LABORATORY MANUAL

Course name: Cryptogamic Botany-II

Course code: 24FSH-155
B. Sc. Forensic Science Batch 2024

Department of forensic science

University Institute of Applied Health Sciences

NH-95, Chandigarh-Ludhiana Highway, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab

(India) 140413
www.cuchd.in
 Program Educational Objectives
The PEOs are broad statements that describe the career and professional accomplishments that
the program is preparing its graduates to achieve in few years subsequent to receiving the degree.
The PEO’s of the forensic science program are as follows:
PEO 1:-CU forensic graduates will be well prepared for successful careers in the profession
or in research & innovation at an industry and/or in government in one or more of discipline
of forensic science and /or sub disciplines of forensic science.
PEO 2:- CU forensic graduates will make skilled in implementing current and emerging
technologies and software practices for detection, analyses, and evaluation of forensic
evidence.
PEO 3:-CU forensic graduates will be successful in leading the multidisciplinary teams
with professional competencies to extend his experiences, abilities and dexterities in
scientific investigations to give unbiased and firm scientific opinions in the courts.
PEO 4:-CU forensic graduates will serve the society not solely as forensic expert but as a
contributor towards healthy, secure and vibrant society by making people alert about various
methods adopted by the criminals for committing the crimes.
PEO 5:-CU forensic graduates will be successful in higher education in forensic science or
criminology, if pursued.

Program Outcomes
Program Outcomes (POs) are attributes of the graduates of the programme that are indicative
of the graduates’ ability and competence to work as a forensic scientist upon graduation. Program
Outcomes are statements that describe what students are expected to know or be able to do by
the time of graduation. They must relate to knowledge and skills that the students acquire from
the programme. The achievement of all outcomes indicates that the student is well prepared to
achieve the program educational objectives down the road. The following 12 POs have been
chosen by the Forensic science department of Chandigarh University. The Forensic Science
Department curriculum at CU has been designed to fully meet all the 12 Program Outcomes:
PO 1:Apply the knowledge of forensic and its different specializations to identify the
modus operandi of criminals and investigate complex crimes (Forensic knowledge).
PO 2:Demonstrate team leadership skills through ability to set directions and teamwork
skill for achieving the desired goals (Individual and team work).
PO 3:Apply reasoning within the conceptual knowledge to serve as an expert with
integrity and high professional ethics that can deliver clear, objective and unbiased
opinions ((Ethics).
PO 4:Communicate effectively to direct and guide interdisciplinary team members
(Communication).
PO 5:Function effectively to communicate and express himself in the society with
learning zeal and to deliver clear and firm eye witness in any proceeding that may be
referred in future in similar cases (sustainability).
PO 6:Recognize and execute research based methods including targeted experiments,
analysis and interpretation of data and synthesis of information leading to logical
conclusions for combating the crime (Conduct investigations of complex problems).
PO 7:Apply selected knowledge to work on complex analytical instruments so as to
present accurate and complete data in reports based on good scientific practices and
validated methods (Modern tool usage).
PO 8:Stay abreast of new findings and researches and along with lifelong learning in the
field (Life-long Learning).
PO 9:Create and Innovate ideas that can lead to a powerful breakthrough in criminal
and civil investigations (Design/development of solutions).
PO 10:Function effectively to serve the society not solely as forensic professional but as
a contributor towards healthy, secure and vibrant society by making people alert about
various methods adopted by the criminals for committing the crimes (Forensic scientists
and society).
PO 11:Enhance and adopt new skills for future employability in teaching and research
through seminar, internship. (Adoption of new skill for future employment)
PO 12:Function effectively to serve the society not solely as forensic professional but
as a contributor towards healthy, secure and vibrant society by making people alert about
various methods adopted by the criminals for committing the crimes (Forensic scientists
and society).
Program Specific Outcomes
Program Specific Objectives (PSOs) are specific statements that describe the professional
career accomplishment that the program is designed. The PSO’s of the BSc Forensic science
program are as follows:
PSO 1:-Graduate will be able to develop critical thinking and reasoning abilities required during
handling and interpretation of diverse evidences like digital, chemistry, toxicological,
biological, documents, audio/videos, dermatoglyphics etc.
PSO 2:-Graduate will able be to employ the techniques during criminal investigations that are
economically viable and savvy to regional, national and global crime related problems
benefitting respective organization and the profession.
PSO 3:- Graduate will be able to detect and opine on the evidences recovered from homicidal,
accidental and suicidal cases that may involve exhibit of dermatoglyphics, digital,
anthropological, photographic etc. in front of judiciary or criminal justice system
 Syllabus
SN Program Code- BS214 Course Title L T P CH Course Type*
5 Course Code- 22FSH-155 Cryptogamic Botany-II 2 0 2 4 PC
PRE-REQUISITE 10+2 with sciences
CO-REQUISITE
ANTI-REQUISITE

Course Description
The course begins with introduction about morphology, anatomy and lifecycle of bryophytes. The students are then introduced to
various pteridophytes along with their morphology, anatomy and reproductive cycles.
a) Course Objectives
To acquaint the students about the morphology, biology and importance of bryophytes, and pteridophytes.

b) Course Outcomes
On completion of this course, the students are expected to;
CO1 summarize about the bryophytes on the basis of morphological characters, economic importance and evolution of
the simplest group of plant kingdom that is bryophytes
CO2 evaluate about general characters of Pteridophytes and their affinities with other groups. On the basis of
morphological and anatomical characters.
CO3 conclude about evolution of stellar system in Fern-allies and Ferns and about their life cycle patterns found in
Pteridophytes.
CO4 To train students in basis of bryophytes, pteridophytes and genetics and their basic and advance techniques.
CO5 To give practical training on basic biology and genetics experiments.
CO6 To equip the students with practical knowledge in microscope, staining techniques, section cutting and
identification of specimens.

c) Syllabus

Unit-1 Bryophyta Contact Hours: 15

Chapter 1.1 Bryophyta: General characters, Amphibians of Plant Kingdom, alternation of generations;
External morphology, internal structures, reproduction and life cycles of Marchantia
(Hepaticopsida);
Experiment 1.1 Morphological study of Marchantia
i) Thallus
ii) Antheridiophore
iii) Archegoniophore
iv) Gemma cups
Chapter 1.2 Anthoceros (Anthocerotopsida); Funaria (Bryopsida).
Experiment 1.2 Morphological study of Anthoceros:
i) Thallus with sporophyte
Chapter 1.3 Evolution of sporophytes in Bryophytes. Economic importance of bryophyte
Experiment 1.3 Morphological study of Funaria:
i) Thallus structure
Experiment 1.4 Study through temporary slides:
(i) Rhizoids and scales of Marchantia
(ii) Rhizoids of Anthoceros
Unit-2 Pteridophyta-I Contact Hours: 15
Chapter 2.1 Pteridophyta:general characters, alternation of gereration,
Affinities of Pteridophytes with other group of plants;

Experiment 2.1 Study through permanent slides:

 i) L.S. Sporogonium of Marchantia
ii) L.S. Anthrediophore of Marchantia
iii) L.S. Archegoniophore of Marchantia
iv) L.S. Mature sporogonium of Anthoceros
v) L.S. Male receptacle of Funaria
vi) L.S. Female receptacle of Funaria
vii) L.S. Capsule of Funaria
Chapter 2.2 External morphology, internal structures, reproduction and life cycles of Psilopsida (Rhynia);
Experiment 2.2 Morphological study of Selaginella:
i) Thallus
ii) Sporangiferous spike
Chapter 2.3 External morphology, internal structures, reproduction and life cycles of Lycopsida (Lycopodium,
Selaginella).
Experiment 2.3 Morphological study of Lycopodium:
i) Plant body
ii) Strobilii
Unit-3 Pteridophyta-II Contact Hours: 15
Chapter 3.1 External morphology, internal structures, reproduction and life cycles in Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
and Pteropsida (Pteris andMarsilea) – developmental stages are excluded.
Experiment 3.1 Study through permanent slides:
i) L.S. Strobilus of Selaginella
i) T.S. Strobilus of Selaginella
ii) L.S. Strobilus of Lycopodium
iii) L.S. Strobilus of Equisetum
iv) T.S. Strobilus of Equisetum
v) T.S. Stem of Equisetum
Chapter 3.2 External morphology, internal structures, reproduction and life cycles in Pteropsida (Pteris
andMarsilea) – developmental stages are excluded.
Experiment 3.2 Study of karyotypes from dividing root tip cells and pollen grains.
Chapter 3.3 Evolution of stellar system in Fern-allies and Ferns.
Experiment 3.3 1. Cytological examination of special types of chromosomes from slides/photographs:
a) bar body
b) lampbrush
c) polytene chromosomes

d) Text Books:

T1 Vasishta, PC. 1996.Bryophyta, 3rd Ed., S. Chand & Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
T2 Vasishta, PC. 2000. Pteridophyta.2nd Ed., S. Chand & Co. Ltd., New Delhi.
T3 Sharma, OP. 2011. Diversity of Microbes and Cryptogams-Algae. 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi.
T4 Vashishta, BR; Sinha, AK and Singh, VP. 2011. Botany for Degree Students-Algae. 2nd Ed., S. Chand Publisher,
New Delhi.
T5Kashyap, SR. 1972. Liverworts of the Western Himalayas, 1st Ed., Panjab University,Chandigarh,India.
e) Reference Books:

R1 Kumar, HD. 1999. Introductory Phycology,2nd Ed., Affiliated East West Press Ltd., New Delhi.
R2 Parihar, NS. 1996. Biology and Morphology of Pteridophytes, 1st Ed., Central Book Depot., Allahabad.
R3 Rashid, A. 1998. An Introduction to Bryophyta,2nd Ed., Vikas Pub. House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
R4 Rashid, A. 1999. An Introduction to Pteridophyta,3rd Ed., Vikas Publ. House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
R5 Sharma, OP. 2001. Text Book of Pteridophytes, 2 nd Ed., MacMillan India Ltd.
R6 Sporne, KR.1991. The Morphology of Pteridophytes, 2nd Ed., B. I. Publishing Pvt. Ltd., Bombay.
R7 Singh, RS. 1998. Plant Diseases.1st Ed., Oxford IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
f) CO-PO Mapping
Course
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
Outcome
CO1 3 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0
 CO2 0 3 3 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0
CO3 0 0 3 0 0 3 2 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 3
CO4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
CO5 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
CO6 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Assessment Pattern
The performance of students is evaluated as follows:
Theory Practical
Components Internal Mid Term End Term Continuous Mid Term End Term
Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment
(CAE)
Marks 20 20 60 40 20 40
Total Marks 100 100

Frequency for assessment tools for theory classes

S.no. Type of Weightage of Frequency Final Weightage Remarks

Assessment actual conduct of Task in Internal
essment
1. Assignment* 10 marks 1 per Unit 10 marks

2. Time Bound 12 marks for 1 per Unit 4 marks

Surprise Test each test
3. Quiz 4 marks for 20per 4 marks
each quiz Unit
4. Mid Semester 20 marks for 2 per 20 marks
Test* MST semester
Presentation** Non-Graded: Only for
5. Engagement Task self-study
MNG
courses
Homework NA 1 per Non-Graded:
6. lecture Engagement Task
topic (of 2
questions)
7. Discussion NA 1 per Non-Graded:
forum Chapter Engagement Task
Attendance NA NA 2 marks
8. and
Engagement
Score on BB

SN Program Code- BS214 Course Title L T P CH Course Type*

5 Course Code- 22FSH-204 Diversity and Systematic of Gymnosperms 2 0 2 4 PC
PRE-REQUISITE 10+2 with sciences
CO-REQUISITE
ANTI-REQUISITE
 .
a) Course Objectives

1. The Course deals with highly advance and evolved group of plants with naked seeds i.e. Gymnosperms.
2. The course work of this paper gives a fair idea about the general features, economic importance and
study of fossil as well as living gymnosperms.
b) Course Outcomes
On completion of this course, the students are expected to
CO1 To analyze about general characters of Gymnosperms
CO2 To infer Cycadales and Coniferales
CO3 To compare the general characters of Ephedrales and Gnetales including their structure
CO4 To understand the study the living fossil
CO5 To apply the knowledge for forensic investigations.

d) Syllabus

Unit-1 Gymnosperms and Progymnosperms Contact Hours: 20

Chapter 1.1 Gymnosperms: General features and their classification, fossilization and fossil gymnosperms.
Economic Importance of Gymnosperms.
Chapter 1.2 General characters, morphological features of Arachaeopteris and Aneurophyton;
Seed habit in gymnosperms, Distinguishing features of angiosperms and gymnosperms,
Manoxylic and pycnoxylicwood
Experiment 1.1 External morphology, young and old foliage leaves, scale leaves Study of microsporophyll, mega
sporophyll and mature seed.
Experiment 1.2 Study through permanent slides – normal root (T.S.) and ovule (L.S.)
Experiment 1.3 Study through hand sections– coralloid root (T.S.). rachis (T.S.), leaflet (V.S.)
Unit-2 Cycadales and Coniferales Contact Hours: 20
Chapter 2.1 General characters of Cycadales and Coniferales, Structure, reproduction (male and
female strobilus; structure of ovule; development of male and female gametophytes;
pollination, fertilization, development of embryo) and life cycle of Cycas
Experiment 2.1 External morphology: Long and dwarf shoot, male and female cones, winged seeds.
Experiment 2.2 Study through permanent slides – root (T.S.), Male cone (L.S.), female cone (L.S.), ovule
(L.S.), embryo (W.M.) showing polycotyledonous condition.
Chapter 2.2 Structure, reproduction (male and female strobilus; structure of ovule; development of male and
female gametophytes; pollination, fertilization, development of embryo) and life cycle of Pinus.
Experiment 2.3 Study through hand sections and prepration of permanent studies in young stem (T.S.), old stem
(T.S., T.L.S. and R.L.S.), needle (T.S.), pollen grains (W.M.)
Unit-3 Pteridophyta Contact Hours: 20
Chapter 3.1 General characters of Ephedrales and Gnetales, Structure, reproduction (male and female
strobilus; structure of ovule; development of male and female gametophytes; pollination,
fertilization, development of embryo and structure of seed) and life cycle of: Ephedra and Gnetum
Experiment 3.1 External morphology, Structure of male and female cones.
Chapter 3.2 Important features and life history of Ginkgo biloba.
Experiment 3.2 Hand sections – Stem (T.S.), maceration to show vessel structure; pollen grains (W.M.)
Experiment 3.3 Study of Modifications of stem.

e) Text Books:
T1 Singh, V; Pande, PC and Jain, DK. 2013. A Text Book of Botany: Diversity a Systematics of Seed Plants,
5th Ed., Rastogi Publications, Meerut.
T2 Bhatnagar, AM. 2004. Gymnosperms, 4th Ed., New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers, New
Delhi.
T3 Sharma, OP. 2002, Gymnosperms, 6th Ed., Pragati Prakashan, Meerut.
f) Reference Books:
R1 Bhatnagar, SP and Moitra, A. 1996.Gymnosperms, 1st Ed., New Age International Limited, New Delhi.
R2 Chamberlain, CU. 1966. Gymnosperms, 1st Ed., Dover Publications Inc. New York, USA.
R3 Gifford, EM and Foster, AS. 1988. Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants,1st Ed., W.H.
Freeman & Company, New York.
R4 Stewart, WM. 1983.Paleobotany and the Evolution of Plants, 1st Ed., Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
R5 Dhand, N. 2102. Systematics of Spermatophyta, 3rd Ed., Trueman Publications, Jalandhar.

g) CO-PO Mapping

Cou
rse
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS PS
Out
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 O1 O2 O3
com
e
CO1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3
CO2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2
CO3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1
CO4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 3
CO5 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1

Assessment Pattern
The performance of students is evaluated as follows:
Theory Practical
Components Internal Mid Term End Term Continuous Mid Term End Term
Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment
(CAE)
Marks 20 20 60 40 20 40
Total Marks 100 100

Frequency for assessment tools for theory classes

S.no. Type of Weightage of Frequency Final Weightage Remarks
Assessment actual conduct of Task in Internal
essment
9. Assignment* 10 marks 1 per Unit 10 marks

10. Time Bound 12 marks for 1 per Unit 4 marks

Surprise Test each test
11. Quiz 4 marks for 20per 4 marks
each quiz Unit
12. Mid Semester 20 marks for 2 per 20 marks
Test* MST semester
Presentation** Non-Graded: Only for
13. Engagement Task self-study
MNG
courses
Homework NA 1 per Non-Graded:
14.
lecture Engagement Task
topic (of 2
 questions)

15. Discussion NA 1 per Non-Graded:

forum Chapter Engagement Task
Attendance NA NA 2 marks
16. and
Engagement
Score on BB
 CO MAPPING
Unit-1 Bryophyta Contact Hours: 15
Experiment 1.1 Morphological study of Marchantia (CO1)
v) Thallus
vi) Antheridiophore
vii) Archegoniophore
viii) Gemma cups
Experiment 1.2 Morphological study of Anthoceros: (CO1)
ii) Thallus with sporophyte
Experiment 1.3 Morphological study of Funaria: (CO1)
ii) Thallus structure
Experiment 1.4 Study through temporary slides: (CO2)
(iii) Rhizoids and scales of Marchantia
(iv) Rhizoids of Anthoceros
Unit-2 Pteridophyta-I Contact Hours: 15
Experiment 2.1 Study through permanent slides: (CO2)

viii) L.S. Sporogonium of Marchantia

ix) L.S. Anthrediophore of Marchantia
x) L.S. Archegoniophore of Marchantia
xi) L.S. Mature sporogonium of Anthoceros
xii) L.S. Male receptacle of Funaria
xiii) L.S. Female receptacle of Funaria
xiv) L.S. Capsule of Funaria
Experiment 2.2 Morphological study of Selaginella: (CO3)
iii) Thallus
iv) Sporangiferous spike
Experiment 2.3 Morphological study of Lycopodium: (CO3)
iii) Plant body
iv) Strobilii
Unit-3 Pteridophyta-II Contact Hours: 15
Experiment 3.1 Study through permanent slides: ((CO3), CO4)
i) L.S. Strobilus of Selaginella
vi) T.S. Strobilus of Selaginella
vii) L.S. Strobilus of Lycopodium
viii) L.S. Strobilus of Equisetum
ix) T.S. Strobilus of Equisetum
x) T.S. Stem of Equisetum
Experiment 3.2 Study of karyotypes from dividing root tip cells and pollen grains. (CO5)
Experiment 3.3 2. Cytological examination of special types of chromosomes from slides/photographs:
(CO5)
h) bar body
i) lampbrush
j) polytene chromosomes
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AND CO MAPPING
Serial No. Name of the experiment

1. Morphological study of Marchantia (CO1)

i) Thallus ii)
Antheridiophore iii)
Archegoniophore iv)
Gemma cups

2. Morphological study of Anthoceros : (CO1)

i) Thallus with sporophyte
3.
Morphological study of Funaria : (CO1)
i) Thallus structure

4. Study through permanent slides: (CO2)

i) L.S. Sporogonium of Marchantia ii)

L.S. Anthrediophore of Marchantia iii)
L.S. Archegoniophore of Marchantia iv)
L.S. Mature sporogonium of Anthoceros v)
L.S. Male receptacle of
Funaria vi) L.S. Female receptacle of
Funaria vii) L.S. Capsule of Funaria

5. Morphological study of Selaginella: (CO2)

i) Thallus
ii) Sporangiferous spike

6. Morphological study of Lycopodium : (CO3)

i) Plant body ii) Strobilii

7. Morphological study of Equisetum : (CO3)

i) Plant body ii)
Strobilii
 8.
Study through permanent slides: (CO3, CO4)

i) L.S. Strobilus of Selaginella ii)

L.S. Strobilus of Lycopodium iii)
L.S. Strobilus of Equisetum

9. To study cell structure from onion leaf peels; demonstration of

staining and mounting method. (CO5; CO6)

10. Cytological examination of special types of chromosomes from

slides/photographs: (CO5; CO6)
1. Bar body
2. Lampbrush chromosomes
3. Polytene chromosomes

Signature of Subject Coordinator: Signature of HOD

Date of issue:
Applicable to: B. Sc. /B. Sc. B.Ed. (Med.), II nd Sem. Students

EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: Morphological study of Marchantia
i) Thallus
ii) Antheridiophore
iii) Archegoniophore
IV) Gemma cups
Requirements: Specimen of plant body of Marchantia, gemma cups of Marchantia,
dissecting microscope, needle, brush.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe.
Classification:
Identifying features:

i) Thallus

Figure 1.1 shows male and female thallus of Marchantia

1. Plant body is gametophytic, thalloid, flat, prostrate, plagiotropic, 2-10 cm. long
and dichotomously branched.
2. Dorsal surface is dark green. It has a conspicuous midrib and a number of
polygonal areas called areolae.
3. Ventral surface of the thallus bears scales and rhizoids along the midrib. Scales
are violet coloured, multicellular, one cell thick and arranged in 2-4 rows. Scales
are of two types: (i) Simple or ligulate (ii) Appendiculate.
4. Rhizoids are unicellular, branched and develop as prolongation of the lower
epidermal cells. They are of two types: (i) Smooth-walled rhizoids (ii)
Tuberculate rhizoids.
 Figure 1.2 shows Marchantia thallus, (A) vegetative thallus, (B) dorsal surface,
(C) ventral surface, (D) appendiculate scale, (E) ligulate scale, (F) tuberculated
rhizoid (surface view), (G) smooth walled rhizoid, (H) Tuberculated rhizoid showing
internal view.
1. The thallus can be differentiated into epidermis, assimilatory zone and storage zone.
2. Epidermis is single layer, made of thin- w a l l e d squarish cells, which contain
chloroplast and is interrupted by air pores which leads to air chamber.
3. The main function of t h e air pore is to facilitate the gaseous exchange
during photosynthesis and respiration.
4. Assimilatory Zone: The air chambers are in a single layer they are divided
by one-celled thick two-four cells partitions or septa. Each air chamber opens
out externally by a p o r e . From the floor of air chamber arise short
simple or branched multicellular filaments The cells contain discoid chloroplast.
Figure 1.3 shows V.S. of Marchantia thallus and enlarged portion of thallus
5. Storage tissue: It is present on ventral side of the thallus and is present
below the air chamber. It is made of thin walled parenchymatous cells, which
do not contain chloroplast but contains starch grains.
6. The lower most layer cells of this tissue present at the lower epidermis. They give rise
to multicellular scales and unicellular rhizoids.

ii) Antheridiophore:
1. The antheridiophore shows a 1-3 cm long prismatic stalk bearing at its apex
a slightly convex (peltate) disc which is usually a 8-lobed structure. Each
lobe represents the apex of a branch along whose upper (dorsal) median line
the antheridia are borne in a row.
2. The antheridia develop in a acropetal manner i.e., the oldest are being at the
center and the youngest ones towards the periphery. The antheridia are within
the flask- shaped antheridial chamber. Each antheridial chamber contains a
 single antheridium. Each antheridial chamber is separated from one another
by air chambers with air pores.

Figure 1.4 shows vertical section through antheridiophore ii)

Archegoniophore:

1. The archegoniophore or the carpocephalum is comprised of a stalk and a

disc that bears 9 rays instead of lobes. In the early stage, the archegonia
develop on the upper (dorsal) side of the disc. About 12-14 archegonia are
arranged in a single row on each ray of the disc.

2. The archegonia are hanging upside down — the youngest one being nearer
the stalk while the older ones towards the periphery. Subsequently, the tissue
in between the rows of archegonia develops and hangs down as rays.
Initially the number of lobes is 8, later 9 rays are formed by the splitting of one.
Figure 1.5 shows (A) vertical section through archegoniophore with two radial

rows of archegonia, (B) A mature archegonium, (c) archegonium after

disintegration of neck and ventral canal cells showing rudiments of the perigynum. iv)

Gemma cups:

Gemmae are produced in the gemma cups which are found on the dorsal surface of
the thallus. Gemma cups are crescent shaped, 3 m.m. in diameter with smooth, spiny
or fimbriate margins.
 Figure 1.6 shows Marchantia Gemma cup, (A) Thallus showing gemma cup
on the dorsal surface, (B) A gemma Cup, (C) Gemma, (D) V.S. of gemma
cup, (E-J) different stages in the development of gemma cup.

Precautions :
1. Avoid bubbles while placing cover slip.
2. Section should be thin.
 EXPERIMENT 2
Aim: Morphological study of Anthoceros :
i) Thallus with sporophyte

Requirements: Anthoceros specimen, dissecting microscope, compound microscope,

needles, brush, forceps, blade, coverslips, slides.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe.

Classification:

Identifying features:
i) Thallus:
1. Gametophytic plant body is thalloid, dorsiventral, prostrate, dark green in colour
with a tendency towards dichotomous branching.

2. Such branching results into an orbicular or semi orbicular rosette like appearance
of the thallus.

3. The thallus is bilobed (A. himalayensis ) or pinnately branched ( A. hallii ) or

spongy with large number of sub-spherical spongy bodies like a gemma (A .
gemmulosus or raised on a thick vertical stalk like structure ( A. erectus ).
Figure 2.1 shows External features of Anthoceros, (A) A. himalayensis , (B) A.
erectus , (C) A. crispulus (dorsal surface), (E) ventral surface, (F) smooth walled
rhizoid, (G) Thallus with tubers

4. The dorsal surface of the thallus may be smooth (A. laevis ) or velvety because
of the presence of several lobed lamellae (A. crispulus ) or rough with spines
and ridges (A. fusiformis ). It is shining, thick in the middle and without a distinct
mid rib.
5. The ventral surface bears many unicellular, smooth-walled rhizoids. Their main
function is to anchor the thallus on the substratum and to absorb water and
mineral nutrients from the soil. Tuberculated rhizoids, scales or mucilaginous
hairs are absent.

6. Vertical transverse section:

i) It is uniformly composed of thin walled parenchymatous cells. The

thickness of the middle region varies in different species.
ii) The outer most layer is upper epidermis. The epidermal cells are regularly
arranged, smaller in size and have large lens shaped chloroplasts. Each
cell of the thallus contains a single large discoid or oval shaped chloroplast.
 iii) The air chambers and air pores are absent in Anthoceros. The cavities
are filled with mucilage and are called mucilage cavities. These cavities
open on the ventral surface through stoma like slits or pores called slime
pores . Each slime pore has two guard cells with thin walls. The guard
cells are non-functional and do not control the size of the pore.

Figure 2.2 shows Anthoceros (A) morphology of thallus, (B) internal structure of
thallus

Precautions:
1. Avoid bubbles while placing cover slip.
2. Section should be thin.
 EXPERIMENT 3
Aim: Morphological study of Funaria:
i) Thallus structure

Requirements: Funaria specimen, dissecting microscope, compound microscope,

needles, brush, foreceps, blade, coverslips, slides.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe.

Identifying features:
1. The adult gametophyte is differentiated into rhizoids, axis or ‘stem’ and ‘leaves’.
2. Rhizoids arise from the base of the axis. They are slender, branched, and
multicellular and have oblique septa.
i. Axis is 1—3 cm. high, upright, slender and branched. Each branch is
extra axillary ie., arise below a leaf. Leaves are sessile, oblong-ovate with
entire margin, pointed apex and are arranged spirally on the branches. Each
‘leaf’ is traversed by a single mid rib.
3. Internal structure: The transverse section (T. S.) of axis can be differentiated
into three distinct regions:
i. Epidermis: It is the outer most single layered protective covering
consisting of small tangentially elongated chlorophyll bearing cells.
Cuticle and stomata are absent
ii. Cortex: It is present between the epidermis and conducting tissue. It is made up
to parenchymatous cells. Younger part of the cortex contains chloroplasts but in
the older part they are lacking. At maturity few outer layers of cortex become
thick walled and are reddish brown in colour but those of the inner layers
become thin walled.
iii. Central conducting strand or central cylinder: It is made up of long, narrow
thin-walled dead cells which lack protoplasm. These cells are now
commonly called as hydroids
Figure 3.1 shows Funaria (A) morphology of plant (B) leaf with midrib
 Figure 3.2 shows T.S. of Funaria axis

Figure 3.3 shows T.S. of Funaria leaf

Transverse section of internal structure of leaf : Transverse section ( T. S.) of ‘leaf’

shows a well-defined midrib with two lateral wings. Except the midrib region, the
‘leaf’ is composed of single layer of parenchymatous polygonal cells. The cells contain
many large and prominent chloroplasts. The central part of the mid rib has narrow
conducting strand of thick walled cells which help in conduction.

Precautions:
1. Avoid bubbles while placing cover slip.
2. Section should be thin.
EXPERIMENT 4
Aim: Study through permanent slides:

i) L.S. Sporogonium of Marchantia

ii) L.S. Anthrediophore of Marchantia
iii) L.S. Archegoniophore of Marchantia
iv) L.S. Mature sporogonium of Anthoceros
v) L.S. Male receptacle of Funaria
vi) L.S. Female receptacle of Funaria
vii) L.S. Capsule of Funaria

Requirements: Microscope, permanent slides of L.S. sporogonium of Marchantia,

L.S. anthrediophore of Marchantia, L.S. archegoniophore of Marchantia, L.S. mature
sporogonium of Anthoceros, L.S. male receptacle of Funaria, L.S. female receptacle
of Funaria, L.S. capsule of Funaria.
Identifying features:
 i) L.S. Sporogonium of Marchantia
It is differentiated into three parts — foot, seta and capsule.

(a) Foot:
It is an expanded bulbous mass of cells at the base of the
sporogonium, serves as an absorbing and anchoring organ. It absorbs
nutrients from the gametophyte.

(b) Seta:
It is a slightly elongated stalk that connects the foot to the
capsule. The cells are parenchymatous and elongated lengthwise. Thus,
seta increases in length and pushes the mature capsule out of the calyptra.

(c) Capsule:
It is a yellow-coloured spherical structure, contains numerous
spores and elaters. The capsule is protected by three coverings viz.
calyptra perigynium and perichaetium.

Figure 4.1 shows Marchntia polymporpha , (A) L.S. of capsule, (B) V.S. through
archegonial head at the time of bursting of capsule, (C) burst sporophyte, (D)
spores and elater cell.

ii) L.S. Anthrediophore of Marchantia

The antheridiophore shows a 1-3 cm long prismatic stalk bearing at
its apex a slightly convex ( peltate) disc which is usually a 8- lobed
 structure. Each lobe represents the apex of a branch along whose
upper (dorsal) median line the antheridia are borne in a row.

The antheridia develop in a acropetal manner. The antheridia are

within the flask- shaped antheridial chamber. Each antheridial chamber
contains a single antheridium. Each antheridial chamber is separated
from one another by air chambers with air pores.

Figure 4.2 shows V.S. of Marchantia polymorpha through antheridiophore iii)

L.S. Archegoniophore of Marchantia

1. The archegoniophore or the carpocephalum is comprised of a stalk and

a disc that bears 9 rays instead of lobes. In the early stage, the archegonia
develop on the upper (dorsal) side of the disc. About 12-14 archegonia
are arranged in a single row on each ray of the disc.

2. The archegonia are hanging upside down — the youngest one being
nearer the stalk while the older ones towards the periphery. Subsequently,
the tissue in between the rows of archegonia develops and hang down
as rays. Initially the number of lobes is 8, later 9 rays are formed by the
splitting of one.
 Figure 4.3 shows (A) V.S of archegoniophore of Marchantia polymorpha showing
two radial rows of archegonia, (B) a mature archegonium, (C) archegonium
showing rudiments of perigynium

L.S. Mature sporogonium of Anthoceros:

The mature sporophyte consist a bulbous foot and a smooth, slender, erect,
cylindrical, structure called capsule.

Internal structure:
A mature sporogonium can be differentiated into three parts viz., the foot, seta
and the capsule.

Foot: It is bulbous, multicellular and made up of a mass of parenchymatous

cells. It acts as haustorium and absorbs food and water from the adjoining
gametophytic cells for the developing sporophyte.
 Figure 4.4 shows internal structure of sporogonium of Anthoceros (A) L.S. through
mature sporogonium, (B) cross section at b-b level, (C) cross section at c-c level,
(D) cross section at d-d level, (F) structure of stomata from the epidermis of
sporogonium wall.

Meristematic Zone or Intermediate Zone or Intercalary Zone: Seta is represented

by meristematic zone. This is present at the base of the capsule and consists
meristematic cells. These cells constantly add new cells to the capsule at its base.
The presence of meristem at the base enables the capsule to grow for a long
period and form spores.

Capsule: Its internal structure can be differentiated into following part s:

Columella:
It is central sterile pan, extending nearly to its tip. It is endothecial in origin.
In young sporophyte it consists of four vertical rows of cells but in mature sporophyte
it is made up of 16 vertical rows of cells (4 x 4). In a transverse section these cells
appear as a solid square. It provides mechanical support, functions as water conducting
tissue and also helps in dispersal of spores.

Archesporium:
It is present between the capsule wall and the columella. It extends from base
to the top of the capsule. It originates from the inner layer of amphithecium. In young
sporophyte it over arches the columella. The capsule it is differentiated into sporogenous
tissue which produces spores and pseudo elaters.

Pseudo elaters may be unicellular or multicellular, branched or un-branched and

may consists more or less elongated cells.

Capsule wall:
It consists of four to six layers of cells, of which the outermost layer is
epidermis. The cells of the epidermis are vertically elongated and have deposit of cutin
on their walls. The continuity of epidermis is broken by the presence of stomata. The
stomata are oriented vertically with the axis of the sporogonium and are widely separated
from each other. iv) L.S. Male receptacle of Funaria
 Figure 4.5 shows L.S. of male branch of Funaria showing antheridia

1. L.S. of male branch shows that its apex is expanded and convex shaped. It bear
large number of reddish brown or orange antheridia in different stages of development.
2. Projected antheridia are surrounded by a rosstte of spreading leaves called perigonial
leaves.
3. The antheridial cluster with surrounding perigonial leaves is called perigonium. The
antheridia are intermingled with large number of sterile hair like club shaped
structures called paraphyses.
4. Parephyses store water, protect developing antheridia ,help in photosynthesis and
dehiscence of antheridia.

v) L.S. Female receptacle of Funaria

Figure 4.6 shows (A) L.S. of female branch of Funaria showing archegonia,
(B) antheridia

1. Female bracnch arise from base of male branch. LS. Female

branch shows many archegonia intermingled with paraphyses.
2. Terminal cell of paraphyses is not swollen.
 3. The cluster of archegonia is enclosed by group of foliage leaves
called perichaetial leaves.
vi) L.S. Capsule of Funaria
1. L.S. capsule shows that it has three distinct regions- apophysis,
theca and operculum.
2. Apohysis is basal sterile part of the capsule. It is bounded by
single layer of epidermis interrupted by stomata. Below epidermis
is spongy parenchyma.
3. It is the middle slightly bent spore bearing region of the capsule.
It lies between apophysis and operculum. L.S. throw theca shows
that it consist of epidermis, hypodermis, spongy parenchyma,
airspaces, spore sacs and columella.
4. Operculum is upper region of the capsule. It is dome shaped
consisting of 4-5 layers of cells
 EXPERIMENT 5
Aim: Morphological study of Selaginella:
i) Thallus ii)
Sporangiferous spike

Requirements: Dissecting microscope, microscope, Selaginella specimen, needle, brush,

slide, coverslips.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe

Classification:
Division: Lycophyta
Class: Ligulopsida
Order: Selaginellales
Family: Selaginellaceae
Genus: Selaginella

Identifying features:

i) Thallus

1. The sporophyte is herbaceous and the shoot is dorsiventral and radial and
creeping or erect.
2. The leaves are small (microphyllous) and a ligule is present at the base of
each leaf and sporophyll .
3. Rhizophore is (a leafless structure where from roots arises) present in some species .
4. Sporophylls are usually aggregated into strobili at the apices of the branch,
hetero- sporous.
5. Heterothallic (dioecious) gametophytic prothalli.
6. Antherozoids are biciliate.
 Figure 5.1 shows Selaginella (A) a portion of sporophyte, (B) an enlarged part of
the stem showing leaf arrangement

ii) Sporangiferous spike

1. All the species of Selaginella forms strobili or cones. Generally strobili

occur terminally on side branches, but in some species the apical meristem
of the cone may continue meristematic activity.

2. Selaginella is heterosporous and, therefore, sporangia are of two types viz.,

microsporangia and megasporangia. The sporophylls associated with these
two types of sporangia are designated as microsporophylls and
megasporophylls respectively.

3. The lower portion of a strobilus consists of megasporangia and the upper

portion of microsporangia ( S. helvetica, S. rupestris, S. selaginoides ) or the
two types of sporangia may be mixed indiscriminately.
 Figure 5.2 shows L.S. of strobilus of Selaginella

4. The mature sporangia are stalked with two- layered jacket. The
microsporangia are slightly elongated and reddish to bright orange in colour.
Megasporangia are larger than microsporangia and are frequently lobed. The
megasporangia are whitish-yellow or light orange in colour.

Figure 5.3 shows Selaginella (A) mature microsporangium, (B) mature

megasporangium

Precautions:
1. Avoid bubbles while placing cover slip.
 2. Section should be thin.

EXPERIMENT 6
Aim: Morphological study of Lycopodium :
i) Plant body ii) Strobilii

Requirements: Specimen of lycopodium , Microscope, brush, needle, slide , coverslip.

Classification:
Division: Lycophyta
Class: Eligulopsida
Order: Lycopodiales
Family: Lycopodiaceae
Genus: Lycopodium

Identifying features: i)
Plant body:
1. Plant body is sporophytic. It consist of slender and branched stem, numerous
small leaves and dichotomously branched roots.
2. Leaves are simple, eligulate, sessile with single single unbranched midrib.
3. Stem is generally weak, slender and rhizomatous.
4. Primary roots are ephemeral or short lived. Older plants have dichotomously
branched adventitious roots.
 Figure 6.1 shows (A) Lycopodium clavatum , (B) Lycopodium selago
ii) Strobili
1. Leaves near apical portion bear sprongia and are called sporophylls. These
sporophylls usually form a condensed structure at apex called as strobili.
2. The number of strobili differ in different species.
 Figure 6.2 shows Lycopodium sporophyte (A) L. cernuum (terrestrial), ( B)
L. clavatum (terrestrial), (C) L. phlegmaria (epiphyte)

EXPERIMENT 7
Aim: Morphological study of Equisetum :
i) Plant body ii) Strobilii
Requirements:
 Specimen, brush , needle,
slide, microscope.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe

Classification:
Division: Sphenophyta
Class: Equisetopsida
Order: Equisetales
Family: Equisetaceae
Genus: Equisetum

Identifying features: i)
Plant body:
1. The plant body of Equisetum has an aerial part and an underground rhizome
part. The rhizome is perennial, horizontal, branched and creeping in nature.
The aerial part is herbaceous.

2. In Equisetum, silica is deposited on the outer wall of the epidermal cells giving
the characteristic rough feeling, thus it provides a protective covering against
predators and pathogens.
 Figure 7.1 shows Equisetum arvense sporophyte

ii) Strobili
1. Fertile aerial, unbranched shoots bear at their apices, the spore-bearing compact
organs known as strobili (sing, strobilus) or cones. In some rare cases
branched fertile axis is also present.
 Figure 7.2 shows Equisetum arvense fertile shoot bearing cone

Figure 7.3 shows Equisetum debile branched fertile axis bearing cones

2. Each cone or strobilus has a thick central axis known as strobilus axis or cone
axis.
 Figure 7.4 shows Equisetum (A) Ventral view of a single sporangiophore, (B) T.S. of
strobilus

3. On the strobilus axis are attached many umbrella like sporangiophores in whorl.

4. Each sporangiophore is a stalked structure, the free end of which becomes flattened
to form a peltate disc.

5. The disc is a hexagonal structure and present at right angle to the stalk.

6. On the undersurface of disc are present many sporangia, horizontally towards the
axis of strobilus.
 EXPERIMENT 8
Aim: Study through permanent slides:

i) L.S. Strobilus of Selaginella

ii) L.S. Strobilus of Lycopodium
iii) L.S. Strobilus of Equisetum

Requirements: Two leafy shoots cut under water, razor or sharp edge knife, a needle,
two beakers, water, eosin solution, plane slides, cover slip, microscope.

Procedure:
1. Put the specimen on slide.
2. With the help of needle and brush spread the leaves and rhizoids of the specimen
3. Using needle split open the capsule to view internal organization.
4. Place slide under dissecting microscope and observe

Identifying features:

i) L.S. Strobilus of Selaginella

1. All the sporophylls and sporangia form a four angled loose cone called strobilus.
2. In majority of the cases lowermost one or two sporophylls contain
megasporangia rest upper contain microsporangia.
3. In other cases, one side bears only microsporangia while other contains
megasporangia.

Figure 8.1 shows (A) L.S. Strobilus of S. kraussiana , (B) L.S. Strobilus of S.
inaequalifolia
ii) L.S. Strobilus of Lycopodium

1. Strobilus is globular and sporophylls are arranged spirally and closely.

2. Sporophylls bear sporangia on their adaxial side.
3. Sporangium is eusporangiate and consist of short stalk and kidney shaped capsule
with numerous tinyhaploid spores.

Figure 8.2 shows (A) L.S. of terminal portion of strobilus, (B) sporophyll
with sporangium of L. clavatum , (C) sporophyll with sporangium of L. cernuum
iv)L.S. Strobilus of Equisetum

1. On the strobilus axis are attached many umbrella like sporangiophores in whorl.
2. Each sporangiophore is a stalked structure, the free end of which becomes
flattened to form a peltate disc.
 3. The disc is a hexagonal structure and present at right angle to stalk.
4. On the undersurface of disc are present many sporangia, horizontally towards
the axis of strobilus.
5. Each sporangium is elongated and pendant and contains a rounded apex.

Figures 8.3 show L.S of Equisetum cone

Precautions:
1. Avoid bubbles while placing cover slip.
2. Section should be thin.
EXPERIMENT 9
Aim: Study through hand sections:
i) Internal structure of thallus of
Marchantia ii) Internal structure of thallus
of Anthoceros iii) T.S. Stem
Equisetum iv) T.S. Stem Selaginella

Requirement: Thallus of Marchantia, Anthoceros, stem of Equisetum, stem of

Selaginella , blades, potato, needle, brush, slides, coverslip, compound microscope.

Procedure:
1. Take 2-3cm long pieces of the material.
2. Hold the material between thumb and first finger of your left hand in potato pith.
3. Hold the razor in the right hand with edge of the blade facing you and handle at
right angle to it.
4. Dip the top of the material in water.
5. Then start cutting transverse sections as fast as possible in a watch glass containing
water.
6. Select the thinnest section of the material with the help of a delicate brush. Take a clean
watch glass with water, transfer thin sections of the material.
7. Cover it with a cover slip with the help of needle. 8. Observe it under a compound
microscope
Observations:

i) Internal structure of thallus of Marchnatia:

1. The thallus can be differentiated into epidermis, assimilatory zone and storage
zone.
2. Epidermis:-
The upper epidermis is single layer and made of thin- w a l l e d squarish cells.

They contain chloroplast it is interrupted by air pores which leads to air

chamber.
Each pore is a b a r r e l s h a p e d s t r u c t u r e they project inwards
giving a star shaped or cruciate appearance to the pore when viewed
from the dorsal surface.
The main function of the Air pore is to facilitate the gaseous exchange
during photosynthesis and respiration.
3. Assimilatory Zone :
The air chambers are in a single layer they are divided by one-celled thick
two-four cells partitions or septa.
Each air chamber opens out externally by a p o r e .
From the floor of air chamber arise short simple or branched multicellular
filaments
The cells contain discoid chloroplast. These filaments are called assimilatory pigments
and this zone is photosynthetic tissue of thallus.

4. Storage Tissue:
It is present on ventral side of the thallus and is present below the air chamber.
It is a copact tissue made of thin walled parenchymatous cells.
These cells do not contain chloroplast but contains starch grains.
 Some isolated cells contain mucilage and oil.
The lower most layer cells of this tissue present at the lower epidermis.
They give rise to multicellular scales and unicellular rhizoids.

Figure 9.1 shows internal structure of Marchantia thallus

ii) Internal structure of thallus of Anthoceros

 Figure 9.2 shows Nostoc (A) V.S. of gametophytic thallus with colonies, (B)
Gametophytic thallus cell showing single chloroplastid, pyrenoid and nucleus,
(C) Mucilage slit opening to mucilage cavity from ventral side
1. The thallus is comprised of uniform, thin-walled, parenchymatous cells except
the epidermis which is made up of comparatively smaller cells.
2. The thallus is several layers thick in the middle and the thickness of the
thallus may vary from 6 to 8 cells in A . laevis to 30-40 cells in A. crispulus .
3. The surface cells contain a comparatively large chloroplast and are not
cuticularised. Each cell of the thallus shows one or more discoid or oval
chloroplasts containing many pyrenoids.
4. There are no air chambers or pores in the tissue of the thallus.

iii) T.S. Stem Equisetum:

1. In T.S., the stem of Equisetum appears wavy in outline with ridges and
furrows. The epidermal cell walls are thick, cuticularised and have a
deposition of siliceous material.
2. Stomata are distributed only in the furrows between the ridges.
3. A hypodermal sclerenchymatous zone is present below each ridge which
may extend up to stele in E. giganteum . The cortex is differentiated into
outer and inner regions.
4. The stele is ectophloic siphonestele which is surrounded by an outer
endodermal layer.
5. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring which lies opposite to the
ridges in position and alternate with the vallecular canals of the cortex.
Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed. In the mature vascular
bundle, protoxylum is disorganised to form a carinal cavity which lies opposite
to the ridges.
 Figure 9.3 shows T.S of Equisetum stem

v) T.S. Selaginella stem

1. Anatomically, it is differentiated into an outer layer of epidermis, middle layers

of cortex and centrally located stele
2. Outermost one-celled thick epidermis consists of cutinized cells with no stomata.
3. In most of the species, the cortex is differentiated into a few outer layers, of
thick-walled sclerenchymatous hypodermis and many inner layers of thin-walled
parenchymatous cells, while in very delicate species it is fully composed of
thin-walled parenchymatous cells.
4. Cortex is completely sclerenchymatous in xerophytic species.
5. Generally, there is no intercellular space in the cortex.
 Figure 9.4 shows T.S. of stem of Selaginella (A) with vascular cylinder, (B) with distelic
stem

Precautions:

1. Cut sections as thin as possible.

2. Avoid bubble formation while placing coverslip.
EXPERIMENT 10
Aim: Cytological examination of special types of chromosomes from slides/photographs:
1. Barr body
2. lampbrush
3. Polytene chromosomes

Requirements: Slides/ photographs of bar body, lamrush chromosome, polytene

chromosome, microscope.

Identifying Features:

1. Barr Body:-

Barr body structure, which are considered to play a major role for sex
determination. This small round Barr body is located either in the border
of nuclear membrane or sometimes inside of nucleus. This Barr body may
be single or more in number in some cases. These structures are present
only in the female sex.
 In the cells, violet-Barr bodies are observed inside a pink nucleus. A Barr
body is nothing but an inactivated (heterochromatinized) X chromosome.

2. Lamprush Chromosome:-
These are the largest known chromosomes found in the yolk rich oocytic
nuclei of certain vertebrates such as fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds.

Figure 10.1 shows lampbrush chromosome

1. These loops give it a brush-like appearance; that is why these are called
lampbrush chromosomes first discovered by Flemming in 1882 and were
described in shark oocytes by Ruckert (1892). Lampbrush chromosomes of
certain urodele oocytes may reach upto 5900µ in length.

2. It consists of longitudinal axis formed by a single DNA molecule along which

several hundred bead-like chromomeres are distributed in a linear fashion. From
each chromomere there emerge two symmetrical lateral loops (one for each
chromatid), which are able to expand or contract in response to various
environmental conditions.

3. About 5 to 10% of the DNA is in the lateral loops. Loop formation reduces
the mass of the corresponding chromomeres, implying a spinning out of
chromomere material into the lateral strands. The centromeres also have the
appearance of elongate Feulgen-positive chromomeres but they characteristically
lack lateral loops.
 Figure 10.2 shows lampbrush chromosome with DNA lops

3. Polytene Chromosome
These are also giant chromosomes but relatively smaller than lampbrush
chromosomes, found in the larvae of certain dipterans. Such banded
chromosomes occur in the larval salivary glands, midgut epithelium, and rectum
and Malpighian tubules of various genera ( Drosophila , Sciara, Rhynchosciara
, and Chironomus ). In these larvae the salivary glands contain salivary cells
so large in size that they can easily be seen with the lens power of a dissecting
microscope.
 Figure 10.3 shows polytene chromosome

Figure 10.4 shows polytene chromosome with heterochromatic area and NOR regions

Nuclei of these cells are much larger than those of ordinary cells being generally about 25µ
in diameter, and chromosomes in nuclei are so large that they are 50 to 200 times as large as
chromosomes in other body cells of the organism.

They were first observed in 1881 by E.G. Balbiani in Chironomus and were
studied by Korschelt (1884) and Corney (1884). Heitz and Bauer in 1933
studied these giant chromosomes in Bibio hortulanus larvae, while Painter (1933)
described them in salivary glands of Drosophila.
Puffs and Balbiani rings:
During their initial stages of development these bands or interbands of the
chromosomes exhibit swellings or puffs. Their appearance depends on the stage
of larval development. It is probable that the metabolic activities, required for
the formation of puffs, are related to the secretory function of the salivary
glands. The formation of this is controlled by certain specific genes and the
puffs are related with the active synthesis of RNA and proteins.

This chromosomal RNA differs from the nucleolar and cytoplasmic RNA. The
RNA of puffs is also not similar; it differs from each other in chemical
composition. Some regions show larger puffs than others. These larger puffing
regions are called Balbiani rings.
These rings are formed by the lateral stretching of loops caused by
chromonemata. These loops of chromonemata make up Balbiani rings and give
the chromosome a fuzzy outlook. The balbiani rings are rich in DNA and
mRNA, and the formation and function of the balbiani rings are similar to the puffs.