Module 2: evolution, biblogical, communities & - Described species using Latin or latinized

species interactions nouns and adjectives.

Adaptation - allow species to survive in its Species interactions - competition leads to
environment. resource allocation
2 ways of the using term “adapt” - Symbiosis benefits both species involved
1. Acclimation - individual organism can Competition - antagonist relationship within a
respond immediately to a changing biological community
environment. Types of competition
2. Genetic traits – passed from generation to intraspecific competition- members of same
generation. species
Evolution - change over generation because interspecific competition - members of different
individuals compete for scarce resources species
Natural selection – selected individuals passing Predator - organism that feeds directly on
their traits to the next generation. another living organism, whether or not kill the
Mutations - changes to the dna coding prey
sequence, occurs occasion ally. Symbiosis - species that live intimately together
-changed sequences are inherited by offspring. Types of symbiosis
Critical factor Mutualism - both members benefits
Justus Von Liebeg (1840)- chemist Commensalism - one member benefit and
- shortest supply relative to demand is the other is nor benefited nor harmed
critical factor determing where species lives. Parasitism - dependency of the parasite on its
- environment factors must be appropriate host
levels for organism to persist. Endosymbiosis - species living inside another
Tolerance limits one
Victor shelford (1877-1968) - ecologist Ectosymbiosis - species living on the surface of
- expanded liebig’s example. the other species
- stated has minimum and maximum levels; Community properties - productivity is a
tolerance limits. measure of bioligal activity
- closest to the critical factor that limits where - Abudance and diversity measure the
organism can live, number of variety of organisms
- affect young different, than adult. - Resilience and stability make community
Habitat - organism lives. resistant to disturbance
Ecological niche - describes both biological Primary productivity - rate of biomass
community and the set of environmental production
factors. Abundance – total number of organisms in a
Charles Elton (1990-1991) - british ecologist biological community
- Defined the concept of nich 1927. Diversity - measure of the number of different
- According to him, each species had a species, ecological niches, or genetic variation
role in the community and the niche present
defined its way of obtaining food. Biological structure
G.E. Hutchinson (1930-1991)- American Ecological structure - patterns of spatial
limnologist distribution
- 30 years later, proposed a more Local level - individual in a single population
biophysical definition of niche. can be distributed randomly
- according to him, species exist within a Randomly arranged populations- individuals
range of physical and chemical conditions. live wherever resources are available
Generalists - species tolerate a wide range of Ordered pattern - determined by the physical
conditions or exploit a wide range of resources. environment but are more often the result of
Specialists -species that have a narrow biological competition
ecological niche. Resilience & stability
Speciation - development of new species. Robert macarthur (1955) - graduate student of
2 kinds of speciation yale
1. Allopatric speciation - occurs when - Proposed that the more complex and
populations are geographically interconnected a community is, the
separated. more stable and resilient it will be in the
Geographic isolation -habitat are far enough face of disturbance
apart that population were genetically isolated. 3 kinds of resilience & stability
2. Sympatric speciation - occurs within one 1. Constancy - lack of fluctuations and in
geographic area. composition orm functions
Behavioral isolation - when two identical 2. Inertia - resistance of perturbotions
species live in similar habitats but have different 3. Renewal - ability to repair damage after
mating calls. disturbance
- Prevent interbreeding Edges and boundaries
Directional selection - shift toward one extreme Edge effects - boundary between habitat and
of a trait. neighbors
Taxonomy - types of organisms and their Ecotones - boundaries between adjacent
relationships. communities
- Traced common ancestors Closed communities - sharply divided from its
Binomials - also called scientific or latin name. neighbors
Open community - community with gradual or - Mountain’s areas have characteristic of
distinct boundaries over which many species boreal forest
across Tundra - treeless landscape, occurs at high
Ecological succession latitudes or on mountaintops, has a growing
Climax community - community that season of only two or three months, and it may
developed last and lasted the longest have frosted any months of the year
Ecological succession - the history of - Very cold desert because water is
community development unavailable (frozen)
2 kinds of succession Arctic tundra - biome that has low productivity
1. Primary succession - land that bare of sail Alpine tundra - occurring on a near top has
2. Secondary succession - existing community is environmental conditions and vegetation like
disturbed arctic tundra
Ecological development or facilitation - when Marine ecosystem - vary mainly with depth,
organism change the environment by temperature, and salinity
modifying sail Vertical stratification - key feature of aquatic
Pioneer species withstand a harsh environment ecosystem,
with few resources Phytoplankton - carry on photosynthesis in
Disturbance - disrupts the established patterns pelagic ecosystem
- Disturbance on earth: landslides, Zooplanktons - are small, weakly swimming
mudslides, earthquakes, hurricanes, etc. animals that feed on phytoplankton
Disturbance-adapted species - species that Benthic -communities occur on the bottom
can survive periodic disturbance Pelagic zone -from “sea” in greek
Module 3: Biomes - Are the water column
Biomes - type of communities with similar Epiplagic zone-(epi = on top) has
climate conditions, growth, patterns, and photosysnthesis organisms. Below this are the
vegetation types mesopelagic (meso = medium), and
Major world biomes bathypelagic (bathos = deep) zones
Terrestrial biomes - characteristics of biological Abyssal zone (deepest layer) - to 4,000m
communities Hadal zone - deeper than 6000m
Climate graph - used to describe and compare Littoral zones - shorelines
precipitation and temperature in different Intertidal zone - are exposed by low tides
biomes Coastal zones
Vertical zonation - occurs as vegetation type Coral reefs - best known ecosystems
change rapidly from warm and dry to cold and Mangroves - helps stabilize shorelines
wet as you go up to mountain Estuarries rivers - bays where empty into the
Tropical moist forests sea, mixing fresh water with salt water
Kind of moists tropical forests Salt marshes - shallow wetlands flooded
Cloud forests - found high in the mountains regularly or ocassionally with seawater
where fog and mist keep vegetation wet all the Tide pools- depressions in a rocky shoreline
time Barrier islands - form to parallel to a coastline
Tropical rainforests - occur when rainfall Freshwater ecosystem - vary according to
abundant depth and right penetration, which control size
Tropical seasonal rainforest and types of vegetation
Grasslands - also known as prairies or steppes Freshwater lakes -have distinct vertical zones
Savannas - extensive grasslands with Vertical zones
occasional or patches of trees; Benthos- the bottom
- 50-150 cm of rain per year Epilimnion - warmer upper layer
Grassland Hypolimnion below colder, deeper layer that is
Desert - occur where precipitation is rare and not mixed
unpredictable Thermocline - sharp temperature boundary
- Less than 30 cm of rain per year Mesolimnion - below thermocline, the water is
Temperature grasslands - occur where there is much wider
enough rain to support abundant grass but not Wetlands - vegetation that is adapted to grow
enough for forests under satured conditions
Forbs - diverse mix of grasses and flowering Swamps - also known as woodeld wetlands
herbaceous plants Marshes - wetlands without trees
Temperature shrubland - leaves from dense Bags - areas of satured ground
thickets Fens - like bags except they are mainly fed by
Chaparral - spanish for “thicket” groundwater
Temperature forests Human disturbance - conversion of natural
Decidous forest - occur throughout the world habitat to human uses
where rainfall is plentiful Module 4: Geology, Earth, Resources, and
Coniferous forest - grow in a wide range of Climate Change
temperature and moisture conditions Earth – dynamic planet and constantly
- Often occur where moisture is limited changing structure.
- Grow extremely wet conditions Core – composed of a dense.
Boreal forest - or northern forests Mantle – surrounded by molten outer core.
- Lie between 50 and 60 north Crust – cool lightweight, outermost layer of the
earth.
Plate tectonics 2. sedimentary
1855 – Antonio snider, publish a sketch on how 3. metamorphic
two continents fit together. Igneous rock – formed by the solidification and
Alfred Wegener – was strucll not only by the crystallization of cooling magma.
matching coastlines. - Latin word “ignis” means “fire”
Glossopteris – fossil plant Magma – naturally occurring hot
Mesosaurus – fossils of small reptile - Also contain some dissolved water and
Wegener – publish his ideas on 1912 gases and generally have some solid
- Proposed all the continental landmasses crystals suspended in the melt.
had once formed a supercontinent. Granite – most widely known example of
Plate tectonics – processes encompass by a platonic rock
broader theory. Lava – flows out on the earth surface
Tectonics – study large scale movement and Basalt – most common volcanic rock
deformation of the earth’s outer layer. Sediment – unconciliated accumulation of rock
Lithosphere – Greek word “lithos” means “rock” particles
- Thickness from place to place on the Lithification – sediments are transformed into
earth. rock
Asthenosphere – below the lithosphere - Greek word of “lithos” means “stone”
- Greek word “asthenes” means “without Clastic – Greek work “klastos” meaning
strenghth” “broken”
- Studying the behavior of seismic wave - Formed from break up of other rocks
from earthquakes. Sandstone – composed of sand-size
Locating plate boundaries – distribution of Shale – made up of finer – grained sediments
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Conglomerate – relatively coarse – grained rock
Divergent plate boundary – lithosphere plate Chemical – form not from the break up but from
moves apart the crystals formed by precipitation
- Volcanic activity occurs Limestone – composed mostly of calcite
Seafloor spreading ridges – most common type (calcium carbonate)
of divergent boundary worldwide. Rock salt – made up of mineral halite
Triple junction – three rift zones meet. Metamorphic rocks- Greek for “changed from”
Convergent plate boundary – plates moving - Formed from another, preexisting rock
toward each other that was subjected to heat and/ or
Subduction zone – one plate is carried down pressure.
below Metaconglomerate and metavolcanic –
Subducted plate – heated by the how describe respectively, a metamorphosed
asthenosphere. conglomerate and a metamorphosed volcanic
Island arc – an ocean – ocean convergence. rock.
Offset – special kind of fault. Quartzite – formed from a very quartz – rich
- Break in the lithosphere also known as sandstone
transform fault. Marble – individual calcite grains have
Mineral – naturally occurring recrystallized and become tightly interlocking
- Solid element or compound with a Foliation – latin for “leaf”
definite chemical composition Slate – developed foliation under stress
Crystalline – atoms or ions are arrange in Schist – a coarser – grained
regular. Rock scale – schematic view
- Repeating patterns. Economic mineralogy – study of resources that
2 fundamental characteristics of minerals: are valuable for manufacturing
1. chemical composition Metal bearing ores – mineral with unusually high
2. crystal structure concentrations of metals
Sophisticated laboratory equipment – minerals Metals – consumed in greatest quantity
composition and crystal structure can Nonmetals – broad class that covers resources
determine. from silicate minerals
Silicates – two common elements in the earth’s Sulfide ores – gold and other metals are often
crust are silicon and oxygen. found
Silicate group – largest compositional group of Open – pit mines – used to extract massive beds
minerals Smelting – roasting ore to release metals
Quartz – best known silicate Heap – leap extraction – used to get metals
- Found in a variety of rock and soils from low-grade ore
Fieldspars – most abundant group of minerals Blacksmith institute – compile a list of the world’s
- Made from elements abundant in the worst pollution problem
crust Recycling – slowly increasing as raw materials
Ferromagnesian – describe silicates become more scarce
Nonsilicates- some chemical constituent or New materials – mineral and metal
characteristics that all members of the group consumption can be reduced by this
have in common. Earthquakes – movement in the earth’s crust
Rock – solid; cohesive aggregate of one or Tsunamis – giant seawaves triggered
more minerals Volcanoes – undersea magma vents produce
3 categories of rock much of earth’s crust
1. igneous
Mass wasting – gravity constantly pulls Artesian system - water in an artesian system
downward on every material everywhere on may or may not rise all the way to the ground
earth surface.
Landslide – downslope movement of soil or rock Potentiometric surface - represents the height to
Flood – cause damage when people get in the which the water’s pressure would raise the
way water if the water were unconfined.
Beach erosion – occurs in all sandy shorelines
Weather – occurs locally over short periods of
time
Climate – long term regional or even global
average of temp
Greenhouse effect – result when the
atmospheric traps heat radiating from earth
toward space
Global warming – long term heating of earth’s
climate system observed
Climate change – long term change in the
average weather patterns

Module 5: Resources: water, soil, mineral and Cone of depression - circular lowering of the
rock, and energy water table immediately around the well in an
Porosity and permeability - involve the ability of unconfined aquifer.
rocks or other mineral materials (sediments, soils) Compacted - If the aquifer rocks are no longer
to contain fluids and to allow fluids to pass saturated with water.
through them. ➢ decreases their porosity, permanently
Porosity - proportion of void space in the reducing their water-holding capacity,
material (holes or cracks). and may also decrease their
Permeability - a measure of how readily fluids permeability.
pass through the material. Salt water intrusion - problem arising from
Saturated zone or phreatic zone - volume of groundwater use in coastal regions.
rock or soil above the impermeable material. Confined aquifer - available recharge area
Groundwater - water in the saturated zone. may be very limited, since the overlying
Unsaturated zone or vadose zone - rock or soil confining layer prevents direct downward
above the saturated zone. infiltration in most places.
Soil moisture – water in unsaturated soil and Unconfined aquifer - has relatively little impact
often an important factor in agricultural on that aquifer’s recharge.
productivity. (Left) The recharge area of this confined aquifer
Subsurface water - water occupying pore is limited to the area where permeable rocks
space below the ground surface. intersect the surface.
(Right) Recharge to the confined aquifer may
be reduced by placement of impermeable
cover over the limited recharge area.
Filling in wetlands - common way to provide
more land for construction.
Recharge basins - are a partial solution to the
problem of areas where groundwater use
exceeds natural recharge rate.
Karst - subsidence of the ground surface into
the resultant cavities, creates a distinctive
terrain.
Sinkhole - ground collapses abruptly into the
void.
Water table - top surface of the saturated zone.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) - one of the
Recharge - processes of infiltration and
parameters used in describing water quality.
migration or percolation.
Hard water - contains substantial amounts of
Groundwater discharge - occurs where ground
dissolved calcium and magnesium.
water flows into a stream.
DENR A.O. 2016-08 also known as the Water
Aquifer - rock that holds enough water and
Quality Guidelines and General Effluent
transmits it rapidly enough.
Standards for the significant parameters need
Aquitard - rock that may store a considerable
to monitor per industry and the allowable
quantity of water.
value of these parameters.
Aquiclude - used to describe an extreme
Irrigation - must be moderated if the depletion
aquitard, a rock that is essentially impermeable
rate of water supplies is to be reduced
on a human timescale.
appreciably.
Unconfined aquifer - aquifer is directly overlain
Domestic - can be reduced in a variety of ways.
only by permeable rocks and soil.
Desalination - allow parched coastal regions to
Confined aquifer- bounded above and below
tap the vast ocean reservoirs.
by low permeability rocks (aquitards).
two basic methods used to purify water of
dissolved minerals:
1. Filtration - the water is passed through fine Peds - from the Latin root pedo- meaning “soil,”
filters. is the term use for clumps.
An advantage of this method is that it can Soil classification - indicate something of a soil’s
rapidly filter great quantities of water. composition and perhaps its origins, which in
A disadvantage is that the method works best turn may have implications for its suitability for
on water not containing very high levels of agriculture or construction
dissolved minerals. Pedalfer - soils were seen as characteristic of
2. Distillation - involves heating or boiling water more humid regions. The term pedalfer comes
full of dissolved minerals. from the prefix pedo - and the Latin words for
The disadvantage is the nature of the necessary aluminum (alumium) and iron (ferrum).
heat source. Pedocal - is for the soil of a dry climate.
Desalinated water may be five to ten times. Seventh Approximation - has twelve major
Arid Middle East - the more-acute need for categories (orders), which are subdivided
irrigation water. through five more levels of classification into a
Israeli desalination plant - began providing total of some 12,000-soil series.
desalinated water from the Mediterranean Sea Lateritic soil - is common to many less-
for domestic and agricultural use in late 2005. developed nations and poses special
Soil - essential resource especially to produce agricultural challenges.
the major portion of our food. ➢ develop in tropical climates with high
➢ defined in different ways for different temperatures and heavy rainfall is
purposes. severely leached.
Regolith - loose material on the lunar surface, it Laterite - may be regarded as an extreme kind
encompasses all unconsolidated material at of pedalfer.
the surface, fertile or not. Wetlands - tend to be rich in accumulated
Sediment - indicates matter that has been organic matter.
transported and redeposited by wind, water, or Erosion - involves physical removal of material
ice. from one place to another.
Weathering - encompasses a variety of Terracing - single slope is terraced into a series
chemical, physical, and biological processes of shallower slopes, or even steps that slant
acting to break down rocks and minerals. backward into the hill.
Mechanical weathering (physical weathering) - Windbreaks - field borders or in rows
physical breakup of rocks without changes in perpendicular to the dominant wind direction
the rocks’ composition. or by erecting low fences, like snow fences,
Chemical weathering - involves the breakdown similarly arrayed.
of minerals by chemical reaction with water, Strip cropping - alternating crops of different
with other chemicals dissolved in water, or with heights, slows near-ground wind by making the
gases in the air. land surface more irregular.
Climate plays a major role in the intensity of Soil degradation - is a concern worldwide.
chemical weathering. Ore - is a rock in which a valuable or useful
Biological weathering - effects can be either metal occurs at a concentration sufficiently
mechanical or chemical. high.
Airborne chemicals and sediments - may add The higher the concentration factor, the richer
components to soil. the ore and the less of it need to be mined to
Blanket of soil - between bedrock and extract a given amount of the metal
atmosphere is the formation resulted from Value of the mineral or metal extracted and its
mechanical, chemical, and biological concentration in a particular deposit - major
weathering. factors determining the profitability of mining a
O horizon - consisting wholly of organic matter, specific deposit.
whether living or decomposed—growing. Magmatic activity - gives rise to several different
A horizon – below O horizon, consists of the most kinds of deposits.
intensively weathered rock material. Pegmatite - term given to unusually coarse-
E horizon - below the A horizon, is also known as grained igneous intrusions.
the zone of leaching. Kimberlites - occur as pipe like intrusive bodies
B horizon - is also known as the zone of that must have originated in the mantle.
accumulation. Many of the minerals leached or Hydrothermal - warm fluids can leach
extracted from the E horizon accumulate in this additional metals from the rocks through which
layer. they pass.
C horizon - below the B horizon, is a zone Sedimentary processes - produce economic
consisting principally of very coarsely broken-up mineral deposits.
bedrock and little else. This horizon does not Streams - play a role in the formation of mineral
resemble our usual idea of soil at all deposits.
Soil color - tends to reflect compositional Currents of a coastal environment - cause
characteristics. sediment sorting and selective concentration of
Soil texture - related to the sizes of fragments in minerals.
the soil. Placers - deposits mechanically concentrated
Loam - describes a soil that is a mixture of all by water.
three particle sizes in similar proportions. Mineralogical changes - caused by the heat or
Soil structure - relates to the soil’s tendency to pressure of metamorphism.
form lumps or clods of soil particles.
Asbestos - a group of fibrous silicates that are Reclamation - involves regarding the area to
formed by the metamorphism of igneous rocks. level the spoil banks and to provide a more
Garnet - common mineral in many gently sloping land surface.
metamorphic rocks, such as the amphibolite. It Chemicals used in processing - are often
may be used as a semiprecious gemstone hazardous also.
Metals Smelting - to extract metals from ores may,
Iron - most heavily used metal and it is also one depending on the ores involved and on
of the most common metals. emission controls, release arsenic, lead,
Aluminum - another relatively common metal, mercury, and other potentially toxic elements
and it is the second most widely used. along with exhaust gases and ash.
Copper - primarily used for electrical Sulfide-ore - processing also re leases the sulfur
applications because it is an excellent oxide gases that are implicated in the
conductor of electricity. production of acid rain.
Lead - used in batteries; among its many other Fossil - refers to any remains or evidence of
applications, it is a component of many solders ancient life.
and is used in paints and ceramics. Fossil fuels - are those energy sources that
Zinc - coating on steel cans keeps the cans from formed from the remains of once living
rusting, and zinc is also used in the manufacture organisms.
of brass and other alloys. Natural gas - gaseous molecules.
Gold - used not only for jewelry, in the arts, and Cracking - which allows some of the lighter
in commerce, but also in the electronics industry compounds such as gasoline to be produced
and in dentistry. as needed from heavier components of crude
Silver’s - principal single use is for photographic oil.
materials (for example, film), and the next Oil - is commonly discussed in units of barrels (1
broadest applications are in electronics. barrel = 42 gallons).
Platinum - is an excellent catalyst, a substance Primary recovery - Recovery using no
that promotes chemical reactions techniques beyond pumping
Nonmetallic Minerals Secondary recovery - is when flow falls off,
Sulfur - may be recovered from petroleum water may be pumped into the reservoir, filling
during refining, from volcanic deposits and from empty pores, and buoying up more oil to the
evaporites. well.
Halite or rock salt - used principally as a source Coal-bed methane - is contained in most coal
of the sodium and chlorine of which it is deposits.
composed, and secondarily for road salt Geopressurized zones - enormous quantities of
Gypsum - essential to the manufacture of natural gas might exist
plaster, Portland cement, and wallboard for Gas (methane) hydrates - crystalline solids of
construction. gas and water molecules.
Phosphate rock and potassium-rich potash - Conservation of oil and gas - a very important
are key ingredients of the synthetic fertilizers. way to stretch remaining supplies.
Clay - is not a single mineral, but a group of Oil spills - are the large, sudden, catastrophic
layered hydrous silicates that are formed at low spills that occur in two principal ways: from
temperature. accidents during drilling of offshore oil wells and
Sand and gravel - were used in construction, from wrecks of oil tankers at sea.
especially in making cement and concrete. Coal - formed from the remains of land plants.
Quartz-rich sand - was used in industry, Peat - combustible product formed under
particularly for glassmaking. suitable conditions
Dimension and facing stone - were used—slate Lignite - gradually dehydrates the organic
for flagstones, and various attractive and/or matter and transforms the spongy peat into soft
durable rocks, such as marble, granite, brown coal.
sandstone, and limestone, for monuments and Solid coal - simply not as versatile a substance
building facings and interior surfaces. as petroleum or natural gas.
Substitutions - one might replace a very rare Gasification - when the product is gaseous.
metal with a more abundant one. Liquefaction - when the product is liquid fuel.
Recycling - most effective way to extend Coal produces carbon dioxide (CO2) when
mineral reserves, for some metals. burned.
Underground mines - are generally much less When the sulfur is burned along with the coal,
apparent than surface mines. sulfur gases, sulfur dioxide (SO2) are produced.
Surface-mining activities - consist of either Mercury - another toxic substance of growing
open-pit mining (including quarrying) or strip- concern with increasing coal.
mining. Ash - which consists mostly of noncombustible
Open-pit mining - is practical when a large, silicate minerals, also contains toxic metals.
three-dimensional ore body is located near the Kerogen - formed from the remains of plants,
surface. algae, and bacteria
Strip-mining - used to extract coal than mineral Tar sands also known as oil sands - are
resources, is practiced most when the material sedimentary rocks containing a very thick,
of interest occurs in a layer near and semisolid, tarlike petroleum called bitumen.
approximately parallel to the surface. Nuclear power - comprises two different types
of processes with different advantages and
limitations.
Fission - .the splitting apart of atomic nuclei into The possibilities for biofuels are many. Most of
smaller ones, with the release of energy. This is these fuels fall into three broad categories:
the commercially feasible nuclear power wood, waste, and alcohol fuels
process. Waste-related biomass fuels - involve
Fusion - is the combining of smaller nuclei into agricultural or other wastes that would
larger ones, also releasing energy. historically have been burned in a field or
Reactor safety - major concern regarding the dumped in a landfill.
use of fission power. Biodiesel - a general term for fuels derived from
Loss of coolant event - the flow of cooling water vegetable oil or animal fats (including wastes),
to the reactor core would be interrupted. or a blend of such oil with petroleum diesel fuel.
Core meltdown - the fuel and core materials Alcohol fuels - One biofuel that has received
would deteriorate into a molten mass that might special attention is alcohol.
or might not melt its way out of the containment
building and thus release high levels of radiation Module 6: Air Pollution
into the environment. Air pollution - means any alteration of the
Ordinary explosion originating within the physical, chemical, and biological properties of
reactor - could rupture both the containment the atmospheric air, or any discharge thereto of
building and reactor core, and thus release any liquid, gaseous or solid substances.
large amounts of radioactive material. Air pollutant - any matter found in the
Putting nuclear plants close to urban areas - atmosphere other than oxygen, nitrogen, water
puts more people potentially at risk in case of vapor, carbon dioxide, and the inert gases in
accident their natural or normal concentrations, that is
Proximity to water - often important for cooling detrimental to health or the environment.
purposes but makes water pollution in case of Ambient air quality - the general amount of
mishap more likely. pollution present in a broad area
Breeder reactors - produce and recover ➢ refers to the atmosphere's average
plutonium to extend the supply of fissionable purity as distinguished from discharge
fuel poses special problems. measurements taken at the source of
Decommissioned — taken out of operation, pollution
broken down, and the most radioactive parts Ambient air - air around us.
delivered to radioactive-waste disposal sites. Primary Pollutants - released directly from the
Fusion - is the process by which two or smaller source into the air in a harmful form.
atomic nuclei combine to form a larger one. Secondary pollutants - converted to a
Solar energy - reaching the earth’s surface hazardous form after they enter the air or are
exceeds the energy needs of the world at formed by chemical reactions as components
present and future. of the air mix and interact.
Use of solar energy is essentially pollution-free Fugitive emissions - those that do not go
Solar space heating –use of sunlight for warmth through a smoke stack.
with some provision for collecting and storing Sulfur dioxide - natural sources of sulfur in the
additional heat to draw on when the sun is not atmosphere include evaporation of sea spray,
shining. erosion of sulfate-containing dust from arid soils,
Passive-solar heating - simplest approach that fumes from volcanoes.
does not require mechanical assistance. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) - highly reactive gases
Active-solar heating - involves the mechanical formed when nitrogen in fuel or in air is heated
circulation of solar-heated water. Carbon monoxide (co) - colorless, odorless,
Photovoltaic cells (solar cells) - sunlight is nonirritating, but highly toxic gas.
accomplished through. Co - blocks oxygen uptake in blood by binding
Major limitation - on solar-cell use has historically irreversibly to hemoglobin
been cost, which is several times higher per unit Catalytic converters - on vehicles are one of the
of power-generating capacity than for either important methods to reduce CO production.
fossil-fuel or nuclear-powered generating Carbon dioxide - is the predominant form of
plants. carbon in the air.
Geothermal energy - generated by decay of Lead - most abundantly produced metal air
radioactive elements in the earth. pollutant
Geothermal technology - can address both ➢ is toxic to our nervous systems and other
heating and cooling needs critical functions.
Hydropower - energy of falling or flowing water Airborne lead - is produced by a wide range of
which has been used for centuries. industrial and mining processes.
➢ used primarily to generate electricity. Particulate matter - includes solid particles or
Wind energy - ultimately powered by the sun; liquid droplets suspended in a gaseous medium.
wind energy can be regarded as a variant of Particulates - often the most obvious form of air
solar energy. pollution
Wind-generated electricity - used most to Aspergillus sydowii - a soil fungus from Africa,
supplement conventionally generated power has been shown to be causing death of corals
Biofuels - has become a catchall for various and sea fans in remote reefs in the Caribbean.
ways of deriving energy from biomass, from Other Pollutants:
organisms or from their remains ➢ Mercury
➢ Carbon dioxide
➢ Halogens
 ➢ Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) Cultural eutrophication - result from higher
Aesthetic degradation - any undesirable temperatures, more sunlight reaching the water
change in the physical characteristics or surface, or several other changes.
chemistry of the atmosphere, such as noise, Eutrophication in marine ecosystems - occurs in
odors, and light pollution. nearshore waters and partially enclosed bays
Temperature inversions - can greatly and estuaries
concentrate air pollutants. Extensive dead zones - often form were rivers
- occur when a stable layer of warmer air dump oxygen depleting nutrients into estuaries
lies above cooler air. and shallow seas.
Bronchitis – a persistent inflammation of bronchi Toxic inorganic chemicals - introduced into
and bronchioles (large and small airways in the water as a result of human activities have
lung) that causes mucus buildup, a painful become the most serious form of water
cough, and involuntary muscle spasms that pollution
constrict airways. Nonmetallic salts - soils contain naturally high
Emphysema – severe bronchitis, an irreversible concentrations of soluble salts, including toxic
chronic obstructive lung selenium and arsenic.
Acid precipitation - deposition of wet acidic Acids and Bases - Acids are released as by-
solutions or dry acidic particles from the air. products of industrial processes, such as leather
Robert angus smith - coined the term “acid tanning, metal smelting and plating, petroleum
rain” in his studies of air chemistry in Manchester, distillation, and organic chemical synthesis.
England, in the 1850s. Coal mining - is an especially important source
Air pollution control facilities (apcf) - term for of acid water pollution.
structure or installation controlling the quality of Game fish, amphibians, and sensitive aquatic
emissions of air pollution source equipment insects are generally the first to be killed by
(APSE). increased acid
Particulate removal - involves filtering air Organic pollutants - Include drugs, pesticides,
emissions. and other industrial substance.
Electrostatic precipitators - common Oil spills - can be disastrous for ecosystems and
particulate controls in power plants. local economies.
Sulfur removal - sulfur oxides are among the Sediments - smother gravel beds in which
most damaging of all air pollutants in terms of insects take refuge and fish lay their eggs.
human health and ecosystem viability. A thermal plume of heated water - often
Hydrocarbon controls - involve complete discharged into rivers and lakes, where raised
combustion or controlling evaporation. temperatures can disrupt many processes
Primary treatment - first step in municipal waste
Module 7: Water pollution treatment. It physically separates large solids
Water pollution - Any physical, biological, or from the waste stream.
chemical change in water quality that Secondary treatment - consists of biological
adversely affects living organisms degradation of dissolved organic compounds.
Scattered or diffuse - having no specific Effluent sewerage – a hybrid between a
location where they discharge into a particular traditional septic tank and a full sewer system.
body of water. Constructed wetlands – can cut secondary
Pathogenic organisms - water pollutants in treatment cost to one-third of mechanical
terms of human health worldwide. treatment costs, or less.
Untreated or improperly treated human wastes Filtration system - the water is passed through
- main source of these pathogens. fine filters or membranes to screen out dissolved
Oxygen levels - amount of oxygen dissolved in. impurities.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - amount Distillation - involves heating or boiling water full
of dissolved oxygen that must be present in of dissolved minerals.
water. Remediation - means finding remedies for
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) - uses a problems. New developments in environmental
strong oxidizing agent. engineering are providing promising solutions to
Dead zone - most resistant microorganisms and many waters’ pollution problem.
invertebrates can survive. Containment methods – confine or restrain dirty
Oligotrophic (oligo = little + trophic = nutrition) – water or liquid in situ or cap the surface with an
rivers and lakes that have clear water and low impermeable layer to divert surface water or
biological productivity. groundwater away from the site and to prevent
- Eutrophic (eu + trophic = truly nourished) – further pollution.
waters that are rich in organisms and organic Extraction techniques – pump out polluted
materials. water so it can be treated.
Eutrophication - is an increase in nutrient levels Bioremediation – living organisms used
and biological productivity. effectively and inexpensively to clean
contaminated water.