 2 g(L − x )

And the kinetic energy T of the system is

1
T = (m1 + m 2 ) x& 2
2
Hence, the Lagrangian L of the system is

1
L = T − V = (m1 + m 2 ) x& 2 + m1gx + mg (L − x )
2

By equation (52), we now obtain

d (δL ) δL
. − = (m1 + m 2 )&x& 2 − (m1 + m 2 )g = 0
dt δx δx

Thus: (m1 + m 2 )&x& − (m1 + m 2 )g

This is the equation of motion of the system.

Remarks

i) The above problem is an example of a conservative system with

holonomic, Scleronomous constraints. The holonomic constraint
is given by:

x+ y =l

Where x, y are the distances of the masses m1 and m2 respectively from

the horizontal plane through the centre of the pulley.

This problem also shows that the forces of constraint i.e. the tension in
the string do not appear in the Lagrangian formulation.

Hence, the tension in the string cannot be found directly by the

Lagrangian method.

29
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Investigate the motion of a bead of mass m sliding freely on a smooth

circular wire of radius ‘a’ which rotates in a horizontal plane about one
of its point ‘O’ with constant angular velocity, ‘w’.

Solution

y Bo (x,y)
m …… …..x
A

a
θ a

a
l = wt

0 x

The plane of rotation is that of the paper and rotation is anti-clockwise,

with ‘O’ as the centre of revolution. At time t the wire rotates through
an angle u = wt as shown. The angle made by the bead with OAC
(where C is the centre of wire) is also shown. The coordinates (x, y) of
the bead B are given by.

a. x = a Coswt + a Cos( θ + wt)

y = a Sinwt + a Sin( θ + wt)

Hence, we see that there is only one generalised coordinate, namelyθ.

Consequently, from (a) and (b) alone, we have that the kinetic energy T
of the bead is given by

1  
c. T = ma 2  w 2 + (θ& + w ) 2 + 2w (θ& + w )Cos(θ& + wt ).
2  

The potential energy of the system is clearly zero here. This implies that
the generalised force is zero since the system is conservative.

30
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

From (c), we have:

δT
= ma 2 (θ& = w + wCosθ)
δθ
&

d  δT 
 &  = + ma (&θ& − w + wθ& Sinθ)
2

dt  δθ 

δT
δθ
[
= −ma 2 w (θ& + w )Sinθ ]
Hence, we have:

ma 2 (&θ& − wθ& Sinθ) + ma 2 w (θ& = w )Sinθ = 0

(d) Implies

&θ& + w 2Sinθ = 0

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Compare &θ& + w 2 Sinθ = 0 with the equation of motion of a simple

g
pendulum of length l given by: &θ& + Sinθ = 0
L

Here, we see that the bead β oscillates about the line OA as if it were a
g
simple pendulum of length l = 2 .
w

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A x B
l
θ

x1 y1

In the diagram, M is a mass constraint to slide on the smooth track AB.

31
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

A particle of mass M is connected to M by a mass less inextensible

string of length l . Find the equation of motion leading to small
oscillations of the system.

Solution

Let x denote the position of m at time t and let (x1, y1) be the position of
m also at time t. Notice that here, y, is measured from the equilibrium
position of m. Let θ be the angular displacement of the string connecting
m to m. θ is assumed increasing the counter clockwise direction. It is
clear at t = 0.

Next, we seek T and ø, the kinetic energy and potential energy of this
system of two particles, we have

1 1
3a. T= mx& 2 + m( x& i + y& i )
2 2
and
3b. ø = mgy1

Next, x1 and y1 may be expressed in terms of x and θ .

Thus,

3c. x 1 = x + lSinθ

3d. y1 = x + l(1 − Cosθ )

Using (3c.) and (3d.) in (3b.), we have:

1
2
1
[
T = mx& 2 + m ( x& + lθ& Cosθ) 2 + l 2 θ& 2Sin 2 θ
2
]
ø = mgl(1 − Cosθ) .

From the expressions for T and β which involves only two coordinates
x, and θ the generalised coordinates for this problem, we conclude that
the system under consideration has two degrees of freedom.

Next, we have:

1 1  .

L = T−θ = mx& 2 + m + ( x& 2 lθ& Cosθ) 2 + l 2 θ& 2Sin 2 θ − mgl(1 − Cosθ)
2 2  

32
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

∂L
= m( x& + lθ& Cosθ) l cos θ + m l 2 θ& Sin 2 θ .
∂θ

d  ∂L 
= m(&x& + l&θ&Cosθ − lθ& 2Sin θ ) l Sinθ − m( x& + lθ& Cosθ) + lθ& Sinθ
 .

dt  ∂ θ 
+ 2m l 2 θ& 2Sinθ Cosθ + ml 2 &θ&Sin 2 θ

∂L 1
= −m( x& lθ& Cosθ) lθ& Sinθ + mx 2l 2 θ& 2Sinθ Cosθ + - lmg Sin θ
∂θ 2

Hence, the first Lagrangian equation of motion is

d  ∂L  ∂L
− = 0.
dt  ∂ θ.  ∂θ

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

m( x& + l&θ&Cosθ − lθ& 2Sinθ)(Cosθ − m( x + lθ& Cosθ)

1
lθ& Sinθ + 2ml 2 θ& 2Sinθ Cosθ + ml 2 &θ&Sin 2 θ − mgl Sinθ.
2

Since we are only interested in small oscillations of the system, we have

the approximations.

Sinθ ≈ θ and
Cosθ ≈ 1.

∴ &x& + l&θ& + gθ = 0 Neglecting terms involving

θ2, θ& 2 and θ& and higher other terms

Terms

∂L
= mx& + m( x& + lθ& Cos θ)
∂x&

∂L
=0
∂x&

33
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

d
(mx& + mx& + mlθ& Cosθ) = 0
dt

(m + m)&x& + ml&θ&Cosθ − mlθ& 2Sinθ = 0

Neglecting terms involved θ2, θ& 2 , we get

m&x& + m&x& + ml&θ& = 0

( m + m)&x& + ml&θ& = 0

4.0 CONCLUSION

We have discussed the Lagrange’s equation in general and for

Holonomic and Non-holonomic constraints with related examples as
shown above.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, we have assumed that from the general equation:

• ri = ri (q 1 , q 2 ,......., q n , t )
~

N δ ri δ ri
• Vi = r&i = ∑ . ~
.q& j + ~

j=1 δq j δq i
N δ ri
• δ ri = ∑ . ~
.q& j being the virtual displacement.
~ j=1 δq j

By using equation of D’ Alembert Principle we compute that

N
δri
• Q j = ∑ Fi (actual).
i= j δq j
This is called the component of the generalised force.

Similarly

  
δr&i 
.
N N N
d  d  δri 
Q j = ∑ P& i δ ri = ∑ ∑ δq j   m i ri . − m i ri . .
i =1 ~ j=1 j=1 dt  δq j  dt  δq j 
   

34
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

δ Vi
d  δri 
• Also, . = ~ , and
 
dt  δq j  δq j

δ Vi δ ri
• ~
= ~

δq j
.
δq j

Consequently, from (5) and (6) can conclude thus,

   
 d  δT  − d . δq
N . N
• ∑P δr i i = ∑  dt  .  dt  j
  δ q j 
i =1 ~ j=1

Where

N
1
• T= ∑2m V
i =1
i
2
~
i which is the total kinetic energy of the system.

From D’Alambert’s Principle, we have that

N   d  δT  δT 
• ∑ Q j −   −  δq j = 0
j=1   dt  δq& j  δq j 

Hence,

d  δT  δT
• Qj = − for j = 1, 2…, n. are called at Lagrangian
dt  δq& j  δq& j
equation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A double pendulum vibrates in a vertical plane, write the

Lagrangian of the system and hence obtain the equation of
motion.

35
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

O y

θ1
l1

x1

l2
y1
θ2
x2 m2
x x2

2. Use Lagrange’s equations to describe the motion of a particle of

mass m down a frictionless inclined plane of angle ∝ .
3(a) Set up the Lagrangian for a one dimension harmonic oscillator;
and

(b) Write out the Lagrange’s equation.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

36
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 3

Unit 1 Impulsive Motion

UNIT 1 IMPULSIVE MOTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
5.0 Main Content
3.1 Impulsive Motion of Particles
3.2 Conservative Force Fields
3.3 Conservative Forces
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Phenomena of an impulsive nature, such as the action of very large

forces (or voltages) over very short internal of time, are of great
practical interest, since, they arise in various applications. This situation
occurs, for instance, when a tennis ball is hit, a system is hit by a
hammer, an air plane makes a “hard” landing, a ship is hit by a high
simple wave, and so on. In this unit, we shall be interested in the change
of momentum produced by variable force l acting from time t such
that t1 < t < t 2 .

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define impulsive motion

• identify equations of motion for impulsive forces
• define conservative force fields.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Impulsive Motion of Particles

Definition
The state of rest or motion of a body sometimes undergoes an apparently
instantaneous change owing to the sudden application of a force which
acts for a very short time only.

For example, a ball stuck by a bat or a collision of two billiard balls. In

such cases it is not possible to measure the rate of change of momentum
because a finite change of momentum takes place in an infinitesimal
interval of time.

We know that the change in momentum produced by a variable force

l acting from time

t = t, and t = t2 ∼ is

t2
∫t 1
Ldt

Of course, it is possible for the force to increase and at the same time the
interval t2 – t1 to decrease in such a way that the integral tends to a finite
limit although, we gave no means of measuring the exact value of L at
any instant during the interval. Thus, this sort of force is measured by
the change of momentum it produces. Any motion resulting from this
impulsive force is called an impulsive motion.

The equations of motion for a system of particles acted upon by finite

forces are known to be given as:

∑ m&x& = ∑ X

∑ m&y& = ∑ Y

∑ m&z& = ∑ Z
d
and ∑ m ( xy& − yx& ) = ∑ ( xy − yx)
dt

By integrating these equations w.r.t. t through an interval from 0 to t, we

get

38
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

∑ mx& − ∑ mx&
t
0 = ∑ ∫ X dt
t0

∑ my& − ∑ my&
t
0 = ∑ ∫ Y dt
t0

∑ mz& − ∑ mz&
t
0 = ∑ ∫ Z dt
t0

In particular if t – to is so small that changes in x, y, are neglected.

Then:
∑ m( xy& − yx& ) − ∑ m( xy& 0 − yx& 0 )

{ t
= ∑ x ∫ y dt − y ∫ x dt
t0
t

t0
}
Where x& 0 , yˆ 0 denote the values of x& , yˆ at time to.

By concerning ourselves with the above definition of impulsive forces

then,

t t t t
∫t0
x dt , ∫ y dt and ∫ y dt and ∫ z dt are
t0 t0 t0

The measures of the components of the impulse which maybe denoted by F,

Q, R, respectively which may be rewritten as

∑ mx& − ∑ mx& 0 =∑ F

∑ my& − ∑ my& 0 =∑ Q

∑ mz& − ∑ mz& 0 =∑ R

and ∑ m( xy& − yx& ) − ∑ m ( xyˆ 0 − yx& 0 ) = ∑( XQ − YF ).

Thus, these equations revealed the fact that the instantaneous increase in
the linear momentum in any direction is equal to the sum of the
externally applied impulsive forces in that direction.

Note, that if M is the total mass of the system of particles and x , y , z are
the coordinates of the centre of gravity, then

39
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

m( x& − x& 0 ) = ∑ F

m( y& − y& 0 ) = ∑ Q

m( z& − z& 0 ) = ∑ R

Also, the equations confirm the principle of conservation of linear and

angular momentum, in that if there be a direction in which the external
impulsive forces have zero components, there is no change of
momentum in that direction.

The Problem Involving Impact of Two Forces

Definition

The coefficient of restitution (e) is the ratio of the relative velocity of the
bodies, along their line of centres, after impact to the relative velocity
before impact. For example, for a hard substance like steel, (e) is nearly
unit, but for a soft substance, it is small. When a substance is perfectly
elastic e = 1 and when, t is inelastic e = o.

Let m1, m2 be the masses of the two spheres, U1, U2 their velocities
before impact and u1, v2 their velocities after impact and let the motion
be along the line of centres.

The momentum in the line of motion is unaltered by the impact so that

m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 u1 + m2 u2.

By Newton’s rule,

v1 – v2 = - e (u1 – u2)

These equations determine the velocities after impact namely,

v1 = m1 u1 + m2 u2 – e m2 (v1 – v2)
m1 + m2

v1 = m1 u1 + m2 u2 – e m2 (v1 – v2)
m1 + m2

the impulse of the spheres which reduces the velocity of the first from u1
to v1 is m1 (u1 – v1), which is equal to

(l + e) m1m2 (u1 – u2)

m1 + m2

40
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

It is easy to show that the loss in

1 m1 m 2 (1 − e) (u1 − u 2 )
2

K. E. =
2 m1 + m2

3.2 Conservative Force Fields

Definition

Let V be a scalar function and F the force (extended) acting on a particle

of mass M, such that

F = - ∇V

Theorem 1

The total work done in moving the particle along the curve C from P1 to
P2 is

p2
W =∫ F ⋅ dx = V ( P1 ) − V ( P2 )
p1 ~

X
P1
dr
~

r
~
P2
r +d r
~ ~
Y

In such case the work done is independent of the path C ` joining the
points P1 and P2. If the work-done by a force field in moving a particle
from one point to another point is independent of the path joining the
points, then the force field is said to be conservative.

The following theorems are valid:

41
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Theorem 2

A force field F is conservative if there exists a continuously

differentiable scalar field V such that

F = - ∇V or

Equivalently, if ∇ ^ F = O identically.

Theorem 3

A continuously differentiable force field F is conservative for any closed

non-intersecting curve C (simply closed curve).

∫ F ⋅d r =O
~ ~

i.e. the total work-done in moving a particle around any closed path is
zero.

Remarks

The scalar V such that F = - ∇V is called the potential energy or scalar

potential of the particle in the conservative force field F. In this case, the
total work-done from P1 to P2 along C = potential energy at P1 minus
potential energy at P2.

i.e. W = V1 – V2, V1 = V (P1), V2 = V (P2)

3.3 Conservative Forces

Definition

If there is no scalar function V such that F = - ∇V i.e.

∇ ^ F / O,

Then F is said to be a non–conservative force field.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Show that F = x2y zi – xyx2k is non – conservative.

42
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Solution

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇∧F =
~ ∂x ∂y ∂z
x 2 yz o − xyz 2
= − xz 2 i + ( x 2 y + yz 2 ) j − x 2 z k
~ ~ ~

But ∇ ^ F ≠ O

Therefore, the field is non-conservative.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The instantaneous increase in the linear momentum in any direction is

equal to the sum of the externally applied impulsive forces in that
direction.

5.0 SUMMARY

The change in momentum produced by a variable force L acting from

time t1 to t 2 is defined as

t2
∫
tl
L dt

This is called an impulsive force. Any motion resulting from this

impulsive force is called an impulsive motion.

The measure of the components of the impulsive force denoted by F, Q

and R are:

∑ mxˆ − ∑ mxˆ0 = ∑ F 

∑ my& − ∑ my& 0 = ∑ Q (2)

∑ mz& − ∑ mz&0 = ∑ R 

and ∑ m( xy& − yxˆ ) − ∑ m( x&y − yx& ) 0 = ∑ ( XQ − YF ) (3)

43
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

From the above equation, it can be summarised that the instantaneous

increase in the linear momentum in any direction is equal to the sum of
the externally applied impulsive forces – that direction.

Consequently, if m is the total mass of the system of particles and

x, y and z are the coordinate of the centre of gravity, then,

m ( x& − x0 ) = ∑ F
m ( y& − y0 ) = ∑ Q
m ( z − z0 ) = ∑ R

We further showed the loss:

1 (1 − e) (u1 − u 2 ) 2
K. E. = m1 m2
2 m1 + m2

Theorem 1

The total work-done: moving the particle along the curve C from p1 to
p2 is given as

P2
w = ∫ F ⋅ dx = V ( P1 ) − V ( P2 )
P1 ~

Theorem 2

A force field F is conservative if there exists a continuously

differentiable scalar field V such that

F = - ∇V consequently,

∇^F=O

Theorem 3

A continuously differentiable force field F is conservative if for any

closed non-intersecting curve C

∫ F ⋅ d r = O.
~ ~

That is, the total work-done in moving a particle around any closed path
is zero.

44
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

7.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a. When is a force field said to be conservative?

b. Define the following:

i. impulse
ii. impulsive force and
iii. impulsive motion.

2. Show that the force field F defined by F = (y2z2 – 6xz2) i + 2 x y

z3 j + (3xy2z2 6x2z) k is a conservative force field.
3. Prove (Theorem 1) that if the force acting on a particle is given
by F = ∇V. Then the total work-done in moving the particle
along a curve C from P1 to P2 is
P2 1 1
w = ∫ F ⋅ dr = V ( P1 ) − V ( P2 ) =
mV B2 − mV A2 where
P1 2 2
V A andV B velocities at points p1 andp 2 respectively.
4. A mass of 5000kg moves on a straight line from a speed of
540km/hr to 720km/hr in 2 minutes. What is the impulse
developed at this time?
5. Show that the force field given by:

F = x2yzi – xyz2k is non-conservative

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

45
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 4

Unit 1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Unit 2 Collation of Smooth Spheres

UNIT 1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
6.0 Main Content
3.1 Simple Harmonic Motion
3.2 Forces Causing Simple Harmonic Motion
3.3 Suspensions by an Elastic String
3.4 Conical Pendulums
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

If a small body or a particle vibrates or moves to and fro along a straight

line under the influence of a force that its acceleration towards a fixed
point (or its equilibrium position) is proportional to its distance or
displacement from that point, the body is said to have a simple harmonic
motion.

The term simple harmonic motion is not limited to motion in a straight

line, and can be applied to the variation of any variable quantity which
satisfies a differential relation of the type considered. Examples include
simple pendulum, loaded test-tube in a liquid, mass on a spring.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define simple harmonic motion

• identify the forces causing simple harmonic motion
• define conical pendulum.

46
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

If a particle moved in a straight line in such a way that its acceleration is

always directed toward a fixed point of the line and it is proportional to
its distance from that point, the particle is said to move with simple
harmonic motion.

Let O be the fixed point on the line (straight) POQ, and let x be the
distance of the particle from O at time t, x is +ve to right and –ve to left.
The acceleration of the particle can be taken along OQ as –w2x, where
w2 is a constant which is +ve. If x is +ve, this acceleration is directed
towards O, and if –ve, it is directed towards O

B1 O B
1 a Q
P
x

We obtain the differential relation

dv
V = -w2x
dx

d 1 2 2
i.e.  v  = -w x
dx  2 

1 2 1 2 2
∴ v =- w x +c
2 2
dv
Where v = velocity, t = time, acceleration = V and c is constant.
dx

So if t = 0, x = a and v = 0 (where a = distance)

1 2 2
Then, 0 = w a + c,
2

(
V 2 = w2 a 2 − x 2 )
V = ±w (a 2
− x2 )
If the initial stage of the motion V is –ve as the particle is moving
towards O.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

dx
Therefore, = -w (a 2 − x 2 )
dt

dt 1
=-
dx w (a 2 − x 2 )

x
wt = cos-1 + d (where d is a constant)
a

When t = 0, x = a, and cos-11 = 0, and d = 0 and we get

x
Wt = cos-1
a

X = acos (wt)

V = (-aw) sinwt

Definition

If a small body or a particle vibrates or moves to and fro along a straight

line under the influence of a force that its acceleration towards a fixed
point (or its equilibrium position) is proportional to its distance or
displacement from that point, the body is said to have a simple harmonic
motion.

The term simple harmonic motion is not limited to motion in a straight

line, and can be applied to the variation of any variable quantity which
satisfies a differential relation of the type considered. Examples include
simple pendulum, loaded test-tube in a liquid, mass on a spring.

Note: When wt = π / 2w with velocity –aw. It continues along the

straight line, and its velocity is zero when wt = π and x = -a. It then
3π
returns towards 0, arriving at 0 when wt = with zero velocity. The
w
motion is then repeated, and continues indefinitely unless it is destroyed
by a frictional force of some kind. Below is the graph of distance
against time.

48
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

2π
x
w
a

0
E
w
a

a = length is called amplitude of the motion and is the distance of the

extreme points from the centre of the oscillation.

2π
Time is called the period of the oscillation and is the time of a
w
complete oscillation from one extreme point to the other and back again.

w
The frequency n = .
2π

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A particle is moving with simple harmonic motion of period 4 π about a

centre O, it passes through a point distance 4m from O with the velocity
4m/sec away from O. Find the time which elapses before it next passes
through this point.

Solution

2π 1
Since period = ∴w=
w 2

From v2 = w2 (a2 – x2),

42 = ¼ (a2 – 42),

A = 4 5m

Therefore we have that

x = a cos wt

t
x = 4 5 cos
2

49
MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

t 1
and when x = 4, cos =
2 5
1
= 2n π ± cos-1 ( )
5

When n = 0, 1, 2… etc.

So the shortest distance between instants when the particles is in this

t 1 1
position is given by = 2cos-1 , t = 4 cos-1 .
2 5 5

3.2 Forces Causing Simple Harmonic Motion

The force acting on a particle earlier discussed is given as mw2x which

is proportional to the distance from O. Thus, SHM is caused by forces
whose magnitude varies with distance. Examples are forces in a spring,
which is proportional to the increase or decrease of its length from its
natural length and the force of tension in an elastic string.

A particle with mass m, length l, modulus λ on a smooth horizontal table

λx
displayed a distance x from equilibrium position O will have a force
l
towards O. Then

d 2 x − λx  λ 
m 2 = = − x
dt l  ml 

2π λ
Its period = where w2 = .
w ml

λ
Its extension c is given as mg = c
l

3.3 Suspension by an Elastic String

A particle suspended by an elastic string also experiences SHM

provided. The string does not return to its natural length during the
motion; if this happens, the string will become slack and the particle
begin to move freely under gravity.

λ
Thus, we have mg = a where a is the distance
l

λ mg
=
l a

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

If the particle of mass M hangs freely at the end of the string and given a
small vertical displacement x then

d2x mg
M 2
= x,
dt Ma

d2x − mg
2
= x,
dt ma

 Ma 
Then, the period is 2π  
 ma 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

One end of an elastic string of length 24 cm is fixed ended and to the

other suspended end, a mass of 5 kg is attached, which when in
equilibrium stretches the string 4 cm. The mass is pulled down at a
distance of 3cm below its equilibrium position and then released. Find
the period of oscillation and the maximum kinetic energy of the mass.

Solution

λ
Let λ be the modulus of elasticity then from mg = a
l
λx 4
5g =
24

λ = 30g N.

For a displacement xm from the equilibrium position, we have

d2x 30 g
5 2 = N
dt 0.24

d2x
= -25g N
dt 2

Hence, w2 = 25g, w = 15.66, and the period is 0.45.

The amplitude is 3cm and force the epoch is zero,

x = 0.03 cos 15.66t

dx
= v = -0.47 sin 15.66t
dt

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

So the max velocity is therefore 0.47m/sec and the corresponding kinetic

energy is

1
x 5 x 0.472
2

= 0.552J.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

A spiral spring supports a carrier weighing 2 kg, and when a 10 kg

weight is placed in the carrier the spring extends 5cm. The carrier with
its load is then pulled down another 7.5 cm and let go. How high does it
rise and what is the period of its oscillation?

3.4 Conical Pendulum

An arrangement by which a particle tied by a string to a fixed point O,

and move in a horizontal circle, so that the string describe a cone whose
axis is vertical through O is called conical pendulum.

Let the mass be m, height of the cone be h and its semi-circle angle be
α. Therefore, the speed of resolution and the tension in the string may
be found in terms of h and
α.

α
O

α T h
T

mhw2tanα
P
N
mg
mg

If w = angular velocity, T = tension in the string, the radius of the circle

is h tan α and the reversed effective force is mhw2 tan α. The particle
may be considered as in equilibrium under the forces T, mg and mhw2
tan ∝.

So T sin α = mhw2 tan α, T sin α = mh sin α w2,

∴ T = mhw2 = 4π2n2mh

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

T cos α = mg

∴ w2 = g/h,

T = mg sec α

2π
If w is m rad/sec, the time of a complete resolution is sec, and the
w
30 w 30
number of r.p.m. is = g /h
π π

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A mass of 10g rests on a rough horizontal table with coefficient of

function ½. It is attached to one end of a light inextensible string which
passes through a smooth hole in a mass of 4 kg at its free end. If the
mass 4 g describes a horizontal circle with a velocity of 8 m/sec and the
mass on the table is on the point of shipping, find the radius of the circle
and the length of string below the table.

Solution

Since the 10 kg mass is on the point of slipping the tension in the string
must be 5 gN. Let a m be the radius on the circle and θ the angle made
by the string with the horizontal.

256 θ
a
θ
4g
mv 2 4 x8 2
The reversed effective force (T) is given as =
r a

4 kg mass may be considered as in equilibrium under the forces 5 g, 4 g

256
and N.
a

256
Then, 5g cos θ =
a

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

5g sin θ = 4h

4
sin θ =
5

3 256
cos θ = =
5 5 x9.81xa'

256
a= = 8.7
29.43

the length of string below the table is

5
a sec θ = a = 14.5m
3

4.0 CONCLUSION

If a small body or a particle vibrates or moves to and fro along a straight

line under the influence of a force that its acceleration towards a fixed
point (or its equilibrium position) is proportional to its distance or
displacement from that point, the body is said to have a simple harmonic
motion.

Simple harmonic motion is not limited to motion in a straight line, and

can be applied to the variation of any variable quantity which satisfies a
differential relation of the type considered.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, we explained the term SHM which is concluded as not

being limited to motion in a straight line.it was also discussed in this
unit that SHM is caused by forces whose magnitude varies with
distance. It was also noted that a particle suspended by an elastic string
also experiences SHM, provided the string does not return to its natural
length during the motion. Lastly, conical pendulum was also discussed
and some examples are solved in all these.

8.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A particle is moving with simple harmonic motion of period 4 π

about a centre O, it passes through a point distance 8 m from O
with the velocity 4.5m/sec away from O. Find the time which
elapses before it next passes through this point.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

2. A mass of 12 g rests on a rough horizontal table with coefficient

of function 0.3. It is attached to one end of a light inextensible
string which passes through a smooth hole in a mass of 6.5 kg at
its free end. If the mass 6.5 g describes a horizontal circle with a
confirm velocity of 3 m/sec and the mass on the table is on the
point of slipping, find the radius of the circle and the length of
string below the table.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

UNIT 2 COLLISION OF SMOOTH SPHERES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
7.0 Main Content
3.1 Collision of Smooth Spheres
3.2 Law for the Impact of Spheres
3.2.1 Direct Impact
3.2.2 Indirect Impact
3.3 Resultant of any Number of Forces Acting on a Particle
3.31 Method of Finding the Resultant of any Number of
Forces in one Plane Acting on a Particle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

An object remains in a state of rest until an external force impacts on it.

The ratio of the momentum after impact to the momentum before impact
is called the coefficient of restitution (or elasticity). This momentum is
denoted by the symbol e. If the net external force acting on a particle is
zero, its momentum will remain unchanged. That is mv = constant.

The relative velocity of the spheres along the line of centres immediately
after impact is – e times the relative velocity before impact.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define and explain, collision of smooth spheres

• identify the forces causing collision of smooth spheres.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Collision of Smooth Spheres

When a body strikes a fixed surface, the impact produced causes the
momentum of the body to be destroyed where it undergoes compression
thereby altered, its shape. This is followed by a period known as
restitution in which the body regains its shape and momentum. The

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

ratio of the momentum after impact to the momentum before impact is

called coefficient of restitution (or elasticity) denoted by e.

i.e.
e = momentum after impact
momentum before impact --- --- --- (i)

⇒ -e = velocity after impact

velocity before impact --- --- --- (ii)

If velocity is measured in (ii)

NOTE: In the above, when e = 0 we have inelastic body and when e =

1, we have perfectly elastic body.

This important theory is mostly applicable to the impact of spheres on

smooth surfaces or on each other, so that the impulse during
compression and restitution is normal to the surface.

3.2 Law for the Impact of Spheres

“The relative velocity of the spheres along the line of centres

immediately after impact is –e times the relative velocity before
impact.”

3.2.1 Direct Impact

The impact is direct when it is normal to the surface and we have that

V = -eu

Where v = velocity after impact, u = velocity before impact and

e = coefficient or restitution.

So, if h is, the height when a sphere falls to a smooth plane, the velocity
before impact is

U= (2 gh )

The velocity after impact is (upward)

eu = (2ghe ) 2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

The velocity is destroyed by gravity when the sphere has risen to a

height.

∴ (2 gh1 ) = 2 ghe 2

h1
= e2
h

h1
e=
h

3.2.2 Indirect Impact

If the surface diagram of the impact is of the form

u v

α β

The velocity before impact parallel to the surface is u cos α and velocity
after impact is v.

∴ u cos α = v cos β

⇒ v sin β = eu sin α

Hence, v2cos2β + v2sin2β = u2 (cos2α + e2sin2α)

v=u (cos 2
α + e 2 sin 2 α )

tan β = e tan α

⇒ u2 – v2 = u2 (1-e2)sin2α

and loss of kinetic energy due to impact is

1 1 1
mu 2 − mv 2 = mu 2 (1 − e 2 ) s m 2 ∝
2 2 2

∴ the proportional loss of kinetic energy is (1-e2)sin2∝

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Three smooth spheres, A, B, C of masses m, 2m and 4m respectively

rest on a smooth plane (horizontal) with their centres collinear, and B
lies between A and C. The coefficients of restitution between any two
pairs are equal. If A is projected towards B with velocity U and C
u
moves with velocity after it has been struck by B, find the common
4
coefficient of restitution and subsequent velocities of A and B.

Solution
m 2m 4m

A U B C

Let V1, V2 be velocities of A and B respectively after 1st collision and let
e be the common coefficient of restitution between any two spheres.
Then momentum conservation and Newton’s Law give

mV1 + 2Mv2 = mu -------------------- (1)

V1 – v2 = -e(u-0) = -eu ---------------- (2)

(1) and (2) ⇒ 3v2 = u(1+e)

(1 + e)
∴ v2 = u
3
(1 + e) (1 − 2e)
Thus, V1 = u -eu = u
3 3

B then moves faster ahead of A to strike C at rest causing second

collision.

Let V3, V4 be velocities of B and C respectively after the second

collision,

Then,

(1 + e)
2mv3 + 4mv4 = 2m u ---------- (3)
3

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

(1 + e)
V3 – V4 = -eu -------------------- (4)
3

(1 + e) (1 + e)
(2) and (4) ⇒ 3v4 = u + eu
3 3

u u
Therefore, V4 = (1 + e + e + e2) = (1+e)2
9 9

u
But, V4 = ,
4

u u 3
Thus, (1+e)2 = or 1+ e =
9 4 2

1
⇒e=
2

Velocity of A after 1st collision is

1
(1 − 2 x )
V1 = u 2 =0
3

Velocity of B after 2nd collision is

1
(1 + )
(1 + e) u 2
V3 = V4 – eu = -u
3 4 6

u u
= - =0
4 4

Therefore, subsequently, A and B are put to rest after first and second
collision respectively.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A particle falls from a height h upon a fixed horizontal plane; if e be the

coefficients of restitution on, show that the whole distance described
(1 _ e 2 )h
before the particle has finished rebounding is and that the
(1 − e 2 )
1+ e 2h
whole tune taken is x
1− e g

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Solution

(a) Let u be the velocity on first hitting the plane so that

U2 = 2gh

Then the particle rebounds with velocity eu. The velocity when it hits
the plane the second time is eu and the velocity after the second rebound
is e2u. Similarly, the velocity after the third, fourth etc.; rebounds are
e3u, e4u etc.

(b) The height to which the particle rises after the first rebound is
(eu ) 2
2g
(e 2u ) 2
And after the second and so on.
2g

(c) Since u2 = 2gh ∴ the distances are e2h, e4h, etc.

Hence, the whole distance described is

H + 2(e2h + e4 + …..to infinity)
 e2  1 + e2 
= h + 2h   = h  
1 − e 1 − e
2 2
 

(d) The time of flight after the first impact is 2eu/g, after the second
2e2u/g, and so on, and the time of falling originally is
 2h 
  .
 g 

 2h  2u
Hence, the whole time of motion =   + (e + e2 + e3 + …..to
 g  g
infinity)
 2h   2h 
=   + 2   . (e + e2+ …..)
 g   g 
 2h  e
=   (1+2 )
 g  1− e

 2h   1 + e 
=   x  
 g  1− e 

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.3 Resultant of any Number of Forces Acting on a Particle

The resultant force is that single force which acting alone will have the
same effect in magnitude and direction as two or more forces acting
together. Also, the equilibrant of two or more forces is that single fore
which will balance all the other forces taken together. Note that the
equilibrant force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
resultant force.

If we have a number of forces acting on a particle at O, and we draw a

polygon with its sides proportional and parallel to these forces and close
the polygon then we know that the system is in equilibrium or if not
close, the resultant of the forces is represented by the straight lines. i.e.

E D
R Q
F C
O
P
S
A B
T

(a) (b)

In vector notation, the resultant of the false forces ABCDEF is a force

acting at O. It is represented in magnitude and direction by AF. Thus,
AF = AB + BC + CD + EF

3.3.1 Method of Finding the Resultant of any Number of

Forces in One Plane Acting on a Particle

Consider the figure below,

R Y
Q

P
y β
α
X
O

Let the forces P, Q, R etc. act upon a particle at O.

Let the forces P, Q, R …… makes angle α, β, y ….. with OX.

The components of P in the directions OX and OY are:

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Pcosα and P sin α respectively.

Similarly, the components of Q are:

Qcosβ and Qsinβ and so on.

Hence, the forces are equivalent to a component

Pcosα + Qcosβ + RcosY……along OX

and a component

Psinα + Qsinβ + RsinY……. Along OY

If the components be X and Y respectively and F be their resultant and θ

its inclination to OX,

Then, Fcosθ = X

Fsinθ = Y

F2 = X2 + Y2

X
and tanθ =
Y

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Three forces of magnitude 15Q, 10Q, 5Q act on a particle in directions

which make 1200 with one another. Find their resultant.

Solution

10Q

1200
15Q
1200

5Q

Since forces 5Q, 10Q, 15Q in the directions indicated are in equilibrium,
they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of an
equilateral triangle.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Hence, the three given forces are equivalent to forces 10Q and 5Q
inclined at an angle 1200, of which the resultant R is given by

R2 = (10Q)2 + (5Q)2 + 2 x 10Q x 5Q x cos120

= 100Q2 + 25Q2 – 50Q2

= 75Q2

R = 5 3Q

The angle θ the resultant makes with the direction of the force 15P is
given by
5 sin 600 5 3
tanθ = =
10 − 5 cos 60 0
15

1
tanθ =
3

∴ θ = 300

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A particle is acted on by forces of 1N, 2N, 3N, and 4N, the angles
between them being 600, 300, 600 respectively, find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Conclusively, having gone through this unit you should be able to define
the following terms: coefficient of restitution, direct and indirect
impacts. Also, you should be able to solve simple problems on resultants
of forces acting on a particle.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we studied that the ratio of the momentum after impact to
the momentum before impact is called coefficient of restitution (or
elasticity) denoted by e.

i.e.

e = momentum after impact

momentum before impact and

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

⇒ -e = velocity after impact

velocity before impact

We remark here that when e = 0 we have inelastic body and when e = 1,

we have perfectly elastic body.

It was also discussed that the relative velocity of the spheres along the
line of centres immediately after impact is –e times the relative velocity
before impact. Direct impact and indirect impact were treated as well in
this unit. However, the impact is direct when it is normal to the surface
and we have that

V = -eu

Where v = velocity after impact

u = velocity before impact and
e = coefficient or restitution.

So, if h is, the height when a sphere falls to a smooth plane, the velocity
before impact is

u= (2 gh )

The velocity after impact is (upward)

eu = (2ghe ) 2

The velocity is destroyed by gravity when the sphere has risen to a

height.

∴ (2 gh1 ) = 2 ghe 2

h1
= e2
h

h1
e=
h

while in indirect impact the velocity before impact parallel to the surface
is u cos α and velocity after impact is u.

∴ u cos α = v cos β

⇒ v sin β = eu sin α

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

and from above it was shown that the loss of kinetic energy due to
impact is expressed mathematically as

1 1 1
mu 2 − mv2 = mu 2 (1 − e2 ) s m 2 ∝
2 2 2

where ((1-e2)sin2∝ )is the proportional loss of kinetic energy of the

system of particle.

Remarks

1. Suppose two bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocity

u1 and u2 respectively collide directly. If v1 and v2 are the
velocities after impact the principle of momentum gives us the
equation

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

v1 − v2
2. = -e
u1 − u2
then, v1 – v2 = -e(u1-u2)

3. From (1) & (2) above,

(m1 + m2) v1 = (m1 – em2) u1 + m2 (1+e)u2
and ((m1 + m2) v2= m1(1+e) u1 + (m2 – em1) u2.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

1. A ball of mass 10kg, moving at 5m/s, overtakes another of mass

1
4kg, moving at 2m/s in the same direction. If Є = , find the
2
velocities after impact.

Solution

70 2 4
the direction
v1 v2

Let v1, v2 m/s be the velocities of 10kg and 4kg spheres respectively
after impact. By the principle of momentum

10v1 + 4v2 = 10 x 5 + 4 x 2 = 58

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

and by Newton’s law

1 −3
v1 – v2 = - (5 – 2) =
2 2

5
∴ 14v1 = 52 or v1 = 3
7

3
and 14v2 = 73 or v2 = 5 .
14

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Two masses m1 and m2 travelling in the same straight line collide

Find

(a) velocities of the particles after collision in terms of the

velocities before collision
(b) Briefly discuss:

(i) a perfectly inelastic collision and

(ii) a perfectly elastic collision for the two masses m1 and m2.

(c) Show that for a perfectly elastic collision of the particle m1 and
m2, the total kinetic energy before collision equals the total
kinetic energy after collision.

Solution

(a)
m1 m2
v1 v2
x

Assume that the straight line is taken to be the x axis and that the
velocities of the particles before and after collisions are v1, v2 and v1, v2
respectively,

By Newton’s collision rule,

v1 – v2 = Є(u2 – u1) ----------------- 1

By principle of consideration of momentum, total momentum after

collision = total momentum before collision.

m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 --------------- 2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

m1v1 + m2v2 = mu1 + mu2

10v1 + 4v2 = 10 x 5 + 4 x 2 = 58 ---------------- (i)

By Newton’s law,

v1 – v2 = -Є(u2 – u1) ----------------…..- (ii)

10v1 + 4v2 = 58
−3
and from (ii) v1 – v2 =
2
3
v2 = + v1
2

Put in (i)
3
10v1 + 4( +v1) = 58
2

10v1 + 6 + 4v1 = 58

14v1 = 52

5
v1 = 3
7

also

5
10(3 ) + 4 (v2) 58
7

3
v2 =5 .
14

Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,

(m1 − εm 2 )u1 + m 2 (1 + ε)u 2

v1 = ---------------------- 3
m1 + m 2

m1 (1 + ε)u1 + (m 2 - εm1 )u 2
v2 = ---------------------- 4
m1 + m 2

(b) (i) Here we put ε = 0 in (3) and (4) above to obtain

m1u1 + m 2 u 2 m u + m2u 2
v1 = , v2 = 1 1 ,
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Thus, after collision the two particles move with the same velocity i.e.
they move as if they were stuck together as a single particle.

(ii) Here we put ε = 1 in (3) and (4) above to obtain

(m1 − m 2 ) u1 + 2 m 2 u 2 2 m1v1 + (m 2 − m1 ) u 2
v1 = , v2 =
m1 + m 2 m1 + m 2
Then velocities are not the same
2
1  2 m u + (m 2 − m1 ) u 2 
(c) Total kinetic energy after collision = m 2  1 1 
2  m1 + m 2 
1 1
= m1u12 + m 2 u 22
2 2

= total kinetic energy before collision

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Three forces of magnitude 20Q, 15Q, 10Q act on a particle in

directions which make 1500 with one another. Find their
resultant.
2. A particle is acted on by forces of 5N, 2N, 1.5N, and 8N, the
angles between them being 600, 450, 900 respectively, find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 5 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION AND

APPLICATIONS TO SIMPLE PROBLEMS

Unit 1 Newton’s Law of Motion

Unit 2 Work, Power and Energy
Unit 3 Rectilinear Motion

UNIT 1 NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
8.0 Main Content
3.1 Newton’s Law of Motion
3.2 Force
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Isaac Newton, the great scientist considered the following:

(i) how a body A will move when left to itself

(ii) how the motion is affected by the action of an external force
(iii) if this external force is due to another body B1, how the action of
B on A is related to the reaction of A on B.

He then gave three laws which we perfectly call Newton’s laws of

motion in mechanics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state Newton’s laws of motion

• define impulsive forces and make some simple applications.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Newton’s Law of Motion

Isaac Newton considered the following:

(i) how a body A will move when left to itself

(ii) how the motion is affected by the action of an external force
(iii) if this external force is due to another body B1, how the action of
B on A is related to the reaction of A on B.

He then gave three laws which we considered as the axioms of

mechanics which shall form the bases of the unit:

(1) Every object (particle) continues in a state of rest or of uniform

motion in a straight line (i.e. with constant velocity) unless acted
upon by a force.

(2) If F is the force acting on a particle of mass m which as a

consequence is moving with velocity v, then

d
F= (mv) ………………. (i)
dt

d
P ……………………. (ii)
dt

where P = mv is called the momentum. If m is independent of

time t this becomes

dv
F=m ……………………. (iii)
dt

= ma ………………………… (iv)

where a is the acceleration of the particle

(3) If particle A acts on particle B with a force FAB in a direction

along the line joining the particles, while particle B acts on
particle A with a force FBA, then FBA = FAB. In other words, to
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

3.2 Force

Force is defined as a measure of the “push or pull on an object”. The

unit of force is Newton (N).

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Due to a field, a particle of mass 3 units moves along a space curve

whose position vector is given as a function of time t by
2 3 2 3
r = (4t + 2t) i + (t – t + 10) j - 6t k

Find (a) the velocity, (b) the momentum (c) the acceleration and (d) the
force field at any time t.

Solution
dr
(a) Velocity = V = = (8t + 2) i + (3t2 – 2t) j - 18t2 k
dt
(b) Momentum = P = mv = (24t + 6) j + (9t2 – 6t) j - 54t2 k
dv d 2r
(c) Acceleration = a = = 2 = 8 i + (6t – 2) j - 36t k
dt dt
dp
(d) Force = F = = m = 24 i + (18t – 6) j - 48t k
dt

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A particle of mass 4 moves in a force field depending on time t given by

2
F = 12t i + (16t – 8) j - 20t k

Assuming that at t = 0 the particle is located at r0 = 2i – j + 6k and has

velocity Vo = 3 i + 7 j - 4 k , find (a) the velocity and (b) the position at
any time t.

Solution

(a) By Newton’s second law, apply equation (iii) above

2
dv
4 = 12t i + (16t – 8) j - 20t k
dt

2
dv
= 3t i 0 + (4t – 2) j - 50t k
dt

Integrating with respect to t and calling c, the constant of integration,

2
dv
we have ∫ dt = ∫ 3t i + (44 – 2) - 5 k

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3
5 t2
V = t i + (t2 – 2t) j - tk + G
2

Since

v = vo = 3 i + 7 j - 4 k at t = 0, we have c, = 3 i + 7 j - 4 k

−2 t
5 t2
and so v = (t + 3) i + ( t 2 + 7 ) j - (
3
- 4) k
∧ 2

dr
(b) Since v = , we have by part (a)
dt

dr 5 t2
= (t3 + 3) i + (t2 – 2t + 7) j - ( - 4) k
dt 2

Integrating with respect to t we have

 t4   t2  5 
r =  + 3 t i +  − t 2 + 7 t  j -  t 3 − 4 t k + c 2
4  2  4 

where c2 is the constant of integration. Since

r = ro = 2i – j + 6k at t = 0,
we have c2 = 2i − j + 6k

and so
 t4   t2  5 
r =  + 3 t + 2 i +  − t 2 + 7 t − 1 j -  t 3 − 4 t + 6 k
4  2  4 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

A particle of mass m moves in the xy plane so that its position vector is r

= acoswt i + bsinwt j

where a, b and w are positive constants and a>b

(a) Show that the particle moves in an ellipse

(b) Show that the force acting on the particle is always directed
toward the origin.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Solution

The position vector is

r = xi + yi

= a coswt i + bsinwtj

and so x = acoswt, y = bsinwt which are the parametric equations of an

ellipse having semi-major and semi-minor axes of lengths a and b
respectively.

y
B
m
b
r
wt A x
a

2 2

Since   +   = cos2wt + sin2wt = 1

x y
b b
x2 y2
the ellipse is also given by 2 + 2 = 1
a b

(b) Assuming the particle has constant mass m, the force acting on it
is

mdv d 2r md 2
F= = m 2 = 2 ((acoswt) i + (bsinwt) j )
dt dt dt

= m[-w2acoswt i – w2bsinwt)j)]

= -mw2[acoswt i + bsinwt j ]

which shows that the force is always directed toward the origin.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

4.0 CONCLUSION

Having concluded this unit, you should be able to state promptly the
three (Newton’s law of motion) that is, every object (particle) continues
in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line (i.e. with constant
velocity) unless acted upon by a force. Secondly, rate of change of
momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the
direction of the applied force.

Mathematically, F = ma. Lastly, the third law states that to every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, the first, second and third laws of Isaac Newton were
defined and extensively explained coupled with some simple problems
on forces that were attended to.

9.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State Newton’s law of motion.

2. In a force field, a particle of mass 10 units moves along a space
curve whose position vector is given as a function of time t by r
= (5t2 + t) i + (t3 – t2 + 3) j - 7t3 k
Find (a) the velocity, (b) the momentum (c) the acceleration and
(d) the force field at any time t.
3. A particle of mass 7kg moves in a force field depending on time t
2
given by F = 15t i + (10t +3) j - 12t k

Assuming that at t = 0 the particle is located at r0 = i – j + 3k and has

velocity Vo = 2 i + j +4 k , find (a) the velocity and (b) the position at
any time t.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

UNIT 2 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
9.0 Main Content
3.1 Work, Power and Energy
3.2 Principle of Linear Momentum
3.3 Principle of Angular Momentum
3.4 Principles of Conservation of Energy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

According to Oxford English dictionary, work is said to be the use of

bodily or mental power in other to do or make something. While power
is said to be the ability to do something/perform work. Consequently,
energy is said to be the strength and vitality needed for vigorous
activities. In other word, energy is the ability to do work. Energy can be
expressed in two forms namely: kinetic and potential energies
respectively.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define work, power and energy

• state the principles of linear momentum and some simple
applications
• state the principles of angular momentum and some simple
applications
• state the principles of conservation of energy and some simple
applications.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Work, Power and Energy
3.1.1 Work
If a force F acting on a particle gives it a displacement dr, then the work
done by the force on the particle is defined as

dw = F.dr.

Since only the component of F in the direction of dr is effective in

producing the motion.

The total work done by a force field (vector field) F in moving the
particle from point P1 to point P2 along the curve C of the figure below
is given by the line integral.

z
P1
C

r
P2
r+dr
y

Where r1 and r2 are the position vectors of p1 and p2 respectively.

3.1.2 Power
If the particle in work above has constant mass that at times t1 and t2 it is
dr1 dr
located at p1 and p2 and moving with velocities V1 = and V2 = 2
dt dt
respectively.

Theorems on Power

Theorem 1

The total work done in moving the particle along C from p1 to p2 is

given by:
1
W= ∫ c Fdr = m(v 22 − v12 )
2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.1.3 Kinetic Energy

1
If we call the quantity T = mv2 , the kinetic energy of the particle, then
2
the theorem 1 above is equivalent to the statement.

Total work done from p1 to p2 along C.

= Kinetic energy at p2 – Kinetic energy at P1

W = T2 – T1

1 1
where T1 = m v12 and T2 = m v 22
2 2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A particle of constant mass m moves in space under the influence of a

force field F. Assuming that at times t1 and t2 the velocity is v1 and v2
respectively, prove that the work done is the change in kinetic energy,
t2 1 1
i.e. ∫
t1
F . dr =
2
mv 22 - m v12
2

Solution
t2 t2
Work done = ∫ t1
F . dr dt = ∫
t1
F . vdt
t2 dv
= ∫
t1
m
dt
.vdt
t2
= m ∫ v . dv
t 1

1 t2
= m ∫ d(v . v)
2 t1

1
= m v 2 tt12
2
1 1
= m v 22 - m v12
2 2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Prove that if F is the force acting on a particle and v is the velocity of the
particle, then the power applied to the particle is given by P = F-V

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Solution

By definition the work done by a force F in giving a particle a

displacement dr is

dw = F.dr

then the power is given by

dw
P=
dt

dr
= F.
dt
P = F.v

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Find the work done in moving an object along a vector

r = 6i + 4j – 10k if the applied force is F = 4i – 2j – 2k

Solution
F
θ

work done = magnitude of force in direction of motion x distance moved

= Fcosθ x r
= F.r
= (6i + 4j – 10k). (4i -2j – 2k)
= 24 – 8 + 20
= 36.

3.2 Principle of Linear Momentum

If r is the position vector of the centre of mass of a rigid body relative
to an origin O, then

d • ••
mr = m r = F
dt
where m is the total mass, and F is the net external force acting on the
body.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.3 Principle of Angular Momentum

If ∫ c is the moment of inertia of the rigid body about the centre of mass,
w is the angular velocity and ∧C is the torque or total moment of the
external forces about the centre of mass, then

d
∧C =
dt ∫
( c w)
•
= ∫c w
3.4 Principle of Conservation of Energy

If the net external forces are conservative so that the potential energy of
the rigid body is V, then

1 •2 1
T + V = m r + ∫ c w2 + v
2 2
=E
= constant

1 1
Note: mr 2 is the kinetic energy of translation and ∫ V cw 2 is the
2 2
kinetic energy of rotation of the rigid body about the centre of mass.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Show that the total momentum of a system of particles can be found by

multiplying the total mass m of the system by the external force acting
on the system.

Proof

The centre of mass is by definition,

Σ r rr
r=
m

The total momentum is

P = Σmrvr
•
•
dr
= Σm r r r = m
at
= m v Q.E.D.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Explain why the ejection of gases at high velocity from the rear of a
rocket will move the rocket forward.

Solution
Since the gas particles move backward with high velocity and since the
centre of mass does not move, the rocket must move forward.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

A solid cylinder of radius a and mass m rolls without slipping down on

an inclined plane of angleα. Show that the acceleration is constant and
2
equal to sin α .
3g

Solution

The potential energy is composed of the P.E due to the external forces
i.e. gravity the P.E due to internal forces which can be neglected.

Taking the reference level as the base plane and assuming that the height
of the centre of mass above this plane initially is H and the height at
anytime t is h, we have

1 •2 1
2 ∫
2
mr + c w + mgh = MgH .............................................. (1)
2

or using

H – h = xsinα ............................................................................ (2)

•
and r = x2 + y2
= x2 ........................................................................................... (3)
i.e. y2 = 0

Substituting (2) and (3) into (1) we have

1 •2 1
m x + ∫ c w = mg xsinα .............................................................. (4)
2
2 2
x
But w = θ = .................................................................................... (5)
a
1
and ∫ C = ma 2 ................................................................................. (6)
2

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Substituting (5) and (6) into (4) we obtain

•2 4 •
x = g xsinα
3

Differentiating w.r.t, we have

• •• 4 •
2 x x = g xsinα
3
•• 2
x= gsinα
3

3.4.1 Angular Momentum ( )

d
In r x F = [m(r x v)]
dt

then the quantity

= m(r x v)
rxp
is called the angular momentum or moment of momentum about O

3.4.2 Conservation of Momentum

If we let F = 0 in Newton’s second law, we find

d
(mv) = 0
dt

Or mv = constant
Remark
If the net external force acting on a particle is zero, its momentum will
remain unchanged.

Torque
If a particle with position vector r moves in a force field F
z
F

r
y

O
we define ∧ = r x F. As the torque or moment of the force F about O.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Impulse

Suppose that the particle in the figure below

z
P1
C

r
P2
r+dr
y

is located at p1 andp 2 at times t1 andt 2 where it has velocities V1 andV2

respectively. The time integral of the force F given by

∫
t2
t1 Fdt

is called the impulse of the force F.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

Determine the torque and the angular momentum about the origin for the
particle of mass 4 moves in a force field depending on time t given by F
= 12t2 i+ (16t – 8)j – 20tk. Assuming that at t = 0, the particle is located
at r0 = 2i – j + 6k and has velocity V0 = 7j – 4k.

Solution

Hint: Torque ∧ = r x F

4.0 CONCLUSION

If a force F acting on a particle gives it a displacement dr, then the work

done by the force on the particle is defined as dw = F.dr. If the net
external force acting on a particle is zero, its momentum will remain
unchanged.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

5.0 SUMMARY

Work is defined as work done by the force on the particle thus

dw = F.dr. Power is defined as the total work done in moving the
particle along the path C from p1 to p2 above is given by

1
W= ∫ c F− dr = m(v 22 − v12 ) . The kinetic energy of the particle is given as
2
1
T = mv2 . We further discussed the principle of conservation of
2
1 •2 1
2 ∫
2
energy as E = constant = T + V = m r + c w + v.
2

Furthermore, the angular momentum or moment of momentum about O

is given as = m(r x v).

It is remarked here that if the net external force acting on a particle is

zero, its momentum will remain unchanged. That is
mv = constant. Each sub section is followed by an example for better
understanding of the unit.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the following terms and express their mathematical

formulae: (a) Work (b) Power (c) Energy
2. Determine the torque and the angular momentum about the origin
for the particle of mass 4kg moves in a force field depending on
time t given by F = 32t i+ (32t – 8)j – 5tk. Assuming that at t = 0,
the particle is located at r0 = i –3 j + 6k and has velocity V0 = 3i –
4k.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

UNIT 3 RECTILINEAR MOTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
10.0 Main Content
3.1 Rectilinear Motion
3.1.1 Uniform Force Fields
3.1.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion
3.2 Weight and Acceleration due to Gravity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A force field which has constant magnitude and direction is called a

uniform constant force field.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define rectilinear motion

• define weight and acceleration due to gravity.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Rectilinear Motion

3.1.1 Uniform Force Fields

Definition

A force field which has constant magnitude and direction is called a

uniform constant force field.

Consider the diagram below, if the direction of the field is taken as the
negative z direction as indicated below and the magnitude is the constant
F0 > 0,

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

F = -F0k
O y
j

i
x

then the force field is given by F = -F0k ------------- (a)

3.1.2 Uniformly Accelerated Motion

If a particle of constant mass m moves in a uniform force field, then its

acceleration is uniform or constant. The motion is then described as
uniformly accelerated motion.

Using our known F = main (a) above, the acceleration of a particle of

mass m moving in a uniform force field (a) is given by

F0 k
a=
m

3.2 Weight and Acceleration due to Gravity

By experiment, objects fall near the earth’s surface with a vertical

acceleration which is constant unless air resistance is negligible.
This acceleration is denoted by g and is called the acceleration due to
gravity or the gravitational acceleration. The approximate magnitude of
g is 9.8m/sec2.

z m

-mgk

y
O
x

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Assuming the surface of the earth is represented by the xy plane in the

figure above, the force acting on a particle of mass m is given by
w = -mgk.

This force, which is called the weight of the particle, has magnitude w =
mg.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A particle of mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a

constant force of magnitude F. If its initial speed is V0, find (i) the
speed, (ii) the velocity and (iii) the distance travelled after time t.

Solution

Fi

x
m
x
O i P

(i) Let’s assume that the straight line along which the particle P
moves is the x-axis and suppose that at time t, the particle is at a
distance x from origin O. If I is a unit vector in the direction OP
and V is the speed at time t, then velocity is Vi.

By Newton’s second law we have

d dv
(mvi) = Fi or m = F ...................................................... (1)
dt dt

F F
Thus, dv = dt or ∫ dv = dt
m m
F
i.e. V = t + C1 ...................................................................... (2)
m

where C1 is a constant of integration. To find C1 we note the

initial condition that V = V0 at t = 0 so that from (2) , C1 = V0 and

F F
V= t + V0 or V = V0 + t ............................................... (3)
m m

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

(ii) From (3) the velocity at time t is

F F
Vi = V0i + ti or V = V0 + t
m m
where V = Vi, V0 = V0i and F = Fi.

dx
(iii) Since V = we have from (3),
dt
dx F F
= V0 + t or dx = (V0 + t) dt
dt m m

then on integrating, assuming C2 to be the constant of integration,

we have

 F  2
x = V0 t +   t + C2
 2m 

Since x = 0 at t = 0, we find C2 = 0

Thus,
 F  2
x = V0 t +   t -------------------------- (4)
 2m 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

From example (1), show that the speed of the particle at any position x is
 2F
V0 + 
2
given by V = x
 m

Solution

From example 1,

dv
m =F
dt

dv F dv dx F
= , i.e. . =
dt m dx dt m

dx
or since V = ,
dt

dv F F
V = , i.e. Vdv = dx
dx m m

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

v2 F
Integrating, = x + C3
2 m

2
V
Since V = V0 when x = 0, we find C3 = 0 and hence
2

 2F
V0 + 
2
V= x
m

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit is concluded thus, going by example 1 in section 3.2 above,

you will observed that use is made of Newton’s second law which has
been discussed earlier in unit 1 of this module. This is to advise the
reader that the units are interrelated.

5.0 SUMMARY

Uniform force fields which have constant magnitude and direction are
defined as uniform constant force field. Also uniformly accelerated
motion is defined as motion of a constant mass m in which its
acceleration is uniform or constant. Using Newton’s second law we
have,

F0 k
a= .
m

Lastly, we show that the approximate magnitude of acceleration due to

gravitational force as 9.8m/sec2.

Objects fall near the earth’s surface with a vertical acceleration which is
constant unless air resistance is negligible.

This acceleration is denoted by g and is called the acceleration due to

gravity or the gravitational acceleration. The approximate magnitude of
g is 9.8m/sec2.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State Newton’s laws and give their mathematical formulae where

they are applicable.
2. An object of mass m is thrown vertically upward from the earth’s
surface with speed V0.
3. Find (i) the position at anytime t (ii) the time taken to reach the
highest point and (iii) the maximum height reached.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T.W.B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

MODULE 6

Unit 1 Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid Body to a

Force and a Couple
Unit 2 Moment of a Force

UNIT 1 REDUCTION OF COPLANAR FORCES

ACTING ON A RIGID BODY TO A FORCE AND
A COUPLE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
11.0 Main Content
3.1 Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid Body to a
Force
3.2 Analytical Representation
3.2.1 Theorem
3.3 Centre of Mass of Simple Bodies
3.4 Motion of the Centre of Mass
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Coplanar forces are forces that lie in the same plane. A rigid body is a
body that is made up of many particles which are at fixed distances from
each other. Examples include, metre rule, turning fork, writing desks,
towers supporting a suspended bridge, landing gear of an aircraft etc.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• prove that any system of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body

can be reduced to single force on a single couple
• state that the sum of the moment of the forces of the system about
any point on the line of action of the resultant will be zero.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid Body to
a Force

Theorem 1
Any system of coplanar forces acting on a rigid body can be reduced to
single force on a single couple.
Proof
By the parallelogram of forces, or theorems on resultant parallel forces,
the resultant of any two forces P.Q may be found, this continues with a
third force R will determine the resultant of the first (P).
Or
We can reduce any three forces P, Q and R to two.We cannot compound
P with either Q or R, unless P forms a couple with each of them. In this
case, Q and R are equal, parallel, and like forces (for each is in the
opposite direction to P), and therefore Q and R can be compounded.
By taking another force of the system with the two forces obtained and
by repeating this process we shall obviously reduce the system to two
forces which, if not in equilibrium must either form a couple or have a
single resultant.

3.2 Analytical Representation

With reference to rectangular axes through a given point O, let the

forces of the system in figure below be P1, P2, P3…..
Let the forces act at the points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), x3, y3) etc. respectively.
Let P1, P2, P3……parallel to the axes be x1 and y1, x2 and y2, x3 and y3….
Then, introducing at O the equal and opposite forces x1 parallel to OX
and two equal and opposite forces parallel to OY. Then we have forces
x1 and y1 acting at O and two couples whose moments are x1 y1 and -y1
x1 .

Y y1
p1 x1
y1
x1 x1 x1 y1
X
O

y1

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

If the resultant of all forces acting at O has components X and Y parallel

to the axes, then

X = x1 + x2 + x3 + ………..=Σx1,
Y = y1 + y2 + y3 +…………=Σy1.

Also, compounding the couple into a single couple G whose moment is

the sum of the moment of all the couples, that is,

G = [x1 y1 -y1 x1] + [x2 y2 –y2 x2] + [x3 y3 –y3 x3] + ………
= Σ(x1 y1-y1 x1].

The forces X and Y are equivalent to a single force parting at O, where

P = (x 2 + y 2 ) . Hence, the system reduces to a single force Pat O and a
couple G.

3.2.1 Theorem

If the system of forces reduces to a single force its line of action may be
found.

The sum of the moment of the forces of the system about any point on
the line of action of the resultant will be zero.

The moment of P1 at (x1 y1) about the point (h,k) is

Y y1
(x1,y1) x1

(h,k)
O X

(x1-h) - (y1-k)x1

= (x1y1-y1x1) – hy1 + kx1

Hence, the sum of the moments of all the forces about the point (h,k) is
Σ(x1y1-y1x1) - hΣy1 + kΣx1

= G – hy + kx

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If the point (h,k) lies on the resultant, we have

G – hy + kx = 0
and finally,

G – xY - yX = 0

This equation determines a definite straight line unless the coefficient of

x and y are both zero, and this is the case where the system reduces to a
couple.

3.3 Centre of Mass of Simple Bodies

Definition

Let r1, r2……..RN be the position vectors of a system of N particles of

masses.

m1, m2….mN respectively. The centre of mass of the system of particles

is defined as that point C having position vector

m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ...... + m N rN
r =
m1 + m 2 + ...... + m N

1 N
r = Σ miri
M i =1

N
where M = Σ mi is the total mass of the system.
i =1

Definition

The continuous systems of particles occupying a region R of space in

which the volume density is σ , the centre of mass can be written

r
∫ R σrdr
--------------- (1)
∫ R σdr

where the integral is taken over the entire region R.

If we write that r = x i+ y i+ z k, rv = xvi + yvi + zvk

then (1) above can equivalently be written as

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Σmvxv Σmvyr Σmv z r

x= , y= , z= ------- (2)
m m m

and x = ∫ R σxdr
, y= ∫ R σydr
, z= ∫ R σzdr
, ------- (3)
m m m
where total mass is given by m = Σ mv or m = ∫ R σdr ------ (4)

Remarks

(a) The integrals in (1), (3) or (4) can be single, double or triple
integrals.
(b) If a system of particles is in a uniform gravitational field, the
centre of mass is sometimes called the Centre of Gravity.

3.4 Motion of the Centre of Mass

Suppose that the internal forces between any two particles of the system
obey Newton’s third law. Then, if F is the resultant external force acting
on the system, we have

d d2 r dv
F= P =m 2 =m
dt dt dt

where P is the linear momentum.

Remarks

(a) The acceleration of the centre of mass of a system of particles is

the same as that of a single particle having a mass equal to the
total mass of the system and acted upon by the sum of the
external forces.

(b) If we consider as an example, a swarm of particles moving in a

uniform gravitational field. Then
∑ Fi = ∑ m i g
= Mg

4.0 CONCLUSION

This unit deals with the Reduction of Coplanar Forces Acting on a Rigid
Body to a Force.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In the prove of the first theorem above, we remark that by taking another
force of the system with the two forces obtained and by repeating this
process we shall obviously reduce the system to two forces which, if not
in equilibrium must either form a couple or have a single resultant. Also,
this remark is made in respect of the theorem 3.2.1. Thus, the sum of the
moment of the forces of the system about any point on the line of action
of the resultant will be zero.
More so, the centre of mass of the system of particles is defined as that
point C having position vector

m1r1 + m 2 r2 + ...... + m N rN
r =
m1 + m 2 + ...... + m N

1 N
r = Σ miri
M i =1

N
where M = Σ mi is the total mass of the system.
i =1

10.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Differentiate between centre of mass and centre of gravity.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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UNIT 2 MOMENT OF A FORCE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
12.0 Main Content
3.1 Moment of a Force
3.2 Couples
3.3 Moment of a Couple
3.4 Equilibrium of a Particle
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The moment of a force about a given point is the product of the force
and the perpendicular drawn from the given point to the line of action of
the force.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define Moment of a Force

• define the term, “Couples”
• state the Moment of a Couple
• prove the Equilibrium of a Particle.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Moment of a Force

When a number of forces are acting on a body, the algebraic sum of

their moments is obtained by giving the value of the moment of each
force its proper sign and adding them together. Moment of a force is a
vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. Its unit is NM.

The Principle of Moments can be verified experimentally by applying

known forces to a rigid body, such as bar, and making appropriate
measurements. Therefore, principle of moments can be used as the basis
of static.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A uniform beam is 24m long and has a mass 100kg and masses of 60kg
and 80 kg are suspended from its ends; at what point must the beam be
supported so that it may rest horizontally?

Solution

Let AB be the beam, O its centre of gravity

O X
A x B
12 (12-x)

60g 100g R 80g

We need a point about which the moments of the three weights balances
and let that point be X. Let R be the supporting force R acting on the
beam at X.

⇒ R = (60 + 100 + 80)g

= 240gN

Let BX = xm, then if we take moment about X,

80x = 100 (12-x) + 60 (24-x)
80x = 1200 – 100x + 1440 – 60x
80x = 2640 – 160x
240x = 2640
X = 11

Alternatively, the position of X can be obtained by taking moments of

all the forces about one end of the rod.

Hence, taking moments about B,

RX = 100g x 12 + 60g x 24
= (1200 + 1440)g
240X = 2640
X= 11

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A uniform rod AB, of length 12m, and of mass 60kg, rests or two
supports, one at A and the other 2m from B. Masses of 8, 10 and 20kg
are attached at points 2m, 4,, and 8m respectively from A. Find the
thrust on the supports.

Solution

A a b O c d
B
2m 2m 2m 2m 2m 2m

R 8g 10g 60g 20g S

Let c = the position of the other support

Let o = the centre of gravity of the rod
Let d, e, f = the points where the masses are attached

Then R and S are the reactions at A and B in Newton’s respectively.

Taking moments about A,

20s = 8g x 2 + 10g x 4 + 60g x 6 + 20g x 8

= (16 + 40 + 360 + 160)g
20S = 576
S = 28.8

∴ taking moments about C,

20R = 20g x 2 + 60g x 4 + 10g x 6 + 8g x 8

= (40 + 240 + 60 + 64)
20R = 404
R = 20.2

3.2 Couples

Couple is a term used to denote two equal unlike paralleled forces

whose line of action are not the same.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Consider the figure below,

F
P
OR r
A
O B

-F
P

0. Couple consists two unlike equal lines

1. Different sense
2. Different directions
3. The same magnitude

Let P, P be the forces acting as shown above

Let O be any point interior plane
Draw OAB perpendicular to the forces to meet their lines of action in A
and B the sum of the moment about O is

A C

AB = AC = BA
AB = CB

P x OB – P x OA (i.e. clockwise and anticlockwise)

= P(OB – OA) clockwise

P x AB anticlockwise
and it is independent of the position of O.

3.3 Moment of a Couple

The moment of a couple about any point in the plane of the forces is
equal to the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the forces.

In above, the product PXAP, whose P is the magnitude of either of the

forces of the couple, and AB is the perpendicular distance between the
forces, is called the moment of the couple. This may be positive or
negative, depending on the sense of rotation of the couple.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Remarks

A couple has turning point effect.

Theorem

A force acting at a point of a rigid body can be equivalently replaced by

a single force acting at some specified point together with a suitable
couple.

Proof

Let the force be F1 acting at Point P1 as in the figure below:

f1 P1
F1
r1

-f1

If Q is any specified point, it is seen that the effect of f1 alone is the

same if we apply two forces f1 and –f1 at Q.

In particular if we choose f1 = -f1 and if F1 has the same magnitude as F1

but is opposite in direction, we see that the effect of F1 alone is the same
as effect of the couple formed by F1 and f1 = -f1 (which has moment r1 x
F1) together with the force –f1 = f1.

3.4 Equilibrium of a Particle

Conditions of Equilibrium of any Number of Forces Acting on a

Particle

If we resolve the forces in any two directions at right angles and the
sums of the components in these directions be X and Y, the resultant F
is given by

F2 = X2 + Y2

But if the forces are in equilibrium (see backed) F must be zero.

Now, it must be noted that the sum of the squares of two real quantities
cannot be zero, unless each quantity is separately zero,

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Therefore,
X = 0 and Y = 0

Then we conclude that if any numbers of forces acting on a particle are

in equilibrium the algebraic sums of their components in any two
directions at right angles must separately vanish.

Conversely, if the sums of their components in two directions at right

angles are both zero the forces are in equilibrium then for both X and Y
zero, therefore F is zero.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

ABCD is a parallelogram and P is any point. Prove that the system of

forces represented by PA, BP, PC, DP is in equilibrium.

Solution
A

P B

D
C

In above diagram, the resultant (a single force which replaces 2 or more

forces) of the forces represented by BP, PA is represented in magnitude
and direction by BA. This resultant acts at P.

Again, the resultant of the forces represented by DP, PC is represented

in magnitude and direction by DC and act at P.

Now, AB is equal and parallel to DC, so that the resultants are equal in
magnitude, and as they act at the same point P, they are in the same
straight line. Since their directions are opposite, they will balance and
the system is in equilibrium.

Vectorially, we can write that the vector sum of the forces

= (BP + PA) + (DP +PC)

= BA + DC
= O

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(This is because AB and DC are equal and parallel and the two vectors
are oppositely directed).

∴ Since the forces act at a point and their vector-sum is zero, they are in
equilibrium.

Q.E.D.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A string is tied to two points at the same level, and a smooth ring of
weight W which can slide freely along the string is pulled by a
horizontal force P. If in the position of equilibrium, the portions of the
string are inclined at angles 600 and 300 to the vertical, find the value of
P and the tension in the string.

Solution
D
A B

T
T
600 300

P
C
W

AB are the 2 points, C is the position of the ring CD perpendicular to

AB Tension T is smooth.

Resolving vertically,

T cos 300 + T cos 600 = W

 3 1
 
 2 + 2 T = W
 

2W
T=
3 +1

Rationalize to give T = W ( 3 − 1) .

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Resolving horizontally,

P + T sin 300 = T sin 600

3 1 T
P= T - T = ( 3 − 1)
2 2 2

P = W(2- 3 )

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

E is the mid-point of the side CD of a square ABCD. Forces 16, 20, P,

QN act along AB, AD, EA, CA in the directions indicated by the order
of the letters. Find P and Q, if the forces are in equilibrium.
Solution

[12 ]
5, 4 2 . .

Remarks

An important special case of motion of a particle occurs when the

particle is, or appears to be, at rest or in equilibrium with respect to an
initial co-ordinate system or frame of reference.
A necessary and sufficient condition for this is, from Newton’s second
Law, that F = 0
i.e. the net (external) force acting on the particle is zero.

Also ∧ = 0 i.e. external torque on the particle is zero.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

A particle moves along the x axis in a force field having potential

1 2
V= kx , k > 0. Determine the point of equilibrium.
2

Solution
Equilibrium points occur where

∇V = 0 or in this case
dv
= kx = 0
dx

or x = 0

Thus there is only one equilibrium point, at x = 0

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3.5 Linear Motion

In addition to our earlier study, we consider a particle moving in a

straight line so that its distance from a fixed point 0 in the straight line is
dx
x after time t, we than have velocity V at time t as along that straight
dt
line away from 0.

dv
Again its acceleration at time t in the same direction is , thus
dt

dx dv d . dx d2x dv
V= ,a= = = 2
=v .
dt dt dt dt dt dx

Therefore, it is possible to find the acceleration in terms of x or t by

differentiation if the distance x is given as a function of the time, or the
velocity V as a function of the distance or time.

3.6 Motion in a Straight Line

Let S be the distance moved in time t, then if the acceleration has a

constant value a, we obtain
dv d2 s dv
= 2 =V =a
dt dt ds

Integrate, with respect to t, we have

ds
V= = a t + constant
dt

If u be the value of the velocity at time t = 0, we have

V = u + at ........................................................................................ (1)

ds
Writing for V and integrating again w.r.t. t,
dt

S = ut + ½ at2 + constant ...................................................................... (2)

dv
Also if we write V = a, we integrate w.r.t.s to obtain ½V2 + a s t
ds
constant
If u is initial velocity when s = 0, then our constant = ½ u2
Then V2 = u2 + 2a S ............................................................................ (3)

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Equation (1) to (3) above determines the motion of particle moving in

straight line with CONSTANT acceleration. But if the acceleration is
VARIABLE, the equation does not hold. Therefore when the
acceleration is given as a function of the time, velocity expressions for
the acceleration and finds the velocity and the distance by integration.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7

A train moving with constant acceleration passes three posts, A, B, C on

a straight road. The distance from A to B is 15m, and from B to C 20m.
The train takes 6 sec to go from A to B and 5 sec to go from B to C.
Find the acceleration of the train and its distance from A when its speed
is 5.5 m/sec.

Solution

Assume Vm/sec be initial velocity of the train and ∝m/sec2 its

acceleration. We have for the two stages A to B and A to C:

A to B A to C
u = Vm/sec u = Vm/sec
v=? v=?
a = ∝m/s2 a = ∝m/s2
s = 15m s = 35m
t = 16sec t = 11sec

Applying our formula s = ut- ½ at2 to each of the stages A to B and B to

C we have

15 = 6v + 18∝
35 = 11v + 60.5∝

Solving simultaneously, we have that

∝ = 3/11 m/s2 and V = 115/22m/s.

If the speed be 5.5m/sec at a point X, we have for the stage

A to X, u = 37/22m/s, v = 5.5m/s, a = 3/11m/sec2

s = ? and t = ?

Applying formula V2 = u2 + 2as, we have

2 X 3/11 x s = (5.5)2 – (1.682)2

Hence, the speed is 5.5m/sec at 50.27m from A.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Moment of a force is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and

direction. Its unit is NM. The Principle of Moments can be verified
experimentally by applying known forces to a rigid body, such as bar,
and making appropriate measurements.

5.0 SUMMARY

In summary, the Principle of Moments can be verified experimentally by

applying known forces to a rigid body, such as bar, and making
appropriate measurements. Therefore, principle of moments can be used
as the basis of static.

Couple is a term used to denote two equal unlike paralleled forces

whose line of action are not the same.

The moment of a couple about any point in the plane of the forces is
equal to the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between the lines of action of the forces. it is remarked further that A
couple has turning point effect as it is proved in the foregoing unit.

THEOREM: Force acting at a point of a rigid body can be equivalently

replaced by single force acting at some specified point together with a
suitable couple.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. An electric train starts from rest at a station and come to rest at

the next station, one kilometre away, in 3 min. It has first a
uniform acceleration for 40 sec, then a constant speed and it is
brought to rest by a constant retardation for 20 sec. Find the
maximum speed of the train and retardation when coming to rest.
2. A train moving with constant acceleration passes three posts, A,
B, and C on a straight road. The distance from A to B is 35m, and
from B to C 30m. The train takes 8 sec to go from A to B and 5
sec to go from B to C. Find the acceleration of the train and its
distance from A when its speed is 10 m/sec.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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MODULE 7 HAMILTONIAN THEORY

Unit 1 The Hamiltonian

Unit 2 The Calculus of Variation
Unit 3 The Hamilton-Jacobi Equation

UNIT 1 THE HAMILTONIAN

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
13.0 Main Content
3.1 The Hamiltonian
3.1.1 The Hamilton’s Equations
3.1.2 Ignorable or Cyclic Coordinates
3.1.3 Phase Space
3.1.4 Liouville’s Theorem
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We investigated a formulation of mechanics due to Lagrange. In this

unit, we shall investigate a formulation due to Hamilton known
collectively as Hamiltonian methods or Hamiltonian theory. Although
such theory can be used to solve specific problems in mechanics, it
develops that it is more useful in supplying fundamental postulates in
such fields as quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics and celestial
mechanics.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define the Hamiltonian

• state the Hamiltonian for Conservation Systems
• define Ignorable or Cyclic Coordinates
• define phase space
• state Liouville’s theorem.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Hamiltonian

Just as the Lagrangian function, or briefly the Lagrangian, is

fundamental to the previous module so the Hamiltonian function, or
briefly the Hamiltonian, is fundamental to this unit.

The Hamiltonian, symbolised by H, is defined in terms of the

Lagrangian L as

(1)

It must be expressed as a function of the generalised coordinate’s qα and

generalised moment pα. To accomplish this the generalised velocities
Must be eliminated from (1) by using Lagrange’s equations. In such
case the function H can be written

H (p1,…….., pn, q1, ……., qn, t) (2)

Or
briefly, H (pα, qα t), and is also called the Hamiltonian of the system.

3.1.1 The Hamilton’s Equations

In terms of the Hamiltonian, the equations of motion of the system can

be written in the symmetrical form

(3)

These are called Hamilton’s canonical equations, or briefly Hamilton’s

equations. The equations serve to indicate that the pα and qα play similar
roles in a general formulation of mechanical principles.

The Hamiltonian for Conservation Systems

If a system is conservative, the Hamiltonian H can be interpreted as the

total energy (kinetic and potential) of the system i.e.,

H=T+V (4)

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Often this provides an easy way for setting up the Hamiltonian of a

system.

3.1.2 Ignorable or Cyclic Coordinates

A coordinate qα which does not appear explicitly in the Lagrangian is

called an ignorable or cyclic coordinate. In such case

(5)

So that pα is a constant, often called a constant of the motion.

In such case we also have

3.1.3 Phase Space

The Hamiltonian formulation provides an obvious symmetry between

the pα and qα which we call momentum and position coordinates
respectively. It is often useful to imagine a space of 2n dimensions in
which a representative point is indicated by the 2n coordinates

H (p1,…….., pn, q1, ……., qn,) = constant = E (6)

Such a space is called a 2n dimensional phase space or a pq phase space.

Whenever we know the state of a mechanical system at time t, i.e. we

know all position and momentum coordinates, then this corresponds to a
particular point in phase space. Conversely, a point in phase specifies
the state of the mechanical system. While the mechanical system moves
in the physical 3 dimensional space, the representative point describes
some path in the phase space in accordance with equations (3).

3.1.4 Liouville’s Theorem

Let us consider a very large collection of conservative mechanical

systems having the same Hamiltonian. In such case the Hamiltonian is
the total energy and is constant, i.e.,

H(p1, ….., pn, q1, ….qn) = constant = E (7)

Which can be represented by a surface in phase space.

Let us suppose that the total energies of all these systems lie between E1
and E2. Then the paths of all these systems in phase space will lie

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between the two surfaces H = E1 and H = E2 as indicated schematically

in the figure below.

Since the systems have different initial conditions, they will move along
different paths in the phase space. Let us imagine that the initial points
are contained in region of Fig. 12 – 1 and that after time t these
points occupy region . For example, the representative point
corresponding to one particular system moves from point A to point B.
From the choice and it is clear that the number of representative
points in them is the same. What is not so obvious is the following
theorem called Liouville’s theorem.

Liouville’s Theorem
The 2n dimensional volumes of and are the same, or if we define
the number of points per unit volume as the density then the density is
constant.

We can think of the points of as particles of an incompressible fluid

which move from to in time t.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The Hamiltonian formulation provides an obvious symmetry between

the pα and qα which we call momentum and position coordinates
respectively. It is often useful to imagine a space of 2n dimensions in
which a representative point is indicated by the 2n coordinates

H (p1,…….., pn, q1, ……., qn,) = constant = E

Such a space is called a 2n dimensional phase space or a pq phase space.

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5.0 SUMMARY

The Hamiltonian, symbolised by H, is defined in terms of the

Lagrangian L as

(1)

And must be expressed as a function of the generalised coordinate’s qα

and generalised moment pα. To accomplish this the generalised
velocities
Must be eliminated from (1) by using Lagrange’s equations. In such
case the function H can be written
H (p1,…….., pn, q1, ……., qn, t) (2)

(3)

These equations above are called Hamilton’s canonical equations, or

briefly Hamilton’s equations.
Liouville’s Theorem
The 2n dimensional volumes of and are the same, or if we define
the number of points per unit volume as the density then the density is
constant.

11.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Using surface in phase space represent Liouville’s Theorem.
2. Can Hamilton be interpreted as a total energy? Give reasons for
your answer.
3. Define 2n dimensional phase space or a pq phase space.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.
Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.
KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.
Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.
Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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UNIT 2 THE CALCULUS OF VARIATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
14.0 Main Content
3.1 Calculus of Variation
3.2 Hamilton’s Principle
3.3 Canonical or Contact Transformations
3.5 Condition that a Transformation be Canonical
3.6 Generating Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A problem which often arises in mathematics is that of finding a curve y

= Y (x) joining the points where x = a and x = b such that the integral.

(i)

Where y’ = dy/dx, is a maximum or minimum, also called an extremum

or extreme value. The curve itself is often called an external. It can be
shown that a necessary condition for (i) to have an extremum is

(ii)

which is often called Euler’s equation. This and similar problems are
considered in a branch of mathematics called the calculus of variations.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define the calculus of variation

• state the Hamilton’s principle
• define canonical or contact transformations
• prove that a transformation can be canonical.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Calculus of Variation

An important class of problems involves the determination of one of

more function subject to certain conditions, so as to maximise or
minimise certain definite integral, whose integrand depends upon the
unknown function(s) and /or certain of their derivatives.

For example, to find the equation y = u(x) of the curve along which the
distance from (0,0) to (1,1) in the xy plane at least, we would seek u(x)
such that

( )
1
I = ∫ 1 + (u ′) 2 dx = min
0

With u(0)=0, u(1)=1.

This section presents a brief treatment of some of the simpler aspects of

such problems.

We consider first the case when we attempt to minimise or maximise an

integral of the form

1
I = ∫ F ( x, u , u ′)dx 1
0

Subject to the conditions

u(o)=A and u(1)= B 2

where a, b, A and B are given constants to be determined. We suppose

that F has continuous second-order derivatives with respect to its three
arguments and require that the unknown function u(x) possesses two
derivatives everywhere in (a,b). To fix ideas, we suppose that I is to be
maximised.

We thus visualise a competition, to which only functions which have

two derivatives in (a,b) and which take on the prescribed end values are
admissible.

The problem is that of selecting from all admissible competing

functions, the function(s) for which I is largest.

Under the assumption that there is indeed a function u(x) having this
property, we next consider a one-parameter family of admissible

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functions which includes u(x), namely, the set of all functions of the
form u ( x)+ ∈ η ( x ) , where η ( x ) is any arbitrary chosen twice
differentiable function which vanishes at the end points of the interval
(a,b)

η (a ) = η (b ) = 0 3

and where ∈ is a parameter which is constant for any one function in the
set but which varies from one function to another.

The increment ∈η ( x ) , representing the difference between the varied

function and the actual solution function, is often called a variation of
u(x).

If the result of replacing u ( x ) + ∈η ( x ) in I is denoted by

b
I (∈) = ∫ F ( x, u + ∈ η , u ′)+ ∈ η ′dx 4
a

It then follows that I (∈) takes on its maximum value when ∈ =0, that is,
when the variation of u is zero. Hence, it must follow that

dI (∈)
= 0 , when ∈ =0 5
d∈
The assumed continuity of the partial derivatives of F with respect to its
dF
three arguments implies the continuity of , so that we may
d∈
differentiate I (∈) under the integral sign to obtain

 ∂F ∂F
b

I ′(0 ) = ∫  η ( x ) + η ′( x )dx = 0 6
a 
∂u ∂u ′ 

Here we write, F ≡ F ( x, u , u ′) , noticing that the partial derivatives

∂F ∂F
and have been formed with x, u and u ′ treated as independent
∂u ∂u ′
variables.

The next step consists of transforming the integral of the second product
(6) by integration by parts, to give

∂F  ∂F ∂  ∂F 
b b b

∫a ∂u ′ η ′(x )dx =  ∂u ′ η (x ) a − ∫a ∂x  ∂u ′ η (x )dx

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∂  ∂F 
b
=−∫  η ( x )dx =0
a
∂x  ∂u′ 

in consequence of (3). Hence, equation (6) becomes

 ∂  ∂F  ∂F 
b

∫  ∂x  ∂u ′  − ∂u η (x )dx = 0
a
7

It is possible to prove rigorously that since (7) is true for any function
η ( x ) which is twice differentiable in (a,b) and zero at the ends of that
interval; consequently, the coefficient of η ( x ) . In the integrand must be
zero everywhere in (a,b), so that the condition

∂  ∂F  ∂F
 − =0 8
∂x  ∂u′  ∂u

must be satisfied. This is called Euler’s equation.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

We seek to minimise the integral

π
2 dy  2 
I = ∫   − y 2 + 2ty dt 9
 dt 
0  

With y(0)=0 and y (π / 2) = 0 .

∂  ∂F  ∂F
The Euler’s equation  − =0 10
∂x  ∂u ′  ∂u

with u and x replaced by y and t, respectively, becomes

d  dy 
 2  − (− 2 y + 2t ) = 0 11
dt  dt 

Or

d2y
+ y = t, 12
dt 2

from which there follows y = c1 cos t + c 2 sin t + t 13

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The end conditions then gives

y = t − (π / 2 ) sin t. in correspondence with which 14

π π2
I min = − 1 − 2  . 15
2  1 

Generalisations in which more dependent and/or independent variables

are involved or which involves other modifications, as well as
formulations of sufficiency conditions, may be found in the literature.

Two such generalisations, which are particularly straightforward, may

be described here:

(a) If the equation

b
I = ∫ F ( x, u , u ′)dx is replaced by the integral 16
a

b
I = ∫ F ( x, u1 , u 2 , u 3 ,...........u n ; u1′ , u ′2 , u 3′ .......u n′ )dx 17
a

Where values of the n independent unknown functions

u1 ( x ), u 2 (x ), u3 ( x ),...........u n ( x ) are each given at the end points x=a and
x=b, we obtain an Euler’s equation similar to

∂  ∂F  ∂F
 − = 0 . In correspondence with each u r 18
∂x  ∂u ′  ∂u

∂  ∂F  ∂F
  − = 0 , where r = 1, 2,…..n.
∂x  ∂u r′  ∂u r
19

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

The Euler’s equation associated with b the integral

∫ (u ′ , u ′ )
b
− 2u1u 2 + 2 xu1 dx
2 2
1 2 20
a

are obtained by use of equation(19) in the form.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

d
(2u1′ ) − (− 2u 2 + 2 x ) = 0 21
dx

and

d
(2u1′ ) − (− 2u1 ) = 0 22
dx

Or
u1′′ + u 2 = x, and .u 2′′ + u1 = 0. 23

(b) suppose that we are to maximise or minimise

b
I = ∫ F ( x, u , u ′)dx , 24
a
b
I = ∫ F ( x, u , u ′)dx = maximise or minimise. 25
a

Where u(x) is to satisfy the prescribed end conditions u(a)=A and

u(b)=B as before, but that also a constraint condition is imposed in the
form

∫ G (x, u, u ′)dx = k .
a
26

where k is a prescribed constant. In this case, the appropriate Euler’s

equation is found to be the result of neglecting F in equation (19) by
auxiliary function

H = F + λG . 27

Where, λ is an unknown constant. This constant, which is of the nature

of Lagrange multiplier, this generally will appear in the Euler’s equation
and in its solution and is to be determined together with the two
constants of integration such a way that the three conditions of u(a)=A,
b
u(b)=B and ∫ G (x, u , u ′)dx = k are satisfied.
a

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

∫y
2
To minimise the integral dx
0

subject to the end conditions y(0)=0, y(1)=0 28

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

1
And also to the constant ∫ ydx = 1 . 29
0

We write H = y ′ 2 + y , in correspondence with which the Euler’s

equation is
2 y ′′ − λ = 0 30

Hence, y must be of the form

1 2
y= λx + c1 x + c 2 31
4

The end conditions and the constraints condition yields

c1 = 6, c 2 = 0.and .λ = 2 x ,

and hence there follows y=6x(1-x). 32

3.2 Hamilton’s Principle

The obvious similarity of (9) of Lagrange’s equations leads one to

consider the problem of determining the externals of

or briefly

Where L = T – V is the Lagrangian of a system.

We can show that a necessary condition for an external is

which are precisely Lagrange’s equations. The result led Hamilton to

formulate a general variational principle known as Hamilton’s
Principle. A conservative mechanical system moves from time t1 to
time t2 in such a way that

sometimes called the action integral, has an extreme value.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Because the extreme value of (4) is often a minimum, the principle is

sometimes referred to as Hamilton’s principle of least action.

The fact that the integral (4) is an extremum is often symbolised by

stating that

Where is the variation symbol.

3.3 Canonical or Contact Transformations

The ease in solution of many problems in mechanics often hinges on the

particular generalised coordinates used. Consequently, it is desirable to
examine transformations from one set of position and momentum
coordinates to another. For example, if we call qα and pα the old
position and momentum coordinates while Qα and Pα are the new
position and momentum coordinates, the transformation is

Pα = Pα (p1, …., pn, q1, ….., qn, t), Qα = Qα (p1, ……., pn, q1, ……, qn, t)

denoted briefly by

Pα = Pα )pα, qα, t), Qα = Qα (pα, qα, t) 7

We restrict ourselves to transformations called canonical or contact

transformations for which there exists a function called the
Hamiltonian in the new coordinates such that

In such case we often refer to Qα and Pα as canonical coordinates.

The Lagrangian’s in the old and new coordinates are L (pα, qα, t) and
) respectively. They are related to the Hamiltonians H (pα, qα,
t) and by the equations

Where the summations extend from α = 1 to n.

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3.4 Condition that a Transformation be Canonical

The following theorem is of interest.

Theorem 12.2. The transformation

10

is canonical if 11

in an exact differential.

3.5 Generating Functions

By Hamilton’s principle the canonical transformation (5) or (6) must

satisfy the conditions that

and are both extrema, i.e. we must simultaneously have

and 12

These will be satisfied if there is a function such that

13

We call a generating function.

By assuming that is a function, which we shall denote by , of the old

position co-ordinates qα and the new momentum coordinates Pα as well
as the time t, i.e.

14

We can prove

15

Where 16

Similar results hold if the generating function is a function of other

coordinates.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Examples of Hamilton’s Principle

1. Prove that a necessary condition for to be an

extremum [maximum or minimum] is

Suppose that the curve which makes an extremum is given by

17

Then
(18)

Where is independent of , is a neighbouring curve through

and if we choose

19

The value of for the neighbouring curve is

20

This is an extremum for . A necessary condition that this be so is

that .

But by differentiation under the integral sign, assuming this is valid, we

find

Which can be written on integrating by parts as

Where we have used (19), since is arbitrary, we must have

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

This is called Euler’s or Lagrange’s equation. The result is easily

extended to the integral

and leads to the Euler’s or Lagrange’s equations.

By using a Taylor’s series expansion we find from (20) that

+ Higher order terms in

etc. 21

The coefficient of in (20) is often called the variation of the integral

and is denoted by

The fact that

is an extremum is thus indicated by

4.0 CONCLUSION

The ease in solution of many problems in mechanics often hinges on the

particular generalised coordinates used. Consequently, it is desirable to
examine transformations from one set of position and momentum
coordinates to another. For example, if we call qα and pα the old
position and momentum coordinates while Qα and Pα are the new
position and momentum coordinates, the transformation is

Pα = Pα (p1, …., pn, q1, ….., qn, t), Qα = Qα (p1, ……., pn, q1, ……, qn, t)

denoted briefly by Pα = Pα )pα, qα, t), Qα = Qα (pα, qα, t)

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

5.0 SUMMARY

Obviously, similarity of equation (9) above of Lagrange’s equations

leads one to consider the problem of determining the extremes of

or briefly

Where L = T – V is the Lagrangian of a system.

We can show that a necessary condition for an external is

Which are precisely Lagrange’s equations. The result led Hamilton to

formulate a general variation principle known as Hamilton’s Principle.
A conservative mechanical system moves from time t1 to time t2 in such
a way that

Sometimes called the action integral, has an extreme value.

Because the extreme value of (12) is often a minimum, the principle is

sometimes referred to as Hamilton’s principle of least action.

The fact that the integral (12) is an extremum is often symbolised by

stating that

Where is the variation symbol?

Canonical or Contact Transformations was also discussed as the ease in

solution of many problems in mechanics often hinges on the particular
generalised coordinates used. Consequently, it is desirable to examine
transformations from one set of position and momentum coordinates to
another. For example, if we call qα and pα the old position and
momentum coordinates while Qα and Pα are the new position and
momentum coordinates, the transformation is

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Pα = Pα (p1, …., pn, q1, ….., qn, t), Qα = Qα (p1, ……., pn, q1, ……, qn, t)

denoted briefly by

Pα = Pα )pα, qα, t), Qα = Qα (pα, qα, t)

We restrict ourselves to transformations called canonical or contact

transformations for which there exists a function called the
Hamiltonian in the new coordinates such that

In such case we often refer to Qα and Pα as canonical coordinates.

The Lagrangians in the old and new coordinates are L (pα, qα, t) and
) respectively. They are related to the Hamiltonians H (pα, qα,
t) and by the equations

Where the summations extend from α = 1 to n.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State the Hamilton’s principle.

2. Under what condition can a transformation be canonical?
3. What do you understand by the term ‘generating function’?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

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UNIT 3 THE HAMILTON-JACOBI EQUATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
15.0 Main Content
3.1 The Hamilton-Jacobi Equation
3.1.1 Solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi Equation
3.2 Case Where Hamiltonian is Independent of Time
3.3 Phase Integrals, Action and Angle Variables
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

If we can find a canonical transformation leading to then we see

from (24) that Pα and Qα will be constants [i.e., Pα and Qα will be
ignorable coordinates]. Thus, by means of the transformation we are
able to find pα and qα and thereby determine the motion of the system.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the Hamilton-Jacobi equation

• state a case where Hamiltonian is independent of time
• define phase integrals, action and angle variables.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Hamilton-Jacobi Equation

The procedure hinges on findings the right generating function. From

the third equation of (23) we see by putting that this generating
function must satisfy the partial differential equation

(1)

Or (2)

This is called the Hamilton-Jacobi equation.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

3.1.1 Solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi Equation

To accomplish our aims we need to find a suitable solution of the

Hamilton-Jacobi equation. Now since this equation contains a total of n
+ 1 independent variables, i.e. q1, q2, …, qn and t, one such solution
called the complete solution, will involve n + 1 constants. Omitting an
arbitrary additive constant and denoting the remaining n constant by
[none of which is additive] this solution can be written

(3)

When this solution is obtained we can then determine the old

momentum coordinates by

(4)

Also, if we identify the new momentum coordinates Pα with the

constants βα, then

(5)

Where are constants.

Using these we can then find as functions of and t, which gives

the motion of the system.

3.2 Case Where Hamiltonian is Independent of Time

In obtaining the complete solution of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation, it is

often useful to consider the equation

(6)

where each function on the tight depends on only one variable. This
method, often called the method of separation of variables, is especially
useful when the Hamiltonian does not depend explicitly on time. We
then find that F(t) = - Et, and if the time independent part of
is denoted by

(7)

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

The Hamilton-Jacobi equation (26) reduces to

(8)

where E is a constant representing the total energy of the system.

The equation (8) can also be obtained directly by assuming a generating

function S which is independent of time. In such case equations (8) and
(1) are replaced by

(9)

where (10)

3.3 Phase Integrals, Action and Angle Variables

Hamiltonian methods are useful in the investigation of mechanical

systems which are periodic. In such case, the projections of the motion
of the representative point in phase space on any plane will be
closed curves Cα. The line integral

(11)

is called a phase integral or action variable.

We can show that

(12)

where (13)

It is customary to denote the new coordinates Qα by so that equations

(13) are replaced by

(14)

Thus, Hamilton’s equations become [see equations (13) and (14)]

(15)

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

Where in this case depends only on the . Then from the second
equation in (15),

(16)

Where and cα are constants. We call wα angle variables. The

frequencies are given by

(17)

4.0 CONCLUSION

The Hamilton-Jacobi equation (26) reduces to

where E is a constant representing the total energy of the system.

5.0 SUMMARY

The Hamilton-Jacobi equation is:

Or

It was also found that Hamiltonian methods are useful in the

investigation of mechanical systems which are periodic. In such cases
the projections of the motion of the representative point in phase space
on any plane will be closed curves Cα. Hence, the line integral

is called a phase integral or action variable.

Lastly, the issues of phase integrals, action and angle variables were
discussed extensively.

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MTH315 ANALYTICAL DYNAMICS

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Define phase integrals.

2. What happens when Hamiltonian is independent of time?
3. How would you express angle variables with respect to
Hamilton-Jacobi equation?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Ajibola, S.T. (2006). Vector Analysis and Mathematical Method.

Avner, Friedman. Differential Games.

Kibble, T. W. B. Classical Mechanics.

KREYSZIC. Advanced Engineering Mathematics.

Murray, R. Spiegel. Theoretical Mechanics.

Vladinirou, U.S. Generalised Function Mathematical Physics.

131