ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

GEOCENTRIC MODEL
- By Claudius Ptolemy
● Earth-centered
● The Sun, Moon, Stars, 5 planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn) moved around the Earth

HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
- By Nicolaus Copernicus
● Sun-centered
● Planets revolved around the Sun
● The model that we follow today

THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

● Nebular Hypothesis
● Planetesimal & Tidal Theories
● Protoplanet Theory

Nebular Hypothesis
- By Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace
● Before the solar system existed, there was a cloud of dust and gases made
up of Helium and Hydrogen. This is called the solar nebula. Heavier
elements swirled around at the center.
● The nebula began to spin and collapse toward the center. Temperatures
rose around the center and formed the sun
● Materials assume an flat, disk shape and the gravitational attraction
between particles caused them to start moving and colliding
● Due to cooling, large particles were thrown out and formed the planets
 ● Heavier particles formed the inner planets and lighter particles formed the
outer planets

Planetesimal Theory
- By Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin & Forest Ray Moulton
This theory states that:
● The sun existed before the formation of planets
● A star came close to the sun
● Due to the gravitational pull of the star, small gaseous bodies of the sun
were ejected
● These small bodies on cooling became small planets called planetesimals
● These planetesimals collided and later on formed the planets

Tidal Theory
- By James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys
● A variation of the planetesimal concept
● When a huge tidal wave was created due to the collision of the sun and
another star, a long filament was detached from its principal mass
(filament: a slender threadlike object or fiber)
● Due to condensation, this long filament of gaseous masses separated and
formed into planets

Protoplanet Theory
- By Gerard Kuiper Carl von Weizsacker
● Modification of the nebular hypothesis
● A dense interstellar cloud produces a cluster of stars. Dense regions in the
cloud coalesce (coalesce: come together to form a mass)
● Under the influence of turbulence and tidal forces, the nebula separated
into whirlpools of gas called protoplanets.
● Does not explain the terrestrial planets and the gas giants (Jovian planets)
 ● Protoplanets were much bigger than present planets. They eventually
contracted due to their own gravity
● Planetary formation based on Physical and Chemical characteristics
(Harold Urey)
● Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars were formed at low temp.(about -2000 F)
● Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune consist of methane, water, and
ammonia

CURRENT ADVANCEMENTS/INFORMATION OF THE

SOLAR SYSTEM
1. Exploration of the outer Solar System
● Juno mission to Jupiter - Juno entered orbit around Jupiter on July 4, 2016
- after a 5 year journey
● First Close Flyby - on August 27, 2016, Juno made its first close flyby of
Jupiter, passing just 4,200 kms (2,600 miles) above the planet’s cloud tops.
● Significant discoveries: uneven distribution of heavy elements within
Jupiter’s atmosphere, the revelation that Jupiter’s core is more complex
and diffuse than previously thought
2. Mars Exploration
● Perseverance Rover: Launched by NASA in 2021. Perseverance is
exploring Mar’s Jezero Crater - searching for ancient life and collecting
samples for future return to Earth.
● Discovered evidence of ancient river deltas and collected samples that
show signs of organic molecules.
● Found evidence of ancient microbial life potential and has been studying
the plane’s climate and geology
3. Jupiter’s Moons
 ● Europa Clipper Mission: Scheduled for launch in 2024, NASA’s Europa
Clipper mission aims to study Jupiter’s moon Europa, which is believed to
harbor a subsurface ocean beneath its icy crust.
● This mission could provide critical information about the potential for life
on other celestial bodies.
4. Asteroid Exploration
● OSIRIS-REx Mission successfully collected samples from the asteroid
Bennu in 2020, and the spacecraft is expected to return these samples to
earth in 2023. This mission will help scientists understand the building
blocks of our solar system and the role of asteroids in delivering organic
material to Earth.
● DART Mission: The Double Asteroid Redirection Test mission
successfully impacted the asteroid Dimorphos in 2022. The mission tested
planetary defense techniques by demonstrating the potential to protect
the Earth from future asteroid impacts.
5. Venus Missions: NASA and ESA are planning missions to Venus (VERITAS,
DAVINCI+, and EnVision) to study its thick, toxic atmosphere and volcanic
surface.
● VERITAS (Venus Emissitivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and
Spectroscopy)
● NASA selected VERITAS in June 2021 as one of two missions to Venus.
● To map Venus’ surface in high resolution, study its geological history, and
understand why it developed so differently from Earth
● DAVINCI+ (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases,
Chemistry, and Imaging)
● To analyze Venus’ atmosphere, focusing on its composition and structure,
and explore surface features in high detail.
● EnVision (ESA Misiion - European Space Agency)
● Will employ radar mapping to generate high-resolution images of Venus’
surface. This will help scientists understand the planet’s volcanic and
tectonic activity, and map surface deformations.
 ● The mission will analyze Venus’ thick atmosphere, which is composed
mainly of carbon dioxide and has a runaway greenhouse effect.
● Aims to study the atmospheric condition, dynamics and presence of trace
gases like sulfur dioxide
● This includes studying the planet’s crust and mantle and understanding its
geological history.

IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE EARTH

1) Presence of liquid water
2) Ability to maintain heat
3) Existence of the atmosphere

SOURCES OF WATER
1) Water released through volcanism
2) Water released from the icy meteors

FIRST PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANISMS

- Cyanobacteria - they are responsible for producing their own food

SOURCES OF HEAT TO SUPPORT LIFE

1) Earth
2) Sun
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
- Natural process that is essential for maintaining life on Earth
- CO2 + H20
- We cannot produce our own food; we rely on plants
EARTH’S FEATURES
● Earth’s Axis
- The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of about 23.5 degrees relative to the
plane of its orbit around the sun.
- The tilt is responsible for the Earth’s seasons and variations in daylight
hours throughout the year in different parts of the world.
● Orbital Plane
- Earth’s orbital plane is the flat path that it follows as it travels around the
Sun.

KINDS OF ROTATION
● Sidereal Day
- A day relative to the stars
- The amount of time it takes for the Earth to turn on its axis

● Solar Day
- A day relative to the Sun
- The amount of time it takes for the sun to return to the same spot

RESULTS OF ROTATION
● Changes in daytime
● Weather
● Ecosystems
● Seasons

SEASONAL VARIATIONS
- Spring
 - Summer
- Fall
- Winter

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH RESULT TO MAKE LIFE POSSIBLE

● Biologically - Thigmotropism, Phototropism (eg. mimosa pudica or makahiya)
● Physiologically
● Meteorologically -

THE PLANET EARTH

- From the air we breathe to the water we drink, the Earth’s atmosphere,
hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere all play important roles in creating the
environment we call home.
- Biogeochemical and hydrological cycle

EARTH - A CLOSED SYSTEM

- Enables the exchange of energy (heat) but no exchange of mass within the
surroundings

THE FOUR SUBSYSTEMS

1. Biosphere - environment/life
2. Atmosphere - air/sky
3. Geosphere - earth
4. Hydrosphere - water

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

● Exosphere
 ● Thermosphere
● Mesosphere
● Stratosphere
● Troposphere

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
- Circulating pathways by which either a chemical element or molecules move
through both biotic and abiotic compartments of an ecosystem
Abiotic - non-living components

KEY PERSONALITIES AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO

OUR UNDERSTANDING OF EARTH SYSTEMS
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
Contribution: Proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, placing the Sun at
the center rather than the Earth.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Contribution: Used telescopic observations to support Copernicus’ heliocentric theory.
Galileo’s observations, including the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter,
provided concrete evidence that not all celestial bodies orbit the Earth, challenging the
prevailing geocentric view.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Contribution: Formulated the Laws of Motion and universal gravitation, which
explained the forces governing planetary motion and the orbits of celestial bodies.

James Hutton (1726-1797)

Contribution: Often called the “Father of Modern Geology”, he introduced the concept
of deep time and the idea that the Earth is much older than previously thought.
Alfred Wegener
Contribution: Proposed the theory of continental drift, suggesting that continents were
once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart

Svante Arhenius
Contribution: Swedish scientist who was one of the first to propose the concept of the
greenhouse effect

Vladimir Vernadsky
Contribution: A russian scientist who developed the concept of the biosphere,
emphasizing the interconnection between living organisms and their physical
environment.

Rachel Carson
Contribution: An american marine biologist and conservationist whose book Silent
Spring raised awareness about the environmental impact of pesticides.

Carl Sagan
Contribution: An astrophysicist and science communicator who popularized the study
of planetary science and the interconnectedness of Earth systems

James Lovelock
Contribution: Proposed the Gaia hypothesis, which posits that the Earth functions as a
self-regulating system, with living organisms interacting with their inorganic
surroundings to maintain conditions suitable for life

LAYERS OF THE EARTH

CROSS-SECTION

Crust
 - the outermost layer, varies in thickness from about 5-70 kms depending on
location.
- Composed primarily of solid rock and is divided into 2 main types: continental
and oceanic

Mantle
- Beneath the crust
- Takes up about 84% of the Earth’s volume.
- Composed of hot, semi-solid rock and is divided into the upper & lower mantle.

Core
- Central layer of the Earth
- Divided into outer and inner layers.

COMPONENTS OF THE LITHOSPHERE

ROCKS
● Naturally occurring aggregate or combination of minerals or mineraloids.
● Solid materials consisting of one or more minerals
● Molten material -> solidification -> rocks
● These rocks may contain diff. types of elements or minerals
 ● agents like acid can weather down rocks and change its components (chemical
weathering)
● there are some rocks that retain their composition even after being broken down
(physical weathering)
● Rocks can also change forms based on temperature

FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

- Formed from the cooling and crystallization of magma
● Extrusive igneous rock — igneous rock that is formed from the cooling of
magma on or near the Earth’s surface
● Intrusive igneous rock — igneous rocks formed from below the surface

IGNEOUS ROCKS
- “Ignis” — means fire
 - Formed when magma or molten rock cools and solidifies
- It can happen through magma escaping through cracks in the earth’s crust or
when a volcano erupts and brings magma to the surface
- Made up of mainly silicon and oxygen
- Has no fossils
- Does not undergo foliation (a process of splitting into thin sheets)
- Igneous rocks can turn into metamorphic rocks right away due to heat and pressure.

TYPES
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
● Basalt
● Andesite
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
● Granite
● Diorite
● Gabbro

Mafic - lowest silica content

Felsic - highest silica content

Pyroclastic rocks
- Formed from clastic material ejected from volcanoes | explosive volcanic activity
(eg. scoria, pumice, ignimbrite, etc.)

MINERAL COMPOSITION

TEXTURE/COLOR LIGHT MEDIUM DARK

Coarse-grained granite diorite gabbro

(intrusive)

Fine-grained (extrusive) rhyolite andesite basalt

Igneous rocks will undergo weathering/erosion (aka the process of turning rocks into small
fragments) and will then become sedimentary rocks (eg. sand, pebbles, mud, etc.)

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
● Combination of the products of weathering, erosion, and organic materials
● Formed from fragments of other rocks
● Sediments - loose layers, product of weathering (eg. sand, pebbles, mud, gravel)
● Lithification - process by which unconsolidated materials solidified into rocks
● Fossils are primarily found in sedimentary rocks. (eg. shale, sandstone, limestone,
coal)
● Accumulated on the Earth’s surface through a process called deposition.

Processes of Sedimentation
Process of Sedimentation
Deposition
- Loosely packed sediments
1. Compaction
- Sediments squeezed together under the weight of overlying sediments,
sediments lose their porosity
- Eg. shale, silestone
2. Cementation
 - Binds sediment grains together; turning loose sediments into solid
rocks; minerals bond grains of sediment together by growing around them
● Eg. silica, calcite, iron oxides

● Sediments can be loosely or tightly packed

● deposition - loosely; cementation; tightly

Clastic vs Nonclastic
- Clastic | nearly flat preferred orientation of mineral grains
- Nonclastic | patterns of interlocking crystals

TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. Detrital
- Fragments of rocks from erosion and physical weathering

PARTIAL SIZE SEDIMENT NAME ROCK NAME

Coarse Gravel (rounded) Conglomerate Breccia

Gravel (angular)

Medium Sand Sandstone

 Fine Mud Silestone

Very Fine Mud Shale

2. Chemical
- Precipitation of minerals from solution

COMPOSITION ROCK NAME

Calcium Carbonate (Calcite) CaCO3 Limestone

Chalk

Quartz, Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) Chert (light colored)

Flint (dark colored)

Gypsum Rock Gypsum

Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate (CaSO4)

Halite Rock Salt

Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Altered Plant Fragments Bituminous Rock

Sediments will undergo compaction or cementation before they can turn into other types of
rocks.
● Metamorphic rocks can also undergo weathering and turn back into sediments.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
● Formed from the exposure of sedimentary and igneous rocks to high pressure
and temperature within the Earth’s surface
● Have distinct foliation due to horizontal pressures, friction, and heat
● They have foliation - appearance of layers, appears in the form of stripes
 ● There are foliated and nonfoliated rocks

METAMORPHIC AGENTS
● Heat
● Pressure and stress (force)
● Chemically active fluids

TYPES
- Quartzite
- Slate
- Marble
- Gneiss
- Serpentinite

ROCK NAME DESCRIPTION PARENT ROCK

Slate Foliated and fine-grained Shale

Gneiss Foliated and medium to Granite (volcanic rock)

coarse-grained igneous -> metamorphic

Marble Non-foliated medium to Limestone | sedimentary ->

 coarse metamorphic

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
TEXTURE (Size, shape, mineral grains) COMPOSITION (constituent parts)

APHANITIC PHANERITIC

Texture - refers to the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains and other
constituents, which are controlled by processes involved in the formation of the rock.
Since the processes are distinct, the textures are also distinct.

Rocks can have different grain sizes:

Aphanitic - grains are too small to identify
Phaneritic - grains are large enough to identify

Which characteristics should you examine to classify a rock?

IGNEOUS SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC

● There is an ● Has visible ● May be foliated or

arrangement of sedimentary layer not
mineral crystals ● Not foliated ● Has no mineral
● No fossils ● May be broken by a crystals
● No foliation hammer ● No layers
● May contain fossils ● No fossils

MINERALS
– How do minerals differ from rocks?
 Minerals Rocks

- Naturally occurring, inorganic - Aggregates of one or more

substances with a specific minerals or mineraloids (a
chemical composition and crystal naturally occurring inorganic
structure substance that is similar to mineral
but lacks a crystalline structure)

- A single substance with a defined - Composed of multiple minerals

chemical formula and crystalline and or organic materials making it
structure a complex solid mixture

- The building blocks of rocks - Rocks are combinations of

minerals

What properties are common to all minerals?

- All arise from natural processes in the Earth
- None are living or have ever been living
- All maintain a definite volume and structural shape.
- All are characterized by a unique chemical makeup whether as elements or
compounds
- Consists of particles organized in a repeating pattern known as a crystal
structure

CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

LUSTER
- The behavior/quality of light as it is reflected by the surface of the mineral
- Metallic and Nonmetallic luster
 - High luster = reflective (they are also said to have metallic luster)

There are several terms used to describe a mineral’s luster:

Adamantine - sparkly
Earthly - dry, dull, and clay-like
Pearly - appear to have reflectivity like that of pearls | soft, iridescent glow; has
transparent layers
Resinous - has the appearance of resin/transparent plastic | warm colors; has some
transparency
Silky - have a parallel arrangement of extremely fine fibers, giving them a luster
reminiscent of silk | glossy, smooth, shiny
Vitreous - similar to glass | transparent or translucent (ex. Quartz and calcite)

Minerals with metallic (more polished) and submetallic (more dulled) luster:
- Copper
- Gold
- Silver
- Pyrite
- Hematite
- Graphite
- Magnetite
- Chromite

Examples of Minerals with non-metallic luster

*non-metallic - does not exhibit reflection of light
- Quartz
- Halite
- Calcite
- Gypsum
COLOR
- Most evident characteristic and usually the first to identify minerals (but not as
reliable, basically dapat iassess muna yung ibang physical properties along with
it)

STREAK
- Color of the mineral in powdered form when rubbed on an unweathered surface
- Usually, the mineral is rubbed on a streak plate to determine its color.
- One of the best ways to identify minerals
- Nonmetallic minerals usually have a colorless or white streak (eg. gypsum)

HARDNESS
- Resistance of a mineral to scratching (diamond - hardest; talc - softest)
- Determined by comparing the relative hardness of an unknown specimen with a
mineral with known hardness.
- “Mohs Hardness Scale”
● Rates the hardness of minerals by their ability to scratch softer minerals

CLEAVAGE
- The tendency of a mineral to split or cleave along planes of weakness
- When a mineral breaks along a flat, smooth surface
- Good cleavage: minerals that can break easily and clearly along one or more
planes
- Poor cleavage: minerals that do not have a well-defined break

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- The measure of the relative density of a mineral.
- It represents the ratio of the mass of the mineral to the mass of an equal volume
of water.
- Most rock-forming minerals have a specific gravity that is between 2 or 3.
 - Formula:
SG = weight of mineral / weight of equal volume of water
(submerge the rock in water while not letting it sink to the bottom; don’t let the
container touch the sides)

EXOGENIC PROCESSES
● Activities or phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface

Weathering
- Disintegration of rocks, soil and minerals through contact with the the Earth’s
subsystems

Types
● Physical
● Chemical
● Biotic

A. Physical/Mechanical Weathering
- Rocks are broken up w/o any change in their chemical composition

Examples
Exfoliation
- The stripping of the outer layers of rocks due to intense heating

Frost Wedging
- Breaks down rocks through the freezing and thawing process

Block Disintegration
- Results to expansion and contraction of rocks due to heating and cooling
- Produces smaller rocks from large blocks of rocks
 B. Chemical Weathering
- Breakdown of rocks by chemical mechanisms (the composition of the rock
changes)

Examples:
Carbonation
● Reaction of CO2 and H20 to form carbonic acid
● The acid reacts with carbonate minerals in rocks
● This process weakens the rock and removes chemically weathered materials
● Eg. limestone

Oxidation
● Oxygen in the air reacts with certain elements inside the rock and changes its
mineral composition
● Iron and oxygen -> iron oxide

Hydration
● absorption/combination of water with minerals in a rock
● Alters the rock’s shape

Solution
● Breakdown of rocks caused by its reaction with water
● Rock is weakened, deformed, broken into pieces and disintegrated

C. biotic /biological weathering (plants)

- Disintegration of rocks caused by living organisms (eg. plants going on
rocks/in between wedges of rocks)

Biotic Weathering - Animal

- Animals break down rocks
Biotic Weathering (humans)
- Mining, quarrying, constructive works, deforestation

Mass Wasting
- Any downward movement by the gravity of rock, regolith and soil in which the
Earth’s surface is worn away

Classification
1. Moisture (water content)
2. Speed (rate of movement)

Soil creep
- Slowest of all mass movements
- Affects the topmost layer of the soil

Debris Flow
- Particles are larger than sand size

Mudflow
- Particles are fine grained, mixed w/ large amounts of water (lahar)
- Can be very dangerous (eg. lahar during the mt. pinatubo eruption)

Slump
- A block of Earth material that slides downslope
- Movement follows a concave or curved path

Debris Slide
- Rock material and soil move largely as one or more units along planes of
weakness
- Usually with rapid movement
Rock Fall
- Materials fall freely in the air, typically occurs in bedrock
- Can be dislodged directly downward or bounces and rolls

Solifluction
- Type of soil movement that occurs in areas with permafrost or seasonally frozen
ground
- A slow process, occurring over weeks or months

Weathering - breaking down of rocks and minerals

Erosion - the transport of rocks by soil and wind, water, and other agents

Agents of Erosion
● Ice
● Water
● Wind
● Gravity

Types
Wind
- Transport significant quantities of soil and sand in arid and desert regions

Sheet
- Removal of thin layers of soil due to the surface runoff and rainfall
- Results in less crops

Rill
- Caused by water runoff that forms small, narrow channels in the soil

Gull
 - Water runoff creates large, deep, channels in the landscape, significantly wider
and deeper than gulls

Impacts of erosion on landscapes

● Valleys
● Canyons

Ex. grand canyon, formed by the colorado river, known for its size, intricate rock
formations, and geological history

Colca Canyon (Peru) - one of the deepest canyons in the world, formed by river erosion
and tectonic activity

These processes happen over extended periods of time.