1.

INTRODUCTION

Biological invasion is the process by which a species is introduced, deliberately or

inadvertently, into a new geographic region where it proliferates and persists. Outside their

historic range (in which they evolved) such species are described as nonnative (or

nonindigenous, exotic, alien). For a variety of reasons, the vast majority of introduced

nonnative organisms fail to persist. Many of those that do establish self-sustaining

populations do not spread very far or very fast beyond their point of introduction, and they

often do not have conspicuous impacts on their environment. However, a small proportion

(but a large and growing number) of nonnative species becomes invasive – that is, they may

spread aggressively and/or have strong environmental effects. Invasive species are a global

problem that threatens native biodiversity, the normal functioning of ecosystems, natural

resources, regional economies, and human health. As such, they pose a major concern for

conservation and management, and are the focus of a highly productive multidisciplinary

field called invasion ecology. ( Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology )

(pp.5547–5560)

Ecological perturbations caused by biotic invasion have been identified as a growing threat to

global sustainability. Invasive alien plants species (IAPS) are considered to be one of the

major drivers of biodiversity loss and thereby altering the ecosystem services and socio-

economic conditions through different mechanisms. Although the ecological impacts of IAPS

are well documented, there is a dearth of studies regarding their economic quantification,

livelihood considerations, biotechnological prospects (phytoremediation, bioenergy, phyto-

synthesis of nanoparticles, biomedical, industrial applications etc.) and human health risk

assessments of IAPS. In this context, the current panoramic review aimed to investigate the

environmental, socio-ecological and health risks posed by IAPS as well as the compounded
impact of IAPS with habitat fragmentation, climate and land use changes. To this end, the

need of an integrated trans-disciplinary research is emphasized for the sustainable

management of IAPS. The management prospects can be further strengthened through their

linkage with geo-spatial technologies (remote sensing and GIS) by mapping and monitoring

the IAPS spread. Further, the horizon of IAPS management is expanded to ecological

indicator perspectives of IAPS, biosecurity, and risk assessment protocols with critical

discussion. Moreover, positive as well as negative implications of the IAPS on environment,

health, ecosystem services and socio-economy (livelihood) are listed so that a judicious

policy framework could be developed for the IAPS management in order to mitigate the

human health implications.

Biological invasion is detrimental to global biodiversity and ecosystem function (Diagne et

al., 2021). These Invasive plants usually have different functional properties, adaptation, or

strategies that allow them to effectively thrive and succeed in the ranges where they are

indtroduced. Among these tactics and strategies adopted by the invasive species,

photosynthesis is generally regarded as an important process for supporting plant growth and

received more attention. Over the last decade, many studies have compared steady-state

photosynthetic processes between invasive and native species. However, the light intensity

in the field frequently changes from shade to sun and sun to shade in seconds (Pearcy, 1994;

Zhu et al., 2004; Slattery et al., 2018). Fluctuating light may lead to dynamic photosynthesis

and influence total carbon gain in the field (Pearcy, 1990). Modulating photosynthesis under

fluctuating light conditions may more accurately reflect the photosynthetic process in the

field. However, few studies have focused on comparing photosynthetic dynamics between

invasive and native species under fluctuating light conditions.

where they were introduced from outside and posed threats to the native ecosystems

(Beck et al 2021.). Invasive alien plant species have been introduced into a new area

by human activity and become widespread, causing significant economic, ecological,

and social impacts (Eschen et al., 2021). They have been spreading progressively and

reported to be widely distributed in global landscapes (Murphy et al., 2012). The

rapid growth of invasive alien plants is usually confined to fallow lands, wastelands,

roadsides, and disturbed habitats (Haysom and Murphy, 2003). The increased

diversity and distribution of invasive alien plant species pose a threat to natural forest

ecosystems (Rai and Singh, 2020). Long-term invasion history indicates that invasive

alien species equipped with unique plant traits and allelochemical organic compounds

can potentially inhibit the diversity of native plants to result in their extinction

(Callaway and Aschehoug, 2000; Eviner, 2004; Thiebaut et al., 2019; Nongtri et al.,

2022; Li et al., 2023).

The potential impact of nonnative species has long been recognized by naturalists. In The

Origin of Species, Darwin (1859) warned “Let it be remembered howpowerful the influence

of a single introduced tree or mammal has been shown tobe [on native communities].” A

century later, Charles Elton’s groundbreakingmonograph The Ecology of Invasions by Animals

and Plants [1] helped inspiretwo generations of scientists to study what has become one of

the world’s mostchallenging environmental problems.The major findings of this burgeoning

research are summarized in recent texts byLockwood et al. [2], Davis [3], Blackburn et al. [4],

and Richardson [5].This entry describes the causes and consequences of biological invasions,

bysynthesizing concepts from population biology, community ecology,

evolution,biogeography, and conservation biology. First, the patterns and process of

areexamined. Some major hypotheses and theoretical concepts explaining patterns of

The benefits and costs resulting from invasive species are determined by a

multitude of social and ecological factors and can be very context specific

(Shackleton et al., 2007; García-Llorente et al., 2008; Kull et al., 2011; Potgieter et

al., 2018).

A number of invasive alien species also have both benefits and costs which

can lead to conflicts of interest between different stakeholders (Low, 2012; Zengeya

et al., 2017). Therefore, management of these species needs to be carefully considered,

seeking solutions that address the needs of all stakeholders. All these different effects

require that policy and management do not treat all invasive alien species in the same

manner, but instead differentiate the types of invasive species according to their costs

and benefits and according to the various stakeholders who experience these effects

(Shackleton et al., 2007; de la Fontaine, 2013; van Wilgen and Richardson, 2014).

Aside from the ecosystem services and disservices supplied by invasive species (Vaz

et al., 2017), a number of factors also influence how invasive alien species will affect

livelihoods, including the initial vulnerability of the community, the type and quantity

of livelihood assets, invasive species traits, availability of resources, land tenure and

the ecological and political context and other factors (Shackleton et al., 2007; Kull et

al., 2011). This can make policy implementation and management complex; therefore,

it is crucial to understand the diverse role of invasive species for local livelihoods and

society.

Tithonia diversifolia , A Gray a perennial invasive shrub, is native to Central America (Laduke,
1982). It was introduced as an ornamental and green manure plant in many countries, which

offered opportunities for its dispersal throughout most of the tropical and subtropical areas

worldwide (Morales, 2000). This species can reproduce both sexually, with a large production

of seeds, and asexually. Once its population is established, it quickly forms dense

monospecific stands by inhibiting the germination and growth of neighboring species

(Oyerinde et al., 2009; Otusanya and Ilori, 2012; Kato-Noguchi, 2020), leading to a decrease in

biodiversity (Obiakara and Fourcade, 2018; Dai et al., 2021). It can invade a variety of habitats.

It can grow in open and sunny areas, such as roadsides, wastelands, riverbanks and disturbed

sites, and in shady areas, including forest edges and disturbed secondary forests. This

suggests that they are likely to respond rapidly and efficiently to heterogenous

environments during physiological processes. However, the photosynthetic strategy of T.

diversifolia in different habitats under natural fluctuating light conditions remains unclear.

Tithonia diversifolia belongs to the family Asteraceae and is known as

Mexican sunflower, tree marigold, or Nitobe chrysanthemum. In Mizoram they are

called as ‘Bawngpu-par’ or ‘Vaivakawn-par’ (Buragohain, 2016; Vanlalruati and Rai,

2020). It grows rapidly, reaching 2–3 m in height with large alternate lobe leaves (up

to 45 cm long). The monocarpic capitulums are 10–30 cm long and bear bright yellow

flowers (5–15 cm in diameter). The plant often forms pure stands with high density

(8–20 plants/m2) (Weed Res. 2008).

Habitat wise, T. diversifolia is a wild perennial or annual shrubs/bushy plant.

(Buragohain, 2016). They are purposely or accidently introduced into many parts of

the countries. T. diversifolia is mostly confined to the roadside, nearby fields,

disturbed sites, and on the edge of the forest (Witt, 2019). Furthermore, the plant parts
of T. diversifolia possess large amount of allelochemicals and had a phytotoxic

potency that could inhibit the growth, nutrient accumulation, and physiological

aspects of the neighboring native plants. To better understand the effects T.

diversifolia has on its surrounding soil, testing of the physiochemical parameters were

carried out.