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The document discusses the three stages of memory—Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval—and their impact on eyewitness testimony in forensic psychology. It highlights how factors such as stress, misinformation, and questioning techniques can lead to inaccuracies in eyewitness accounts. Understanding these stages can help improve the reliability of eyewitness testimony and reduce wrongful convictions in the legal system.

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4 views

Document

The document discusses the three stages of memory—Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval—and their impact on eyewitness testimony in forensic psychology. It highlights how factors such as stress, misinformation, and questioning techniques can lead to inaccuracies in eyewitness accounts. Understanding these stages can help improve the reliability of eyewitness testimony and reduce wrongful convictions in the legal system.

Uploaded by

frost.temp77
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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How Memory Works: The Three Stages of Memory

In the Context of Eyewitness Memory in Forensic Psychology

Eyewitness testimony plays a pivotal role in the justice system, but it is


susceptible to errors because memory is not a perfect record of events.
Understanding the three stages of memory—Encoding, Storage, and
Retrieval—helps clarify why eyewitness accounts may be inaccurate or
incomplete.

1. Encoding

Definition: The initial perception and processing of information. Encoding is


influenced by attention, focus, and external factors during the event.

Role in Eyewitness Memory:

When a crime occurs, an eyewitness encodes details (faces, actions,


clothing, weapons) into memory.

Factors that impair encoding:

Stress/Anxiety: High-stress situations, like a violent crime, often impair


memory formation. This is linked to the Yerkes-Dodson Law—moderate stress
can improve focus, but extreme stress hampers encoding.

Weapon Focus Effect: Eyewitnesses often focus on a weapon (e.g., a gun or


knife), reducing their ability to encode details about the perpetrator’s face.
Duration of Exposure: Brief exposures limit the quantity and quality of
information encoded.

Environmental Factors: Poor lighting, distance, and movement make


encoding less accurate.

Example: A witness may vividly remember a gun but forget critical features
of the assailant’s face.

2. Storage

Definition: The retention of information over time after it has been encoded.

Role in Eyewitness Memory:

Memory is not static—it can degrade or be altered during storage.

Factors influencing storage:

Time Delay: The longer the time between the event and retrieval, the greater
the risk of forgetting or distorting details (e.g., forgetting specific features of
the perpetrator).
Misinformation Effect: New or incorrect information introduced after an event
(e.g., through police questioning, media reports, or discussions with others)
can alter stored memories.

Example: An eyewitness may “remember” seeing a red car because a


leading question implied it, even if the car was blue.

Post-Event Discussion: Conversations with other witnesses can lead to


memory conformity, where details become contaminated by external
accounts.

Example: A witness initially recalls seeing a tall man, but after hearing others
describe him as short, they begin to misremember this detail.

3. Retrieval

Definition: The process of accessing and recalling stored information to


produce a memory report.

Role in Eyewitness Memory:


Retrieval is the final step, but it can be influenced by retrieval cues,
questioning techniques, and biases.

Factors influencing retrieval:

Question Wording: Leading or suggestive questions can distort memories


(e.g., “What color was his blue jacket?” assumes the jacket was blue).

Lineup Procedures: Poorly constructed lineups can mislead eyewitnesses into


identifying innocent people:

Simultaneous Lineups: Presenting all suspects at once increases the risk of


relative judgment (“who looks most like the perpetrator?”).

Double-Blind Lineups: If the officer conducting the lineup knows the suspect,
they may unconsciously influence the witness.

Confidence-Accuracy Relationship: An eyewitness’s confidence in their


memory is not always a reliable indicator of its accuracy.

Example: An eyewitness confidently identifies a suspect in a photo lineup,


but later evidence proves the suspect was innocent due to retrieval errors.
Forensic Psychology Implications

Understanding these three stages—Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval—helps


forensic psychologists and legal professionals evaluate the reliability of
eyewitness testimony. To mitigate inaccuracies:

1. Use cognitive interviews to improve retrieval without leading the


witness.

2. Implement proper lineup procedures (e.g., sequential double-blind


lineups).

3. Educate juries about memory limitations and factors that affect


eyewitness reliability.

By recognizing the fragility of memory, the legal system can better assess
eyewitness accounts and reduce wrongful convictions.

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