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Overview of Software Engineering

Software is a program or set of programs containing instructions that provide
the desired functionality. Engineering is the process of designing and building
something that serves a particular purpose and finds a cost-effective solution
to problems.

Software engineering includes a variety of techniques, tools, and

methodologies, including requirements analysis, design, testing, and
maintenance.

It is a rapidly evolving field, and new tools and technologies are constantly
being developed to improve the software development process.

By following the principles of software engineering and using the appropriate

tools and methodologies, software developers can create high-quality,
reliable, and maintainable software that meets the needs of its users.

Software Engineering is mainly used for large projects based on software

systems rather than single programs or applications.

The main goal of Software Engineering is to develop software applications for

improving quality, budget, and time efficiency.

Software Engineering ensures that the software that has to be built should
be consistent, correct, also on budget, on time, and within the required
requirements.

SDLC models
Software development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured process that is used to
design, develop, and test good-quality software. SDLC, or software
development life cycle, is a methodology that defines the entire procedure of
software development step-by-step. The goal of the SDLC life cycle model is
to deliver high-quality, maintainable software that meets the user’s
requirements.

What is the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)?

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SDLC is a process followed for software building within a software

organization. SDLC consists of a precise plan that describes how to develop,
maintain, replace, and enhance specific software. The life cycle defines a
method for improving the quality of software and the all-around
development process.

Requirement Engineering
Requirements Engineering is the process of identifying, eliciting, analyzing,
specifying, validating, and managing the needs and expectations of
stakeholders for a software system.

Feasibility Study Overview

A feasibility study evaluates the practicality and viability of a project across
five key areas, ensuring informed decision-making. Economic Feasibility is
often the most critical, while Legal Feasibility is less emphasized unless
regulatory factors are significant.

Key Areas of Feasibility Study

1. Technical Feasibility:
Assesses the availability of required technology, technical skills, and
ease of system maintenance. Ensures technical resources can support
project development.

2. Operational Feasibility:
Evaluates usability, maintainability, and alignment with user needs to
ensure the solution integrates smoothly into operations.
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3. Economic Feasibility:
Analyzes costs (development, operational) against benefits, focusing
on ROI and financial viability.

4. Legal Feasibility:
Ensures compliance with laws, regulations, and intellectual property
requirements, avoiding legal obstacles.

5. Schedule Feasibility:
Examines project timelines, milestones, and resource availability to
confirm deadlines are achievable.

Types of Requirements in Software Engineering

1. Functional Requirements:

o Definition: Specify what the system should do.

o Focus: System behavior, features, and functionalities.

o Examples:

▪ Allow users to log in with a username and password.

▪ Generate monthly financial reports.

▪ Process online payments securely.

2. Non-Functional Requirements:

o Definition: Define system attributes and constraints.

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o Focus: Performance, usability, reliability, and security.

o Categories:

▪ Performance: System must handle 1,000 transactions per

second.

▪ Security: Data must be encrypted during transmission.

▪ Usability: Interface should be accessible to visually

impaired users.

▪ Reliability: 99.9% system uptime.

Key Difference: Functional requirements describe "what" the system should

do, while non-functional requirements describe "how" it performs under
specific conditions. Both are essential for successful software development.

Four Phases of Requirement Engineering

1. Requirement Elicitation:

o Objective: Gather requirements from stakeholders.

o Activities: Interviews, surveys, workshops, prototyping, and

observations.

o Outcome: A list of user and system requirements.

2. Requirement Analysis:

o Objective: Refine, prioritize, and resolve conflicts in gathered

requirements.

o Activities: Feasibility checks, prioritization, and identifying

inconsistencies.

o Outcome: A clear, consistent, and complete set of requirements.

3. Requirement Specification:

o Objective: Document requirements in a structured format.

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o Activities: Creating Software Requirements Specification (SRS)

and use cases.

o Outcome: A formal document detailing functional and non-

functional requirements.

4. Requirement Validation:

o Objective: Ensure requirements are correct, feasible, and meet

stakeholder needs.

o Activities: Reviews, prototyping, and stakeholder validation

sessions.

o Outcome: Approval of requirements for development.

These phases collectively ensure the project aligns with user needs and
organizational goals.

Software Requirements Specification (SRS)

Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a comprehensive document
that describes the functional and non-functional requirements of a software
system. It serves as a guide for all stakeholders, including developers, testers,
and clients, ensuring alignment throughout the project lifecycle.

Key Components of an SRS

1. Introduction:

o Purpose of the document.

o Project scope.

o Definitions, acronyms, and abbreviations.

o References to relevant documents.

2. System Overview:

o High-level description of the software system.

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o Key objectives and benefits.

3. Functional Requirements:

o Detailed description of system functionalities.

o Examples:

▪ "The system shall allow users to register using an email

and password."

▪ "The software shall generate weekly sales reports."

4. Non-Functional Requirements:

o Constraints and system attributes like:

▪ Performance: "The system shall support 1,000 concurrent

users."

▪ Security: "Data transmission shall be encrypted using TLS."

▪ Usability: "The interface shall be accessible to users with

disabilities."

5. System Features:

o Description of specific modules or features of the software.

6. External Interface Requirements:

o Interaction with hardware, software, or other systems.

o Example: "The software shall interface with payment gateways

like PayPal or Stripe."

7. System Constraints:

o Technical, legal, or operational constraints impacting the system.

8. Assumptions and Dependencies:

o Any assumptions about the environment, users, or dependencies

on external factors.
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Importance of an SRS

• Clarity: Provides a clear understanding of the system requirements.

• Reference: Acts as a blueprint for development and testing teams.

• Alignment: Ensures all stakeholders have a shared vision.

• Risk Reduction: Minimizes misunderstandings and scope creep.

Qualities of a Good SRS

• Complete: Covers all aspects of the system.

• Clear: Uses unambiguous language.

• Consistent: Avoids contradictions in requirements.

• Modifiable: Allows easy updates as requirements evolve.

• Traceable: Links requirements to specific system functionalities.

Would you like an example SRS template or a specific section expanded?

Structure and Contents of an SRS Document

An SRS (Software Requirements Specification) document typically follows a
structured format to ensure clarity, consistency, and completeness. Below is
a commonly used structure along with its contents:
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1. Introduction

• Purpose: Define the objective of the SRS and its intended audience.

• Scope: Overview of the software's functionality, goals, and benefits.

• Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations: Explanation of terms used in

the document.

• References: List of related documents, standards, or resources.

2. Overall Description

• System Perspective: High-level view of the system in its environment,

including interfaces with other systems.

• Product Features: Summary of the main functionalities.

• User Characteristics: Description of intended users, including skill level

and demographic details.

• Assumptions and Dependencies: Factors influencing the system, such

as platform or third-party software dependencies.

3. Specific Requirements

• Functional Requirements:

o Detailed description of what the system should do.

o Example: “The system shall allow users to log in using a

username and password.”

• Non-Functional Requirements:

o Performance, security, usability, and scalability requirements.

o Example: “The system shall handle 1,000 simultaneous users

with a response time of under 2 seconds.”
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• External Interface Requirements:

o Hardware Interfaces: Specifications of devices the system

interacts with.

o Software Interfaces: Interactions with other applications or

systems.

o Communication Interfaces: Protocols and data formats for

communication.

• System Constraints:

o Limitations imposed by design, technology, or regulatory

requirements.

4. System Features

• Feature 1: Description, priority, and any sub-requirements.

• Feature 2: Similar structure for other features.

5. Other Non-Functional Requirements

• Performance: Response time, throughput, and scalability.

• Security: Authentication, authorization, and data protection measures.

• Reliability: Uptime, fault tolerance, and recovery.

• Usability: Accessibility and user experience considerations.

6. Validation and Verification

• Methods for testing and ensuring requirements are met.

• Example: Test cases, user feedback, or automated tools.

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7. Appendices

• Glossary: Explanation of terms and abbreviations.

• Additional Information: Any supplementary details relevant to the

project.

IEEE SRS Format

The IEEE 830 Standard outlines the structure and contents of a Software
Requirements Specification (SRS) document. It provides a formalized format
to ensure consistency, clarity, and comprehensiveness. Below is the IEEE SRS
Format that you can follow for a standardized document.

IEEE 830 SRS Format

1. Introduction

• 1.1 Purpose: Describes the purpose of the SRS and its intended
audience.

• 1.2 Scope: A summary of the software product being developed, its

objectives, and its role in the broader system.

• 1.3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations: Defines all relevant

terms, acronyms, and abbreviations used in the SRS.

2. Overall Description

• 2.1 Product Perspective: Describes how the product fits into a larger
system or project.

o Is it a stand-alone system or an enhancement of an existing one?

• 2.2 Product Features: A high-level overview of the software's primary

functionalities.
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• 2.3 User Classes and Characteristics: Describes the target users and
their characteristics (e.g., experience level, hardware usage).

3. System Features

• 3.1 Feature 1:

o Description of the feature.

o Functional requirements related to this feature.

o User interaction and system interface.

o Any specific conditions or constraints for this feature.

• 3.2 Feature 2: (repeat for other features)

o Detailed descriptions and requirements for each major system

feature.

4. External Interface Requirements

• 4.1 User Interfaces: Describes how the system will interact with the
users, including layout, design, and usability.

• 4.2 Hardware Interfaces: Specifies how the system will interact with
hardware devices (e.g., printers, sensors).

• 4.3 Software Interfaces: Defines interactions between the system and

other software applications, databases, or external APIs.

5. System Attributes

• 5.1 Reliability: Requirements related to system uptime, fault tolerance,

and recovery.

• 5.2 Availability: Expected system availability and downtime.

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• 5.3 Security: Security requirements, including authentication,

authorization, data protection, and encryption.

6. Other Non-Functional Requirements

• 6.1 Performance: Performance requirements such as response time,

throughput, and latency.

• 6.2 Usability: Requirements for the software's ease of use,

accessibility, and user satisfaction.

• 6.3 Legal and Regulatory Requirements: Legal constraints or standards

that must be adhered to.

7. Appendices

• A. Glossary: Any terms or concepts that need further clarification.

• B. Acronyms and Abbreviations: A list of abbreviations used

throughout the document.

• C. Diagrams and Illustrations: Any system architecture diagrams, flow

charts, or mockups.

Case studies : based on SRS

Case Studies Based on SRS (Short Version)

1. Online Shopping System

o Objective: Develop an e-commerce platform for browsing

products, adding to the cart, and making secure payments.

o Key Features:

▪ Product browsing, shopping cart, and payment

integration.
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▪ Admin features for managing orders and inventory.

o Non-Functional Requirements:

▪ Support 500 concurrent users, SSL encryption for

payments.

▪ Responsive design and mobile accessibility.

2. Library Management System

o Objective: Manage book checkouts, returns, and reservations for

a library.

o Key Features:

▪ Search books, checkout system, and book reservations.

▪ Admin features for inventory management.

o Non-Functional Requirements:

▪ Handle 1,000 transactions daily, user-friendly interface.

▪ Secure access for librarians and patrons.

3. Healthcare Management System

o Objective: Manage patient records, appointments, and medical

billing.

o Key Features:

▪ Manage patient data, schedule appointments, and

generate medical bills.

▪ Admin features for managing users and system settings.

o Non-Functional Requirements:

▪ Compliant with HIPAA, secure data encryption, and

efficient record handling.

Class Diagram
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A Class Diagram in software engineering is a type of static structure diagram

that represents the structure of a system by showing its classes, their
attributes, methods, and the relationships between the classes. It is a crucial
part of the Unified Modeling Language (UML) and is primarily used in object-
oriented design.

Key Components of a Class Diagram:

1. Classes: Represented by rectangles. Each class contains three sections:

o Top Section: Name of the class.

o Middle Section: Attributes (fields or properties) of the class.

o Bottom Section: Methods (functions or operations) of the class.

2. Attributes: Represent the properties or data held by a class. For

example, a Person class might have attributes like name, age, address.

3. Methods: Represent the behavior or functionality provided by the

class. For example, a Person class might have methods like walk(),
talk().

4. Relationships: Represent how classes are related to each other. Some

common types of relationships in class diagrams include:

o Association: A simple relationship where one class is linked to

another (e.g., a Student class and a Course class may have an
association, meaning students can enroll in courses).

o Inheritance (Generalization): A relationship where one class

(subclass) inherits attributes and methods from another class
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(superclass). Represented with a solid line and a triangle pointing

to the parent class.

Activity Diagram

An Activity Diagram is another type of diagram used in UML (Unified

Modeling Language), specifically designed to represent the dynamic aspects
of a system. It shows the flow of control or data between activities in a
process or operation. Activity diagrams are used to model workflows,
business processes, and the sequence of operations in a system, providing a
clear understanding of how different actions occur and in what order.

Key Components of an Activity Diagram:

1. Activities:

o Represented by rounded rectangles.

o An activity is a unit of work that is performed in the system (e.g.,

Login, Process Payment, Send Email).

2. Start (Initial Node):

o Denoted by a filled black circle.

o Indicates where the flow of control begins.

3. End (Final Node):

o Represented by a filled black circle with a border.

o Marks the end of the activity flow.

4. Transitions (Control Flows):

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o Represented by arrows connecting activities.

o Show the direction of flow from one activity to the next.

o Can include conditions (e.g., if or else conditions).

5. Decision Nodes:

o Represented by a diamond shape.

o Used to represent branching, where the flow of control splits

based on a condition or decision.

o For example, a decision might be "Is the payment successful?"

with two paths (Yes or No).

Interaction Diagram

An Interaction Diagram in software engineering, specifically in UML (Unified

Modeling Language), is used to model how objects or components interact
with each other in a system. It focuses on the dynamic aspects of the system
by showing the flow of messages, events, or data between different entities.
Interaction diagrams emphasize the communication between components
and the sequence in which these interactions occur.

Advantages of Interaction Diagrams:

• Clarity in Interaction: Helps to visualize how objects interact over time,

making the flow of communication clear.

• Collaborative Systems: Useful for systems with many interacting

components, such as distributed systems or multi-user systems.
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• Detailed Process Flow: Interaction diagrams, especially sequence

diagrams, provide a detailed breakdown of a process or use case.

In summary, interaction diagrams (sequence and communication diagrams)

are essential for visualizing the dynamic behavior of a system and
understanding the interactions between different components or objects.

Package, component and deployment Diagrams

Package
A package diagram is a type of structural diagram in UML (Unified Modeling
Language) that organizes and groups related classes and components into
packages. It visually represents the dependencies and relationships between
these packages, helping to illustrate how different parts of a system interact
with each other.

In a package diagram, several key elements help organize and clarify the
relationships within a system:

Package: This is the fundamental unit of a package diagram, serving as a

container for various elements like classes and interfaces. It’s depicted as a
folder-like icon with a name label, making it easy to identify.

NameSpace: This denotes the name of the package and usually appears at
the top of the package symbol. It helps uniquely identify the package within
the diagram.
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Package Merge: This relationship illustrates how one package can be merged
with another. It’s represented by a direct arrow between the two packages,
indicating that their contents can combine.

Package Import: This relationship shows that one package can access the
contents of another package, depicted with a dashed arrow.

1. Component
What is a Component-Based Diagram?

One kind of structural diagram in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) that
shows how the components of a system are arranged and relate to one
another is termed a component-based diagram, or simply a component
diagram.System components are modular units that offer a set of interfaces
and encapsulate implementation.

These diagrams illustrate how components are wired together to form larger
systems, detailing their dependencies and interactions.Component-Based
Diagrams are widely used in system design to promote modularity, enhance
understanding of system architecture.

Represent modular parts of the system that encapsulate functionalities.

Components can be software classes, collections of classes, or subsystems.

Symbol: Rectangles with the component stereotype («component»).

Function: Define and encapsulate functionality, ensuring modularity and

reusability.
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deployment
A Deployment Diagram is a type of Structural UML Diagram that shows the
physical deployment of software components on hardware nodes. It
illustrates the mapping of software components onto the physical resources
of a system, such as servers, processors, storage devices, and network
infrastructure.

Key elements of a Deployment Diagram

Below are the key elements of deployment diagram:

• Nodes: These represent the physical hardware entities where software

components are deployed, such as servers, workstations, routers, etc.

• Components: Represent software modules or artifacts that are

deployed onto nodes, including executable files, libraries, databases,
and configuration files.

• Artifacts: Physical files that are placed on nodes represent the actual
implementation of software components. These can include
executable files, scripts, databases, and more.

• Dependencies: These show the relationships or connections between

nodes and components, highlighting communication paths,
deployment constraints, and other dependencies.
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• Associations: Show relationships between nodes and components,

signifying that a component is deployed on a particular node, thus
mapping software components to physical nodes.

• Deployment Specification: This outlines the setup and characteristics of

nodes and components, including hardware specifications, software
settings, and communication protocols.

• Communication Paths: Represent channels or connections facilitating

communication between nodes and components and includes network
connections, communication protocols, etc.

case studies based on diagrams:

1. Business Process Optimization: A flowchart or swimlane diagram
compares an inefficient communication process with an optimized one,
highlighting delays and overlapping responsibilities.

2. Customer Journey Mapping: A customer journey map shows steps a

shopper takes on an e-commerce site, identifying pain points and
opportunities for improvement.

3. Energy Consumption Reduction: A Sankey diagram visualizes energy

flow in a manufacturing plant, identifying waste and suggesting
improvements that reduce consumption.

4. Network Architecture: A network architecture diagram outlines a

company’s IT infrastructure, highlighting inefficiencies and security
risks with proposed solutions.

5. Supply Chain Management: A supply chain flow diagram shows the

journey of products, identifying inefficiencies and suggesting
improvements like just-in-time inventory.

6. Agile SDLC: An SDLC flow diagram demonstrates Agile methodology,

showing iterative development and the benefits of continuous
feedback for faster product releases.

These diagrams make it easier to analyze and communicate complex

information.
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Overview of project Management

Project management involves the planning, execution, and oversight of
projects to achieve specific goals within a set timeline and budget. It ensures
that a project is completed efficiently, effectively, and in alignment with
organizational objectives. Here’s an overview of key aspects of project
management:

1. Project Initiation

• Objective: Define the project’s purpose, scope, and feasibility.

• Key Activities: Develop a project charter, identify stakeholders, and

outline project goals.

2. Project Planning

• Objective: Set a clear roadmap for achieving project objectives.

• Key Activities: Develop detailed plans, including:

o Scope: Define what’s included and excluded.

o Schedule: Create a timeline with milestones.

o Budget: Estimate costs and allocate resources.

o Risk Management: Identify potential risks and create mitigation

strategies.

o Quality Assurance: Set quality standards and metrics.

3. Project Execution

• Objective: Implement the project plan and deliver the project work.

• Key Activities: Coordinate teams, manage resources, communicate

with stakeholders, and ensure tasks are completed on time.

4. Project Monitoring and Controlling

• Objective: Track progress and make adjustments to stay on course.

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• Key Activities: Monitor scope, schedule, cost, and quality. Address

issues such as delays, cost overruns, and scope creep.

5. Project Closing

• Objective: Finalize all project activities and formally close the project.

• Key Activities: Review deliverables, obtain stakeholder acceptance,

close contracts, and document lessons learned for future projects.

Key Project Management Methodologies:

• Waterfall: A linear approach where each phase must be completed

before the next begins.

• Agile: A flexible, iterative approach, particularly useful for software

development or projects requiring frequent adjustments.

• Scrum: A type of Agile focused on short, iterative cycles called sprints.

• Lean: Focuses on efficiency and waste reduction.

Project management life cycle-IEEE Life Cycle

Here’s a brief explanation of each phase of the IEEE Project Management Life
Cycle:

1. Concept (Initiation): This phase involves defining the project’s goals,

scope, and feasibility. It includes creating a project charter and
identifying stakeholders.

2. Planning: In this phase, a detailed plan is created covering the project’s

scope, schedule, budget, resources, risks, and quality management.
Clear objectives, milestones, and timelines are established.

3. Execution: This phase involves carrying out the project plans,

coordinating resources, managing tasks, and ensuring smooth
communication among stakeholders. The focus is on delivering the
project work as planned.
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4. Monitoring and Controlling: This phase tracks the project's progress,

compares it against the plan, and makes adjustments as needed. It
includes managing risks, addressing issues, and controlling changes.

5. Closing: In this final phase, the project is completed. Deliverables are

reviewed and approved by stakeholders, contracts are closed,
resources are released, and lessons learned are documented for future
projects.

Quality Metrics
In Software Engineering, Software Measurement is done based on some
Software Metrics where these software metrics are referred to as the
measure of various characteristics of a Software.

In Software engineering Software Quality Assurance (SAQ) assures the

quality of the software. A set of activities in SAQ is continuously applied
throughout the software process. Software Quality is measured based on
some software quality metrics.
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There is a number of metrics available based on which software quality is

measured. But among them, there are a few most useful metrics which are
essential in software quality measurement. They are –

1. Code Quality
2. Reliability
3. Performance
4. Usability
5. Correctness
6. Maintainability
7. Integrity
8. Security

Risk Management Process

Risk Management is a systematic process of recognizing, evaluating, and
handling threats or risks that have an effect on the finances, capital, and
overall operations of an organization. These risks can come from different
areas, such as financial instability, legal issues, errors in strategic planning,
accidents, and natural disasters.

Risk management is a sequence of steps that help a software team to

understand, analyze, and manage uncertainty. Risk management process
consists of

Risks Identification.

Risk Assessment.

Risks Planning.

Risk Monitoring
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Linear Software Project Cost Estimation

Cost estimation simply means a technique that is used to find out the cost
estimates. The cost estimate is the financial spend that is done on the efforts
to develop and test software in Software Engineering. Cost estimation
models are some mathematical algorithms or parametric equations that are
used to estimate the cost of a product or a project. Various techniques or
models are available for cost estimation, also known as Cost Estimation
Models.

1. Empirical Estimation Technique – Empirical estimation is a technique or

model in which empirically derived formulas are used for predicting
the data that are a required and essential part of the software project
planning step. These techniques are usually based on the data that is
collected previously from a project and also based on some guesses,
prior experience with the development of similar types of projects, and
assumptions.
2. Heuristic Technique – Heuristic word is derived from a Greek word that
means “to discover”. The heuristic technique is a technique or model
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that is used for solving problems, learning, or discovery in the practical

methods which are used for achieving immediate goals.
3. Analytical Estimation Technique – Analytical estimation is a type of
technique that is used to measure work. In this technique, firstly the
task is divided or broken down into its basic component operations or
elements for analyzing. Second, if the standard time is available from
some other source, then these sources are applied to each element or
component of work.

COCOMO-I (ProblemStatement)
COCOMO-I (Constructive Cost Model - Integrated) is an early version of the
COCOMO model, developed by Barry Boehm in 1981, designed to estimate
the cost, effort, and schedule required for a software development project.
COCOMO-I helps project managers predict project outcomes based on
various parameters, such as the size of the software and the complexity of
the tasks involved. It was later updated to COCOMO-II, which further refines
the model for more modern software development practices.

Problem Statement of COCOMO-I:

The goal of COCOMO-I is to provide software project managers with a

structured method for estimating the effort (in person-months) and cost of
software development based on the following factors:

• The size of the software project, typically measured in KLOC

(thousands of lines of code).

• The complexity of the project, which is influenced by various cost

drivers such as hardware constraints, team experience, reliability
requirements, and other factors.

• The level of effort required to complete the project in a reasonable

amount of time, based on the scale and complexity of the software.

COCOMO-I assumes that software projects can be divided into three

categories:
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1. Organic Projects: Small, relatively simple software projects developed

by small teams with a high level of experience.

2. Semi-Detached Projects: Projects that are more complex than organic

projects, with a mix of experienced and less experienced team
members.

3. Embedded Projects: Large and complex projects that require

specialized teams, such as those involved in real-time or highly reliable
systems.

Problem Statement of Function Point Analysis (FPA):

The primary problem that Function Point Analysis aims to address is the
difficulty of accurately estimating the size and complexity of software
projects, especially in the early stages when detailed design or code is not
available. Traditional measures like Lines of Code (LOC) may not be effective
in early estimation, and they often fail to capture the functional complexity
of the system. Therefore, Function Point Analysis provides a more abstract
and functional approach to software sizing, based on the system’s
functionality from a user’s perspective.

The problem can be broken down into the following key points:

Measuring Software Size: The need for a standardized method to estimate

the size of a software system early in the project lifecycle without relying on
the actual code or technology.

Estimating Project Effort: The need for a reliable estimation of the effort
required for a project based on its functional size, which can be used to
calculate project cost, timeline, and resource allocation.

Managing Project Complexity: Understanding the functional complexity of a

system and how it affects development, testing, and maintenance efforts.

Comparing Projects: The need for a method to compare different software

systems or projects on a common scale, irrespective of technology or
language.

The SEI Capability Maturity Model CMM

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The SEI Capability Maturity Model (CMM), developed by the Software

Engineering Institute (SEI) at Carnegie Mellon University, is a framework used
to evaluate and improve the processes involved in software development
and maintenance. CMM is designed to help organizations enhance their
software development practices by providing a structured approach to
improving process maturity and capability.

1. Initial (Ad hoc): Processes are unpredictable and chaotic.

2. Managed (Repeatable): Basic project management processes are

established, making projects more predictable.

3. Defined: Processes are standardized and documented across the

organization.

4. Quantitatively Managed: Process performance is measured and

controlled using data.

5. Optimizing: Continuous process improvement is implemented, focusing

on innovation.

CMM aims to improve software quality, increase predictability, and enhance

customer satisfaction. It provides a structured approach to reduce defects,
optimize development, and manage projects more effectively.

Software Configuration Management (SCM)

Software Configuration Management (SCM) involves controlling and tracking
changes in software, ensuring that the correct version of software is being
developed, maintained, and delivered. It includes managing code,
documentation, and other components of a software system. SCM practices
ensure the integrity, consistency, and traceability of software products
throughout their lifecycle.

Key Elements of SCM:

1. Version Control: Tracks changes to software over time, enabling

developers to manage different versions of code and documents.
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2. Build Management: Ensures that software can be consistently built and

deployed, including managing the dependencies between components.

3. Change Management: Manages and documents changes in the

software, including their impact and implementation.

4. Release Management: Handles the packaging, distribution, and

deployment of software products.

Risk Management Case Study

Problem Statement: A software development company is planning to
develop a new customer relationship management (CRM) system. The
project is expected to take 12 months and has an initial budget of $1.5
million. The project team needs to identify and mitigate risks that could
affect project success.

Step-by-Step Risk Management Process:

1. Risk Identification:

o Technical Risks: Uncertainty in integrating third-party systems,

potential issues with system scalability.

o Operational Risks: Key team members might leave during the

project, and resource availability could be a challenge.

o Schedule Risks: The project could face delays due to scope

changes or resource shortages.

o Budget Risks: Unexpected increases in costs, such as additional

licensing fees or consulting costs.

2. Risk Assessment:

o Probability and Impact for each risk is assessed on a scale of 1-5.

o For example, the risk of "Key team members leaving" has a

probability of 3 and an impact of 4, leading to a risk score of 12.
 30

3. Risk Mitigation:

o Mitigation Plan for Schedule Delays: Add buffer time to the

project plan.

o Mitigation Plan for Technical Issues: Plan for early prototyping

and engage with experts on integration.

4. Risk Monitoring:

o Track and reassess risks regularly to ensure that mitigation

strategies are effective and that new risks are identified.

COCOMO-I Case Study

Problem Statement: A software development company is planning to

develop a software system for a bank. The system will be responsible for
managing customer accounts, transactions, and reports. The team estimates
that the system will require 70,000 lines of code (70 KLOC). The project is
categorized as semi-detached, and the Effort Adjustment Factor (EAF) is
estimated at 1.2.

COCOMO-I Calculation:
Types of Projects in the COCOMO Model

In the COCOMO model, software projects are categorized into three types
based on their complexity, size, and the development environment. These
types are:

Organic: A software project is said to be an organic type if the team size

required is adequately small, the problem is well understood and has been
solved in the past and also the team members have a nominal experience
regarding the problem.

Semi-detached: A software project is said to be a Semi-detached type if the

vital characteristics such as team size, experience, and knowledge of the
various programming environments lie in between organic and embedded.
The projects classified as Semi-Detached are comparatively less familiar and
 31

difficult to develop compared to the organic ones and require more

experience better guidance and creativity. Eg: Compilers or different
Embedded Systems can be considered Semi-Detached types.

Embedded: A software project requiring the highest level of complexity,

creativity, and experience requirement falls under this category. Such
software requires a larger team size than the other two models and also the
developers need to be sufficiently experienced and creative to develop such
complex models.

Function Point Analysis (FPA) Overview

Function Point Analysis (FPA) is a method used to measure the functional size
of a software application based on the functionality it provides to the user.
Unlike Lines of Code (LOC), FPA focuses on user requirements and the
system's functionality, making it language-independent.

Key Components of FPA:

External Inputs (EI): User inputs into the system, such as data entry or
interaction.

External Outputs (EO): User-facing outputs, like reports or messages.

Internal Logical Files (ILF): Internal data structures or files maintained by the
system.

External Interface Files (EIF): Data used by the system but maintained by
other systems.

User Inquiries (EQ): Interactions that retrieve data or information (queries).

FPA Process:

Identify the functions: Categorize the system’s functions as EI, EO, ILF, EIF, or
EQ.

Assign weights: Assign complexity-based weights (low, average, high) to each

function. For example, an average EI might be assigned a weight of 4, while a
high EO might be assigned a weight of 7.
 32

Calculate Unadjusted Function Points (UFP): Multiply the function count by

the corresponding weights and sum them up.

Adjust for complexity: Adjust the total function points using a set of General
System Characteristics (GSCs) that assess the overall complexity of the
system (e.g., performance requirements, transaction rate).

Estimate effort: Using historical data or productivity rates (e.g., 10 function

points per person-month), estimate the effort required for the project.

Introduction and Definition Agile, Agile Project Life Cycle

Agile Definition:
Agile is a project management and software development methodology that
emphasizes flexibility, collaboration, and customer feedback. It focuses on
delivering small, incremental improvements to a product in short, iterative
cycles known as sprints (typically 1-4 weeks). Agile prioritizes individuals and
interactions, working software, customer collaboration, and responsiveness
to change over strict adherence to processes and comprehensive
documentation

Agile Project Life Cycle:

1. Concept/Initiation: Define project goals and create a backlog of
prioritized features.

2. Iteration Planning: Plan the first sprint, selecting tasks from the
backlog.

3. Design and Development: Build and develop the product

incrementally.

4. Testing/Review: Continuously test and ensure the product works as

expected.

5. Deployment/Delivery: Deliver the working increment to the customer.

6. Review and Retrospective: Assess performance and identify

improvements for the next sprint.
 33

7. Repeat: Iterate and improve the product through successive sprints.

The Agile life cycle emphasizes adaptability, regular delivery of working

software, and continuous improvement.

Agile Manifesto: History of Agile and Agile Principles

History of Agile
The history of Agile can be traced back to the early 1990s when software
development teams faced increasing challenges with traditional,
heavyweight methodologies like Waterfall. These traditional approaches
were linear, inflexible, and often led to delays and poor alignment with
customer needs. In response, several lightweight methodologies and
frameworks began to emerge, such as:

Scrum (developed in the early 1990s by Jeff Sutherland and Ken Schwaber).

Extreme Programming (XP) (introduced by Kent Beck in the mid-1990s).

Feature-Driven Development (FDD) (developed by Jeff De Luca and Peter

Coad in the late 1990s).

In 2001, a group of 17 software development leaders met at a ski resort in

Snowbird, Utah, to discuss how to improve software development practices.
The result of their discussions was the Agile Manifesto, which outlined new
values and principles for software development that could improve
flexibility, collaboration, and customer satisfaction.

The 12 Principles of Agile

1. Customer satisfaction through early and continuous delivery of
valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even in late development stages.
3. Deliver working software frequently, with a preference for shorter
timescales (from weeks to months).
4. Business stakeholders and developers must work together daily
throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals, providing them with the
environment and support they need.
 34

6. Face-to-face communication is the most efficient and effective method

of conveying information.
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development, maintaining a
constant pace indefinitely.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design
enhances agility.
10.Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount of work not done—is
essential.
11.Self-organizing teams are more likely to produce the best designs and
architectures.
12.Regular reflection on how to become more effective, and adjustments
accordingly.

1. Scrum Master
Role Definition: The Scrum Master acts as a facilitator and coach for the
Scrum team. They are responsible for ensuring that the team follows Scrum
practices and principles, removing any obstacles (or impediments) that might
hinder progress, and fostering a collaborative environment.

Key Responsibilities:

• Facilitate Scrum Events: The Scrum Master facilitates key Scrum

ceremonies, including Sprint Planning, Daily Standups (Daily Scrum),
Sprint Review, and Sprint Retrospective.

• Remove Impediments: The Scrum Master works to identify and

eliminate any obstacles that may prevent the team from reaching its
goals.

• Coach and Support the Team: They guide the team in implementing
Scrum practices, ensuring that they understand and adhere to the Agile
principles.
 35

• Shield the Team: The Scrum Master protects the team from external
distractions and ensures that they can focus on their work without
interference.

• Foster Continuous Improvement: They help the team identify

opportunities for improvement and encourage self-organization and
collaboration.

2. Product Owner
Role Definition: The Product Owner is responsible for defining the product
vision, managing the product backlog, and ensuring that the development
team works on the most valuable features first. They act as the liaison
between stakeholders (customers, business users) and the development
team.

Key Responsibilities:

• Define Product Vision: The Product Owner ensures the team

understands the product vision, goals, and objectives, aligning the
team’s efforts with the business goals.

• Manage Product Backlog: The Product Owner is responsible for

creating, maintaining, and prioritizing the product backlog, which is a
list of features, enhancements, fixes, and technical tasks.

• Prioritize Backlog Items: They prioritize the work based on value,

ensuring the team works on the most important and valuable tasks.

3. Development Team
Role Definition: The Development Team is composed of professionals who do
the actual work of developing the product. The team is self-organizing, cross-
functional, and responsible for delivering a potentially shippable product
increment at the end of each Sprint.

Key Responsibilities:
 36

• Self-Organizing: The Development Team organizes its own work within

the Sprint and determines how to achieve the goals set by the Product
Owner.

• Collaborative Work: The team collaborates closely to develop the

product increment, which may include coding, testing, design,
documentation, and other activities.

• Deliver Value: The Development Team is responsible for delivering

high-quality, working software at the end of each Sprint.

Team Collaboration:
In Agile, particularly Scrum, collaboration between these roles is critical for
the success of the project. The Scrum Master helps the team stay on track
with Scrum practices, the Product Owner ensures the team works on the
highest-value items, and the Development Team implements the features
and delivers the product increment.

Key Agile Concepts

Iterations (Sprints): Short, time-boxed cycles (usually 1-4 weeks) to deliver
incremental product improvements.

1. Product Backlog: A prioritized list of features, fixes, and tasks to be

done, managed by the Product Owner.

2. Sprint Backlog: A subset of tasks selected from the product backlog for
the current sprint, managed by the Development Team.

3. Daily Standups (Daily Scrum): A 15-minute daily meeting where team

members discuss progress, plans, and obstacles.

4. Sprint Review: A meeting at the end of each sprint to demonstrate the

work completed and gather stakeholder feedback.

5. Sprint Retrospective: A meeting after the sprint review to reflect on

the team’s process and identify areas for improvement.

6. User Stories: Short descriptions of features from the user’s perspective,

used to define work tasks.
 37

7. Definition of Done (DoD): Clear criteria that define when a task is

considered complete and ready for delivery.

8. Velocity: A measure of how much work a team can complete in a

sprint, usually expressed in story points.

9. Backlog Refinement (Grooming): Ongoing process of reviewing and

updating the product backlog to ensure it is clear and prioritized.

10.Cross-Functional Teams: Teams with all the skills necessary to

complete tasks without outside help.

11.Continuous Integration (CI): Regular merging of code and automated

testing to ensure software quality and stability.

12.Customer Collaboration: Constant communication with customers to

ensure the product meets their needs.

13.Responding to Change: Ability to adapt to new information or shifting

priorities, ensuring flexibility in development.

These concepts enable Agile teams to deliver value quickly, collaborate

effectively, and remain adaptable to changing needs.

User Stories
Definition: A User Story is a brief, simple description of a feature or
functionality told from the perspective of the user or customer. It defines
what the user wants to accomplish and why, focusing on delivering value to
the customer.

Format:

• Typically written as:

"As a [type of user], I want [an action] so that [I achieve a goal]."

Example:

• "As a customer, I want to be able to reset my password so that I can

access my account if I forget it."

Purpose:
 38

• To break down features into smaller, manageable units of work.

• To focus on user needs and the value that the feature will provide.

• To communicate clearly between stakeholders, product owners, and

the development team.

Story Points
Definition: Story Points are a unit of measure used to estimate the relative
effort or complexity required to complete a User Story. Story points are not
tied to specific time units (like hours), but rather to the difficulty or
complexity of a task.

How They Work:

• Story points typically use a scale (such as Fibonacci: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,

etc.) to assess how much effort, risk, and complexity are involved in
completing a user story.

• The Development Team assigns story points during sprint planning or

backlog refinement, based on their understanding of the task.

Purpose:

• To provide a relative comparison of effort between different user

stories.

• To help teams forecast how much work can be completed in a sprint

(using velocity).

• To estimate the total effort needed for the entire project or release.

Example:

• A small, simple user story might be assigned 2 story points.

• A larger, more complex feature might be assigned 8 story points.

Techniques for Estimating Story Points

Planning Poker: Team members estimate story points using cards with
values. They discuss discrepancies and reach consensus.
 39

1. T-Shirt Sizing: User stories are sized as XS, S, M, L, XL and mapped to

story points (e.g., XS = 1, M = 5, L = 8).

2. Affinity Estimating: Stories are grouped based on complexity, and each

group is assigned story points through discussion.

3. Dot Voting: Team members vote on the complexity of stories, and the
highest-voted stories are estimated.

4. Bucket System: Stories are quickly sorted into predefined buckets (e.g.,
small, medium, large), with each bucket assigned a point value.

5. The Bucket Brigade: Stories are sorted into buckets in sequence with
brief discussions, followed by a final review.

6. Ideal Days/Hours: Estimation based on how long a task would take in

ideal conditions (converted to story points).

7. Relative Estimation: New stories are estimated by comparing them to

previously completed stories with known point values.

These techniques help teams estimate effort, complexity, and ensure

consistent story point assignments.

Product Backlog
Definition:
The Product Backlog is a dynamic, prioritized list of all features,
enhancements, bug fixes, technical tasks, and requirements for a project. It
represents everything that needs to be done to improve the product.

Key Points:

• Managed by the Product Owner: The Product Owner is responsible for

creating, prioritizing, and refining the backlog based on business goals
and customer needs.

• Items: Can include user stories, bugs, technical tasks, and any other
work needed for the product.
 40

• Dynamic: It is continually updated and refined to reflect changes in

priorities, new ideas, or shifts in project goals.

Sprint Backlog
Definition:
The Sprint Backlog is a subset of the Product Backlog, consisting of the items
that the team has committed to completing during the current sprint. It is a
detailed list of tasks and user stories that the team plans to work on during
the sprint.

Key Points:

• Owned by the Development Team: The team selects which items from
the Product Backlog to include in the Sprint Backlog during Sprint
Planning.

• Time-boxed: The Sprint Backlog is planned for the duration of the

sprint, typically 1 to 4 weeks.

• Dynamic: It can evolve during the sprint as the team gains insights, but
the goal is to complete all items committed for the sprint.

Difference between Product Backlog and Sprint Backlog:

• Scope: The Product Backlog is the overall project scope, while the
Sprint Backlog is specific to one sprint.

• Ownership: The Product Owner manages the Product Backlog, whereas

the Development Team owns the Sprint Backlog.

• Time: The Product Backlog is ongoing and evolving, while the Sprint
Backlog is time-boxed for the duration of a sprint.

Product Vision
Definition:
The Product Vision is a high-level description of the product's purpose, its
goals, and the value it will deliver to users or customers. It serves as a guiding
 41

light for the product development process and helps ensure that all
stakeholders are aligned on the product’s ultimate objectives.

Key Points:

• Purpose: Clearly defines why the product exists and what problems it
aims to solve.

• Direction: Provides the team with a long-term focus and helps guide
decision-making.

• Inspiration: Motivates and aligns stakeholders, developers, and users

around a common goal.

• Short and Clear: The vision is typically a brief statement (a sentence or

two) but encapsulates the product’s big picture.

Example:

• "Our vision is to create a mobile app that helps users track their fitness
progress and stay motivated through personalized workout plans."

Product Roadmap
Definition:
A Product Roadmap is a strategic plan that outlines the product's
development trajectory over time. It maps out key features, releases, and
milestones, and helps visualize how the product will evolve in response to
market needs, customer feedback, and business goals.

Key Points:

• Strategic Plan: A roadmap communicates the when, what, and why of

the product's development, often over a span of months or years.

• Timeline: It includes high-level timeframes for releasing major

features, updates, or improvements.
 42

• Ownership: Typically owned by the Product Owner or product

management team, but is often created collaboratively with input
from stakeholders, customers, and development teams.

• Flexibility: Although a roadmap is a plan, it should remain flexible to

accommodate changes based on feedback or new insights.

Types of Roadmaps:

1. Release Roadmap: Focuses on the sequence of product releases and

key milestones.

2. Feature Roadmap: Highlights new features or improvements to be

developed over time.

3. Timeline Roadmap: A time-based roadmap that shows specific release

dates or deadlines for milestones.

Example:

• "In Q1, we will release the basic fitness tracking features. In Q2, we'll
introduce personalized workout plans, and in Q3, we'll integrate social
sharing options."

Differences Between Product Vision and Product Roadmap:

• Product Vision: Focuses on the long-term purpose and goals of the
product. It’s a guiding statement for the overall product.

• Product Roadmap: Focuses on the strategic plan to achieve the vision.

It outlines what will be built and when.

Sprint Velocity
Definition:
Sprint Velocity is a metric used to measure the amount of work a team can
complete during a sprint. It is calculated by summing the story points of all
the user stories that were successfully completed by the end of the sprint.

Key Points:
 43

• Measurement Unit: Typically measured in story points, but can also be

measured in hours or tasks depending on the team's chosen estimation
unit.

• Helps with Forecasting: Sprint velocity helps predict how much work a
team can take on in future sprints by providing historical data.

• Used for Sprint Planning: It helps the team and Product Owner plan the
number of user stories for upcoming sprints.

• Calculated per Sprint: Velocity is recalculated after each sprint to track

the team's progress over time.

Example:

• If a team completes 3 stories with 3, 5, and 8 story points in a sprint,

the total velocity for that sprint is 16 story points.

Formula:

• Sprint Velocity = Total Story Points Completed in Sprint

Note: Velocity can fluctuate over time due to changes in team size, project
complexity, or other external factors. The important aspect is tracking trends
rather than focusing on a specific number.

Swim Lanes
Definition:
Swim Lanes are horizontal or vertical divisions used in flowcharts, Kanban
boards, or process diagrams to separate different categories or entities
responsible for specific tasks. They are used to improve clarity and show who
is responsible for each activity.

Key Points:

• Visual Organization: Swim lanes are often used to visually separate

tasks based on different roles, departments, or types of work (e.g.,
development, testing, design).
 44

• In Kanban or Scrum Boards: Swim lanes help organize and prioritize

work within a board by categorizing user stories or tasks into separate
lanes.

• Facilitates Process Flow: Swim lanes help teams understand who is

doing what and where each task is in the workflow, improving
efficiency and accountability.

Example:
In a Kanban board, you might have swim lanes for:

• Development Team: User stories assigned to developers.

• QA Team: User stories awaiting or in the process of testing.

• Product Owner: User stories needing clarification or further review.

Benefits:

• Clarity: Makes it easier to see which team member or department is

responsible for each task.

• Prioritization: Helps prioritize tasks within different categories (e.g.,

high-priority tasks in a dedicated swim lane).

• Improves Workflow: Reduces confusion and enhances the flow of work

across teams.

Minimum Viable Product (MVP)

Definition:
A Minimum Viable Product (MVP) is the most basic version of a product that
delivers core features necessary to solve the primary problem for its target
users. The MVP is designed to be released with the minimum features that
allow the product to be functional and useful to early adopters, providing
enough value for users to engage with it and offer feedback.

Key Points:
 45

• Core Features: The MVP includes only the essential features that
address the main problem or need, without unnecessary extras.

• Early Feedback: It is released early to gather user feedback and

validate assumptions about the product's value and usability.

• Cost and Time Efficient: Focuses on reducing development costs and

time while testing the product's potential in the market.

• Iterative Development: After the MVP is released, feedback is used to

improve the product in subsequent iterations, adding more features
and refinements.

Example:

• A startup creating a fitness tracking app might release an MVP that

only includes basic features like step counting and basic workout
tracking, without advanced features like social sharing or personalized
coaching.

Purpose:

• To validate the product concept quickly.

• To minimize risk by testing the market early.

• To learn about user preferences and product-market fit before full-

scale development.

1. Version:
o Definition: A Version is a specific iteration or release of a
software product, typically identified by a number (e.g., 1.0, 2.1)
to distinguish it from other releases. Versions reflect changes
made to the product, such as new features, bug fixes, or
improvements.

o Key Points:
 46

▪ Versions can indicate major (new features, significant

changes), minor (small features, updates), or patch (bug
fixes, minor updates) updates.

▪ Versioning follows a numbering convention, commonly

Major.Minor.Patch (e.g., 2.3.1).

▪ Semantic Versioning: A versioning system used to convey

the type of changes in the release (e.g., 1.0.0 → 1.1.0 for
minor updates, 1.0.0 → 2.0.0 for major changes).

Example:

o 1.0.0: Initial product release.

o 1.1.0: Added a new feature, like a workout tracking mode.

o 2.0.0: Major update with redesign or additional capabilities.

2. Release:
o Definition: A Release is the distribution or deployment of a new
version of the product to users. It refers to the process of making
a version of the product available to customers, whether
internally (e.g., beta release) or externally (public release).

o Key Points:

▪ Releases are often accompanied by documentation,

release notes, and marketing.

▪ Different types of releases include alpha, beta, and final

(stable) releases.

▪ Releases can occur periodically, often following a release

schedule or roadmap.

Example:
 47

o Beta Release: A version of the product shared with a limited

group of users to gather feedback.

o Stable Release: The final product version made available to the

public after thorough testing.

Agile Project Management v/s Traditional Project Management

Agile Project Management Traditional Project Management

It is used to develop simple software. It is used to develop complicated
software.
In this methodology, testing is done In this methodology, testing and
once the development phase is development processes are
completed. performed concurrently.
It follows a linear It follows an iterative organizational
organizational expectation structure structure.
It provides less security. It provides high security.
Client involvement is less as Client involvement is high as
compared to Agile development. compared to traditional software
development.
It provides less functionality in the It provides all the functionality
software. needed by the users.
It supports a fixed development It supports a changeable
model. development model.
It is used by freshers. It is used by professionals.
Development cost is less using Development cost is high using this
this methodology. methodology.
It majorly consists of five phases. It consists of only three phases.
It is less used by software It is normally used by software
development firms. development firms.
The expectation is favored in the Adaptability is favored in the agile
traditional model. methodology.

Agile Reports

Agile teams rely on specific reports to track progress, monitor performance,

and ensure alignment with the project's goals. Here are some key Agile
reports:
 48

1. Daily Reports
Definition:
Daily reports in Agile, particularly in Scrum, are typically informal updates
shared during the Daily Stand-up Meeting (also called the Daily Scrum).
These reports help the team track progress and surface any potential issues
or blockers.

Key Points:

• Content: Each team member provides a brief update on what they

worked on yesterday, what they plan to work on today, and if they
face any blockers.

• Purpose: These reports help keep the team aligned, ensure that any
issues are quickly addressed, and promote transparency.

• Frequency: Daily, typically during a 15-minute stand-up meeting.

Example:

• "Yesterday I finished the login page, today I’ll start working on the user
profile, and I need help with the API integration."

2. Sprint Burn Down Chart

Definition:
A Sprint Burn Down Chart is a graphical representation of the work remaining
in a sprint. It shows the progress of the team toward completing the sprint
backlog and is usually plotted with the remaining work on the vertical axis
and time (days) on the horizontal axis.

Key Points:

• Purpose: To track the progress of work throughout the sprint and

identify if the team is on track to complete the sprint within the given
time frame.
 49

• Data: It shows how much work (in story points, hours, or tasks)
remains to be done at the end of each day.

• Ideal Line: There is often an ideal line that indicates how much work
should have been completed each day to finish on time.

• Tracking Progress: If the actual line is above the ideal line, the team
might need to increase effort to meet the sprint goal. If it’s below, the
team is ahead of schedule.

Example:

• Day 1: 50 story points remain.

• Day 2: 45 story points remain.

• Day 3: 40 story points remain.

• The line gradually declines as work is completed.

3. Sprint Reports
Definition:
Sprint reports are used to summarize the progress made during a sprint,
highlighting achievements, issues, and overall outcomes. It includes detailed
data about the completed work, any deviations from the original plan, and
the team's performance.

Key Points:

• Sprint Review: A formal meeting where the team demonstrates the

completed work and discusses what was accomplished during the
sprint.

• Sprint Retrospective: A meeting to reflect on the sprint and identify

areas for improvement in the process, tools, or team collaboration.

• Content: The report might include the sprint goals, completed user
stories, work not completed, and any blockers faced.
 50

4. User Stories and Scenarios

Definition:
A User Story is a short, simple description of a feature or functionality from
the perspective of the end user. It helps the team understand the user's
needs and what value the feature will bring.

User Story Format:

• "As a [type of user], I want to [do something] so that I can [achieve a

goal]."

Key Points:

• INVEST Criteria: A good user story follows the INVEST criteria, meaning
it should be:

o Independent: Can be developed and tested independently.

o Negotiable: Not a detailed contract, but a reminder to discuss.

o Valuable: Delivers value to the user or customer.

o Estimable: The team should be able to estimate the effort

required.

o Small: Can be completed within a sprint.

o Testable: Can be validated with acceptance criteria.

5. Writing User Stories

Definition:
Writing effective user stories is essential for ensuring clear communication
between the product owner, developers, and stakeholders. Good user stories
help clarify requirements and make it easier to track progress.

Steps for Writing User Stories:

 51

1. Identify the User: Define who will benefit from the feature. This could
be an end user, admin, or another type of system user.

o Example: "As a user..."

2. Define the Action: What is the user trying to achieve or accomplish?

o Example: "...I want to login to my account..."

3. Explain the Purpose: Why does the user need this feature? What is the
value it provides?

o Example: "...so that I can access my personal dashboard."

Example of a User Story:

• "As a customer, I want to add items to my shopping cart so that I can

purchase them later."

6. User Story Scenarios

Definition:
User Story Scenarios (also called Acceptance Criteria) are the conditions that
must be met for a user story to be considered complete. They define the
functionality of a feature and are often used to write tests or validate that
the story meets the user's needs.

Key Points:

• Clear Conditions: Scenarios specify the expected behavior and

outcomes from the user’s perspective.

• Testable: Scenarios are written in such a way that they can be tested to
confirm that the story works as intended.

• Collaborative: Scenarios help the team understand the user's needs

and ensure that everyone is aligned on the definition of "done."

Example (for the user story: "As a customer, I want to add items to my
shopping cart so that I can purchase them later"):
 52

• Scenario 1: If the user adds an item to the cart, the cart count increases
by 1.

• Scenario 2: If the user removes an item from the cart, the cart count
decreases by 1.

• Scenario 3: If the user attempts to add out-of-stock items, they are

notified that the item is unavailable.

MS Project Tool
Microsoft Project (MS Project) is a project management tool used for
planning, scheduling, and tracking projects. It offers features like task
scheduling, Gantt charts, resource allocation, cost management, and
progress tracking. MS Project helps project managers ensure projects are
completed on time, within budget, and with optimal resource usage.

Here are the key tools available in Microsoft Project (MS Project):

1. Gantt Chart: Visualizes project tasks, schedules, and dependencies.

2. Task Management: Tools for creating, assigning, and tracking tasks.

3. Resource Management: Assign and manage resources (people,

materials, equipment).

4. Critical Path Method (CPM): Identifies the sequence of tasks that affect
project completion.

5. Timeline View: Provides an overview of project phases and key

milestones.

6. Task Dependencies: Manages relationships between tasks (e.g., start-

to-start, finish-to-start).

7. Resource Allocation: Ensures resources are appropriately assigned and

not over-allocated.

8. Cost Management: Tracks project budgets, expenses, and cost

forecasting.
 53

9. Baseline Management: Set baselines to compare planned progress

against actual progress.

10.Reporting Tools: Generate customizable reports (e.g., progress, cost,

resource usage).

11.Team Collaboration: Integration with tools like SharePoint for team

communication and updates.

12.Project Templates: Predefined templates for common project types to

speed up project setup.

13.Risk Management: Tools for identifying and tracking project risks.

14.Resource Usage Views: Visualize resource allocation and workload

distribution.

Agile Tools: Open Source

1. Jira (Open Source Alternatives)

• OpenProject: A web-based project management tool that provides

Agile features like Scrum boards, Kanban boards, task management,
and time tracking.

• Taiga: An intuitive, easy-to-use project management tool that supports

Scrum and Kanban methodologies. It offers features like backlogs,
sprints, task tracking, and user stories.

• Redmine: A flexible project management tool with support for multiple

Agile methodologies (Scrum, Kanban). It offers issue tracking, Gantt
charts, and project timelines.

2. Trello (Open Source Alternatives)

• Kanboard: A project management tool that focuses on Kanban boards,

offering a simple interface for visual task management. It supports
swim lanes, task assignment, and WIP limits.
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• Wekan: A flexible, open-source Kanban board application that allows

for task management, team collaboration, and tracking of project
progress.

3. Asana (Open Source Alternatives)

• Focalboard: An open-source, self-hosted project management tool that

offers Kanban boards, task tracking, and project boards. It's suitable
for managing both Agile and traditional projects.

• MyCollab: A collaborative project management tool with Kanban

boards, Gantt charts, time tracking, and other features supporting
Agile workflows.

4. VersionOne (Open Source Alternatives)

• Agilefant: An Agile project management tool that supports Scrum and

Kanban methods. It includes backlog management, sprint planning,
and user stories for project tracking.

• OpenScrum: A tool focused on Scrum methodology, allowing teams to

manage user stories, sprints, and burndown charts.

5. Miro (Open Source Alternatives)

• Excalidraw: A virtual collaborative whiteboard tool for sketching and

brainstorming. It supports Agile teams in planning, mapping user
stories, and visual collaboration.

• Draw.io: A free, open-source diagramming tool that can be used for

mind mapping, flowcharts, and visual Agile boards.

6. GitLab (Agile & DevOps)

• GitHub Projects: Although GitHub itself is not strictly Agile, its

integrated project boards can be used with Agile methodologies like
Kanban and Scrum to track work items and workflows.

• GitKraken: Provides a Git GUI that supports Agile workflows by

integrating with project management tools and issue tracking systems.

7. Slack (Open Source Alternatives)

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• Rocket.Chat: A free, open-source communication platform that can be

used for team collaboration in Agile environments. It supports
channels, direct messaging, and integrations with other tools.

• Mattermost: A messaging platform designed for team collaboration,

providing open-source alternatives to Slack with support for Agile team
communication.

Hands on GitHub
Here’s a hands-on guide to using GitHub for managing and collaborating on
projects. GitHub is a powerful platform primarily used for version control and
collaboration on code. It allows developers to work together on the same
project while keeping track of changes.

Getting Started with GitHub

1. Create a GitHub Account

o Go to GitHub and sign up for a free account.

o After signing up, you’ll be able to create repositories and

collaborate on open-source projects.

2. Install Git (if not already installed)

o Download and install Git from Git’s official website.

o Once installed, open your terminal or command prompt and run:

o git --version

This confirms that Git is installed on your system.

3. Create a Repository

o On GitHub, click the + in the top right corner and select New
repository.

o Fill in the repository name, description, and other details.

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o Choose whether the repository will be public or private.

o Click Create repository.

4. Clone a Repository

o To start working on a repository locally, you need to clone it. In

your terminal, navigate to the directory where you want the
repository and run:

o git clone https://github.com/username/repository-name.git

o Replace username with your GitHub username and repository-

name with the repository's name.

5. Create a New Branch

o It’s good practice to create a new branch for any feature or fix.
Run the following commands:

o git checkout -b feature-branch

o Replace feature-branch with a meaningful name for your branch.

6. Make Changes and Commit

o Open the files in your repository and make changes.

o Once you have made your changes, add them to the staging area
with:

o git add .

o Commit the changes with a message describing what you did:

o git commit -m "Added new feature"

7. Push Changes to GitHub

o After committing, push the changes to GitHub with:

o git push origin feature-branch

o This uploads your branch to GitHub.

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8. Create a Pull Request (PR)

o Go to your repository on GitHub. You'll see a message to

Compare & pull request after pushing your changes.

o Click Compare & pull request, provide a description of your

changes, and click Create pull request.

o Team members can now review your code and approve or

suggest changes.

9. Review and Merge Pull Requests

o If you are the repository owner or a collaborator, you can review

and merge the pull request:

▪ On GitHub, navigate to the Pull requests tab.

▪ Click on the pull request and review the changes.

▪ If everything looks good, click Merge pull request and then

Confirm merge.

10.Pull the Latest Changes

o If other collaborators have made changes, you can fetch the

latest updates using:

o git pull origin main

o This pulls the latest code from the main branch into your current
branch.

Advanced GitHub Usage

• GitHub Projects: Organize and track project work with Kanban-style

boards, and manage workflows using columns like To do, In Progress,
and Done.

• GitHub Pages: Create and host static websites directly from a GitHub
repository.
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• GitHub CLI: The GitHub command-line interface allows managing

GitHub operations directly from the terminal, like creating issues, pull
requests, and more.

Here’s an overview of how you can create a project using Kanban, manage
project repositories, implement continuous integration, and manage the
project backlog and team effectively:

5.4 Create a Project Using Kanban

Kanban is a visual project management tool that helps teams manage
workflow and optimize efficiency. Here's how to create a project using the
Kanban methodology:

1. Define the Workflow:

o Identify the key stages in your project workflow, such as To Do,

In Progress, Review, and Done.

o These stages become the columns in your Kanban board.

2. Set Up a Kanban Board:

o You can use tools like Trello, Jira, or Kanboard to create a digital
Kanban board.

o Each task or work item is represented by a card that moves

across columns as it progresses.

3. Limit Work in Progress (WIP):

o Set limits on the number of tasks that can be in progress at any

given time. This prevents team members from multitasking too
much and encourages focus on completing tasks.

4. Add Tasks to the Board:

o Break down the project into small, manageable tasks (user

stories or work items) and add them to the To Do column.

o Each task is assigned to a team member.

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5. Track Progress:

o Move tasks across the board as they are worked on and

completed. Team members can update the board in real-time.

6. Review and Improve:

o Regularly assess the workflow to ensure it’s effective and

remove any bottlenecks.

5.5 Project Repositories

A project repository is a central place where all the code, documentation,
and other related files of a project are stored. Here's how to manage a
project repository:

1. Set Up a Repository:

o Use platforms like GitHub, GitLab, or Bitbucket to create a

repository for your project.

o You can initialize the repository with a README file and a

LICENSE file.

2. Branching Strategy:

o Use a branching strategy such as Git Flow or GitHub Flow to

manage feature development and code integration.

o Common branches include:

▪ main or master: Stable production code.

▪ develop: Integration of features.

▪ feature branches: For new features or fixes.

3. Version Control:

o Keep track of changes with commit messages, and ensure that all
changes are version-controlled.
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o Use Git for version control to collaborate with your team

effectively.

4. Collaboration:

o Team members can clone the repository, make changes, and

submit pull requests for review.

o Use issues to track bugs, tasks, and enhancements in the project.

5.6 Continuous Integration (CI)

Continuous Integration (CI) is a practice where code changes are
automatically built, tested, and merged into the main codebase. Here’s how
to set up CI for your project:

1. Choose a CI Tool:

o Use CI tools like Jenkins, Travis CI, CircleCI, or GitHub Actions to

automate the build and testing process.

2. Set Up the CI Pipeline:

o Create configuration files (e.g., .yml for GitHub Actions,

.travis.yml for Travis CI) to define your build, test, and
deployment pipelines.

o The pipeline typically includes stages like:

▪ Build: Compiling code and dependencies.

▪ Test: Running automated tests to verify the code’s

correctness.

▪ Deploy: Deploying to a staging or production environment.

3. Automated Testing:

o Integrate unit tests, integration tests, and other types of

automated tests to ensure quality before code is merged.

4. Monitor CI:
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o Monitor the CI pipeline for errors or failures. Fixing issues early

ensures that the codebase remains stable.

5.7 Project Backlog

The project backlog is a prioritized list of tasks, features, or user stories that
need to be completed for the project. Here's how to manage the backlog:

1. Create the Backlog:

o Use tools like Jira, Trello, or Asana to create and manage your
project backlog.

o Break down the backlog into user stories or tasks.

2. Prioritize Backlog Items:

o Prioritize the backlog based on business value, customer needs,

and technical dependencies.

o Tools like MoSCoW (Must-have, Should-have, Could-have,

Won't-have) can be used for prioritization.

3. Refinement (Backlog Grooming):

o Regularly review and refine the backlog. This involves ensuring

that tasks are well-defined, properly prioritized, and have clear
acceptance criteria.

4. Sprint Planning:

o During sprint planning, select items from the backlog and

commit to completing them in the upcoming sprint.

5.8 Team Management

Effective team management is essential for successful Agile project
execution. Here’s how to manage the team:

1. Define Roles:

o Clearly define team roles, such as:

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▪ Product Owner: Responsible for the backlog and product

vision.

▪ Scrum Master: Facilitates the Scrum process and removes

obstacles.

▪ Development Team: Developers, testers, and other

specialists working on the tasks.

2. Collaboration Tools:

o Use tools like Slack, Microsoft Teams, or Jira for communication

and collaboration.

o Foster a culture of transparency, where team members are

comfortable sharing updates, challenges, and feedback.

3. Daily Standups:

o Hold daily stand-up meetings to discuss progress, blockers, and

goals for the day. These meetings help keep everyone aligned
and aware of ongoing tasks.

4. Encourage Self-Organization:

o Empower the team to organize work and make decisions

collectively. Agile promotes self-organizing teams that can adapt
to changes quickly.

5. Performance and Feedback:

o Provide regular feedback and conduct retrospectives to

continuously improve the team’s processes and performance.