UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

Physical Quantities:
Those quantities which can describe the laws of physics are called the physical quantity. A
physical quantity is one that can be measured. Thus, length, mass, time, pressure, temperature,
current and resistance are considered as physical quantities.
Classification of Physical Quantities:
The physical quantities are classified into
(i) Fundamental quantities or base quantities
(ii) Derived quantities
The physical quantities that are independent of each other are called fundamental quantities.
All the other quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are called
the derived quantities.

Units:
The reference standard used to measure the physical quantities is called the unit.
Properties of Unit:

1. The unit should be of some suitable size

2. The unit must be well-defined
3. The unit should be easily reproducible, i.e., it should not change with place
4. The unit must not change with time
5. The unit should not change with physical conditions like temperature, pressure, etc.
6. The unit must be easily comparable experimentally with similar physical quantities.
Types of Units:
(i) Fundamental Units:
The units defined for the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
(ii) Derived Units:
The units of all other physical quantities which are derived from the fundamental units are
called the derived units.
History of measurement:
Measurement is one of the fundamental concepts in science. Without the ability to measure it
would be difficult for scientists to conduct experiments and form theories. The word
“measurement” comes from the Greek word “metron,” which means “limited proportion.”
Measurement is a technique in which the properties of an object are determined by comparing
them to a standard.
Measurement requires tools to provide scientists with a quantity. A quantity describes how
much of something there is and how many there are. Scientists use a system of measurement
still commonly referred to as the “metric system.” It was the first standardised system of
measurement, developed in France in the 1790s. Today, this form is the standard form of
measurement in every country except the United States.
The Seven Base Units of Measurement:

 Length – Metre (m)

It is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in an interval of exactly
1299792458𝑠. It is based on the fundamental quantity, the speed of light in a vacuum which is
c = 300000000 m/s.

 Time – Second (s)

It is the time taken by 9,192,631,770 periods of oscillations of the light emitted by a caesium -
133 atom corresponding to the transition between two hyper-fine levels of the ground state.
This is determined by using highly precise atomic clocks.

 Mass – Kilogram (kg)

It is the mass of a prototype platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures in Paris, France. Copies of this cylinder are kept by many countries
which use them to standardise and compare weights.

 Electric current – Ampere (A)

The constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length
and negligible circular cross-section when placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce a force
equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre of length between these conductors. While, it may appear
that electric charge should have been used as a base unit, measuring current is far easier and
hence is chosen as the standard base unit.

 Temperature – Kelvin (K)

The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin. It is exactly 1/(273.16) of the thermodynamic temperature
of the triple point of water. The triple point of water is a fixed temperature and pressure at
which the solid, liquid and gaseous states can exist at the same time.

 Amount of a substance – Mole (mol)

The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many entities as there are atoms in
0.012 kg of carbon-12. A mole contains an Avogadro number of entities. Check out our
chemistry articles to know more about the Avogadro number.

 Luminous Intensity – Candela (cd)

It is the luminous intensity of a source that emits radiation of a constant frequency of 540 x
1012 Hz with a radiant intensity of 1/683 Watt per steradian in any given direction.

Derived Units:
The units of measurement derived from the seven base units specified by the International
System of Units are known as SI derived units. They are either dimensionless or can be
expressed as a product of one or more of the base units, possibly scaled by an appropriate power
of exponentiation. The names of SI derived units, when written in full, are always in lowercase.
However, the symbols for units named after persons are written with an uppercase initial letter.
For example, the symbol for hertz is “Hz”, but the symbol for metre is “m.” In the table below,
we have given a list of derived units.
Name Symbol
Quantity

Hertz Hz Frequency
Radian Rad Angle
Newton N force, weight
Farad F electrical capacitance
Ohm Ω electrical resistance, impedance, reactance
Weber Wb magnetic flux
degree Celsius °C temperature relative to 273.15 K
Becquerel Bq radioactivity (decays per unit time)

Questions:

What is measurement?

Measurement is a technique in which properties of an object are determined by comparing them

to a standard.

Define a unit.
Any given physical quantity is measured in comparison to a basic unit that is arbitrarily chosen,
internationally accepted. The result of a measurement is expressed by a number which is
accompanied by a unit.

What are significant figures?

Significant figures can be defined as important numbers between 0 and 9 that are used in the
coefficient of an expression that explains the precision of the expression. These figures are
obtained by rounding off the expression after the calculations are executed on them.

Define supplementary units.

Supplementary units are dimensionless physical quantities that are used along with
fundamental units.

How is force measured in a metric system?

In the metric system, force is measured in kilograms and is denoted by the symbol kgf.
System of Units:
(1) FPS System: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound, and the
unit of time is second.
(2) CGS System: In this system, the units of length, mass and time are centimetre, gram and
second, respectively.
(3) MKS System: In this system, the unit of length, mass and time are meter, kilogram and
second, respectively.
(4) SI System: This system is widely used in all measurements throughout the world. The
system is based on seven basic units and two supplementary units.
Basic Units

Quantity Unit Symbol of the Unit

Length Metre M

Mass Kilogram Kg

Time Second S

Temperature Kelvin K

Electric current Ampere A

Number of particles Mole Mol

Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Supplementary Units

Plane angle Radian Rad

Solid angle Steradian Sr

MERITS OF S.I. UNITS

SI is a coherent system of units: This means that all derived units are obtained by
multiplication and division without introducing any numerical factor.
SI is a rational system of units: This is because it assigns only one unit to a particular physical
quantity.
SI is an absolute system of units: There is no gravitational unit in this system.
SI system is applicable to all branches of science.

CONVENTIONS OF WRITING OF UNITS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

Unit is never written with capital initial letter.

For a unit named after scientist the symbol is a capital letter otherwise not.
The unit or symbol is never written in plural form.
Punctuations marks are not written after the symbol.

Definition of Basic and Supplementary Units:

Basic Units:
1. Metre (m): One metre is the distance travelled by light in the vacuum during a time interval
of (1/300000000) seconds.
2. Kilogram (kg): It is the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder kept at the National Bureau of
Weights and Measurements, Paris.
3. Second (s): The second is the time taken by the light of a specified wavelength emitted by
a caesium-133 atom to execute vibrations.
4. Ampere (A): One ampere is that current which, when passed through two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length and of negligible cross-section kept at a distance of 1 metre apart
in the vacuum, produces between them a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre length.
5. Kelvin (K): It is the fraction 1/273.6 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
of water.
6. Candela (cd): A candela is defined as 1/60 th of the luminous intensity of 1 square centimetre
of a perfect black body maintained at the freezing temperature of platinum.
7. Mole (md): One mole is the amount of substance that contains elementary units equal to the
number of atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.
Supplementary Units:
1. Radian (rad): The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc whose
length is equal to the radius of the circle.

2. Steradian (Sr): The steradian is the solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere by a
spherical surface of an area equal to the square of its radius.

SOME IMPORTANT PRACTICAL UNITS

For large distance (macro-cosm)

Astronomical unit: It is the average distance of the centre of the sun from the centre of the
earth.
1 A.U. = 1.496 × 1011m
Light year: It is the distance travelled by the light in vacuum in one year.
1 ly = 9.46 × 1015m
Parsec: One parsec is the distance at which an arc 1A.U. long subtends an angle of one
second.
1 parsec = 3.1 × 1016m

For small distance (micro-cosm)

1 micron = 10–6m
1 nanometre = 10–9m
1 angstrom = 10–10m
1 fermi = 10–15m
For small area
1 barn = 10–28m2

For heavy mass

1 ton = 1000kg
1 quintal = 100kg
1 slug = 14.57kg
1 C.S.L (Chandrasekhar limit) = 1.4 times the mass of the sun

For small mass

1 amu = 1.67 x 10–27kg
1 pound = 453.6g = 0.4536 kg

For small time

1 shake = 10–8s

For large time

Lunar month: It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its axis with
respect to sun.
1L.M. = 27.3 days.
Solar day: It is the time taken by the earth to complete one rotation about its axis with
respect to sun.
Sedrial day: It is the time taken by earth to complete one rotation on its axis with respect to
distant star.

For measuring pressure

1 bar = 1atm pressure = 105N/m2 = 760mmHg
1torr = 1 mmHg
1 poiseuille = 10 Poise

Dimensional Formula:
The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is the formula that tells which of the
fundamental units have been used for the measurement of that physical quantity.
How is dimensional formula written for a physical quantity?
(1) The formula of the physical quantity must be written. The quantity must be on the left-hand
side of the equation.
(2) All the quantities on the right-hand side of the formula must be written in terms of
fundamental quantities like mass, length and time.
(3) Replace mass, length and time with M, L and T, respectively.
(4) Write the powers of the terms.
Characteristics of Dimensions:
(1) Dimensions do not depend on the system of units.
(2) Quantities with similar dimensions can be added or subtracted from each other.
(3) Dimensions can be obtained from the units of the physical quantities and vice versa.
(4) Two different quantities can have the same dimension.
(5) When two dimensions are multiplied or divided, it will form the dimension of the third
quantity.

Dimensional Analysis:

We quantify the size and shape of things using Dimensional Analysis. It helps us study the
nature of objects mathematically. It involves lengths and angles as well as geometrical
properties such as flatness and straightness. The basic concept of dimension is that we can add
and subtract only quantities with the same dimensions. Similarly, two physical quantities can
be equal only if they have the same dimensions.

Dimensional Analysis Explained:

The study of the relationship between physical quantities with the help of dimensions and units
of measurement is termed dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is essential because it
keeps the units the same, helping us perform mathematical calculations smoothly.

Unit Conversion and Dimensional Analysis:

Dimensional analysis is also called Factor Label Method or Unit Factor Method because we
use conversion factors to get the same units. To help you understand the stated better, let’s say
you want to know how many metres make 3 km?
We know that 1000 metres make 1 km,
Therefore,
3 km = 3 × 1000 metres = 3000 metres
Here, the conversion factor is 1000 metres.

Using Dimensional Analysis to Check the Correctness of Physical Equation:

Let’s say that you don’t remember whether

1. time = speed/distance, or
2. time = distance/speed
We can check this by making sure the dimensions on each side of the equations match.
Reducing both the equations to its fundamental units on each side of the equation, we get

1. [𝑇]=[𝐿][𝑇]−1𝐿=[𝑇]−1(𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔)
2. [𝑇]=[𝐿][𝐿][𝑇]−1=[𝑇](𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
However, it should be kept in mind that dimensional analysis cannot help you determine any
dimensionless constants in the equation.

Homogeneity Principle of Dimensional Analysis:

Principle of Homogeneity states that dimensions of each of the terms of a dimensional equation
on both sides should be the same. This principle is helpful because it helps us convert the units
from one form to another. To better understand the principle, let us consider the following
example:
Example 1: Check the correctness of physical equation s = ut + ½ at2. In the equation, s is
the displacement, u is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, a is the acceleration and t is
the time in which change occurs.
Solution:
We know that L.H.S = s and R.H.S = ut + 1/2at2
The dimensional formula for the L.H.S can be written as s = [L1M0T0] ………. .(1)
We know that R.H.S is ut + ½ at2 , simplifying we can write R.H.S as [u][t] + [a] [t]2
[L1M0T-1][L0M0T-1] +[L1M0T-2][L0M0T0]
=[L1M0T0]………..(2)
From (1) and (2), we have [L.H.S] = [R.H.S]
Hence, by the principle of homogeneity, the given equation is dimensionally correct.

Applications of Dimensional Analysis:

Dimensional analysis is a fundamental aspect of measurement and is applied in real-life
physics. We make use of dimensional analysis for three prominent reasons:

 To check the consistency of a dimensional equation

 To derive the relation between physical quantities in physical phenomena
 To change units from one system to another

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

Some limitations of dimensional analysis are:

 It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.

 The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic
function, etc. cannot be derived.
 It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

Solved Problems:
1. Check the correctness of the physical equation v2 = u2 + 2as2.
Solution: The computations made on the L.H.S and R.H.S are as follows:
L.H.S: v2 = [v2] = [ L1M0T–1]2 = [ L1M0T–2] ……………(1)
R.H.S: u2 + 2as2
Hence, [R.H.S] = [u]2 + 2[a][s]2
[R.H.S] = [L1M0T–1]2 + [L1M0T–2][L1M0T0]2
[R.H.S] = [L2M0T–2] + [L1M0T–2][L2M0T0]
[R.H.S] = [L2M0T–2] + [L1M0T–2][L2M0T0]
[R.H.S] = [L2M0T–2] + [L3M0T–2]…………………(2)
From (1) and (2), we have [L.H.S] ≠ [R.H.S]
Hence, by the principle of homogeneity, the equation is not dimensionally correct
Questions:
What is dimensional analysis?
Dimensional analysis is the study of the relationship between physical quantities with the help
of dimensions and units of measurement.
State true or false: Dimensional analysis cannot be used to find dimensionless constants.
TRUE
State the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
The principle of homogeneity of dimensions states that an equation is dimensionally correct if
the dimensions of the various terms on either side of the equation are the same.
Why do we use dimensional analysis?
We make use of dimensional analysis for three prominent reasons:
 To check the consistency of a dimensional equation
 To derive the relation between physical quantities in physical phenomena
 To change units from one system to another.
What are the limitations of dimensional analysis?
Some limitations of dimensional analysis are:
 It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.
 The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic
function, etc. cannot be derived.
 It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

The dimensional formula can be used to

(1) Check the correctness of the equation.
(2) Convert the unit of the physical quantity from one system to another.
(3) Deduce the relation connecting the physical quantities.

Units and Dimensions of a Few Derived Quantities:

Physical Quantity Unit Dimensional Formula

Displacement M M0L1T0

Area m2 M0L2T0

Volume m3 M0L3T0

Velocity ms-1 M0L1T-1

Acceleration ms-2 M0L1T-2

Density Kg m-3 M1L-3T0

Momentum Kg ms-1 M1L1T-1

Work/Energy/Heat Joule (or) Kg m2/sec2 M1L2T-2

Power Watt (W) (or) Joule/sec M1L2T-3

Angular Velocity rad s-1 M0L0T-1

Angular Acceleration rad s-2 M0L0T-2

Moment of Inertia Kg m2 M1L2T0

Force Newton (or) Kg m/sec2 M1L1T-2

Pressure Newton/m (or) Kg m-1/sec2 M1L-1T-2

Impulse Newton sec (or) Kg m/sec M1L1T-1

Inertia Kg m2 M1L2T0

Electric Current Ampere (or) C/sec QT-1

Resistance/Impedance Ohm (or) Kg m2/sec C2 ML2T-1Q-2

EMF/Voltage/Potential Volt (or) Kg m2/sec2 C ML2T-2Q-1

Permeability henry/m (or) Kg m/C2 MLQ-2

Permittivity Farad/m (or) sec2C2/Kgm3 T2Q2M-1L-3

Frequency Hertz (or) sec-1 T-1

Wavelength M L1

Principle of Homogeneity:
According to the principle of homogeneity of dimensions, all the terms in a given physical
equation must be the same.
Ex. s = ut + (½) at2
Dimensionally
[L] = [LT-1.T] + [LT-2. T2] [L] = [L] + [L]

Defects of Dimensional Analysis:

1. While deriving the formula, the proportionality constant cannot be found.

 2. The equation of a physical quantity that depends on more than three independent
physical quantities cannot be deduced.
3. This method cannot be used if the physical quantity depends on more parameters than
the number of fundamental quantities.
4. The equations containing trigonometric functions and exponential functions cannot be
derived

 The SI system is the most commonly used system of units

 The SI is based on seven basic units and two supplementary units.
 The dimensional formula of any physical quantity is the formula that tells which of the
fundamental units have been used for the measurement of that physical quantity.
 The dimensional formula follows the principle of homogeneity

Solved Examples:
(1) The diameter of a cylinder is measured using vernier callipers with no zero error. It is found
that the zero of the vernier scale lies between 5.10 cm and 5.15 cm of the main scale. The
vernier scale has 50 divisions equivalent to 2.45 cm. The 24th division of the vernier scale
exactly coincides with one of the main scale divisions. Then, the diameter of the cylinder is
a) 5.112 cm
b) 5. 124 cm
c) 5.136 cm
d) 5.148 cm
Answer: b) 5. 124 cm
Solution:
The least count of a vernier is given by
L.C. = 1 Main scale division/Number of divisions on the vernier scale
L.C. = 1 M.S.D./n
One main scale division = 0.05 cm
n = 50
L.C. = 0.05/50 = 0.001 cm
Diameter of the cylinder = Main scale reading + (Least count x Vernier scale reading)
= 5.10 + (24 x 0.001) = 5.124 cm

(2) A thin copper wire of length l metre increases in length by 2% when heated through 10°C.
What is the percentage increase in the area when a square copper sheet of length l metre is
heated through 10°C?
a) 4%
b) 8%
c) 16%
d) None of these
Answer: a) 4%
Solution:
△l = l αΔT
△l/l = 2/100 = α x 100
α = 2/1000
β = 2α = 4/1000
△A = A βΔT
△A/A = βΔT
= (4/1000) x 10
= 4/100
Percentage increase in area = (4/100) x 100
= 4%

(3) The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum in the experiment is recorded as 2.63 s, 2.56
s, 2.42 s, 2.71 s and 2.80 s, respectively. The average absolute error is
a) 0.1 s
b) 0.11 s
c) 0.01 s
d) 1.0 s
Answer: b) 0.11 s
Solution:
Average value = (2.63 + 2.56 + 2.42 + 2.71 + 2.80)/5
= 2.62 sec
Now,
|△T1| = 2.63 – 2.62 = 0.01
|△T2| = 2.62- 2.56 = 0.06
|△T3| = 2.62- 2.42 = 0.20
|△T4| = 2.71- 2.62 = 0.09
|△T4| = 2.80- 2.62 = 0.18
Mean absolute error,
Δ𝑇=|Δ𝑇1|+|Δ𝑇2|+|Δ𝑇3|+|Δ𝑇4|+|Δ𝑇5|5
= (0.01 + 0.06 + 0.20 + 0.09 + 0.18)/5
= 0.54/5 = 0.108 = 0.11 sec

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The number of digits, which are known reliably in our measurement, and one digit that is
uncertain are termed as significant figures.

RULES TO DETERMINE THE NUMBERS OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1. All non-zero digits are significant. 235.75 has five significant figures.
2. All zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant. 2016.008 has seven significant
figures.
3. All zeroes occurring between the decimal point and the non-zero digits are not
significant provided there is only a zero to left of the decimal point. 0.00652 has three
significant figures.
4. All zeroes written to the right of a non-zero digit in a number written without a decimal
point are not significant. This rule does not work if zero is a result of measurement.
54000 has two significant figures whereas 54000m has five significant figures.
5. All zeroes occurring to the right of a non-zero digit in a number written with a decimal
point are significant. 32.2000 has six significant figures.
6. When a number is written in the exponential form, the exponential term does not
contribute towards the significant figures. 2.465 × 105 has four significant figures.

KEEP IN MEMORY
 The significant figures depend upon the least count of the instrument.
 The number of significant figure does not depend on the units chosen.

ROUNDING OFF

 If digit to be dropped is less than 5 then preceding digit should be left unchanged.
 If digit to be dropped is more than 5 then one should raise preceding digit by one.
 If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a digit other than zero then the preceding digit is
increased by one.
 If the digit to be dropped is 5 then the preceding digit is not changed if it is even.
 If digit to be dropped is 5 then the preceding digit is increased by one if it is odd.

ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS WITH SIGNIFICANT FIGURES AND

ROUNDING OFF

 For addition or subtraction, write the numbers one below the other with all the decimal
points in one line. Now locate the first column from the left that has a doubtful digit. All
digits right to this column are dropped from all the numbers and rounding is done to this
column. Addition subtraction is then done.
Example: Find the sum of 23.623 and 8.7 to correct significant figures.
Sol. Step-1:- 23.623 + 8.7
Step-2:- 23.6 + 8.7=32.3
 In multiplication and division of two or more quantities, the number of significant
digits in the answer is equal to the number of significant digits in the quantity, which has
minimum number of significant digits.
The insignificant digits are dropped from the result if they appear after the decimal point.
They are replaced by zeroes if they appear to the left of the decimal point. The least
significant digit is rounded off.
Example: 107.88 (5. S. F.) × 0.610 (3 S. F.) = 65.8068 ≅ 65.8

ACCURACY, PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS AND ERRORS IN

MEASUREMENTS

Accuracy and Precision are two terms that have very different meanings in experimental
physics. We need to be able to distinguish between an accurate measurement and a precise
measurement. An accurate measurement is one in which the results of the experiment are in
agreement with the ‘accepted’ value.
Note:- This only applies to experiments where this is the goal like measuring the speed of
light. A precise measurement is one that we can make to a large number of decimal places.

The following diagrams illustrate the meaning of terms accuracy and precision
In the above figure: The centre of the target represents the accepted value. The closer to the
centre, the more accurate the experiment. The extent of the scatter of the data is a measure of
the precision.
A - Precise and accurate
B - Accurate but imprecise
C - Precise but not accurate
D - Not accurate nor precise
When successive measurements of the same quantity are repeated there are different values
obtained. In experimental physics it is vital to be able to measure and quantify this
uncertainty. (The words "error" and "uncertainty" are often used interchangeably by
physicists - this is not ideal - but get used to it!)

Error in measurements is the difference of actual or true value and measured value.
Error = True value – Measured value

KEEP IN MEMORY
1. Accuracy depends on the least count of the instrument used for measurement.
2. In the addition and subtraction operation, the result contains the minimum number of
decimal places of the figures being used
3. In the multiplication and division operation, the result contains the minimum number of
significant figures.
4. Least count (L.C.) of vernier callipers = one MSD – one VSD
Where MSD = mains scale division, VSD = vernier scale division

5. Least count of screw gauge (or spherometer)

where pitch is the ratio of number of divisions moved on linear scale and number of rotations
given to circular scale.
6. Pure number or unmeasured value do not have significant numbers
7. Change in the position of decimal does not change the number of significant figures.
Similarly the change in the units of measured value does not change the significant figures.

COMMON ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

It is not possible to measure the 100% correct value of any physical quantity, even after
measuring it so many times. There always exists some uncertainty, which is usually referred
to as experimental error.

EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Random error:
It is the error that has an equal chance of being positive or negative.
It occurs irregularly and at random in magnitude and direction. It can be caused
 By the lack of perfection of observer
 If the measuring instrument is not perfectly sensitive.

Systematic error:
It tends to occur in one direction either positive or negative. It occurs due to
 Measuring instrument having a zero error.
 an instrument being incorrectly calibrated (such as slow- running-stop clock)
 the observer persistently carrying out a mistimed action (e.g., in starting and stopping a
clock)
For measuring a particular physical quantity, we take a number of readings. Let the readings
be X1, X2............,Xn. Then the mean value is found as follows

METHODS OF EXPRESSING ERROR

Absolute error:
It is the difference between the mean value and the measured value of the physical quantity.
|ΔX1| = |Xmean–X1|
..................................
..................................
|ΔXn| = |Xmean–Xn|
Mean absolute error:

ΔXmean or =

Relative error:
It is the ratio of the mean absolute error and the value of the quantity being measured.
Percentage error:
It is the relative error expressed in percent

Percentage error

TO FIND THE MAXIMUM ERROR IN COMPOUND QUANTITIES

SUM AND DIFFERENCE

We have to find the sum or difference of two values given as (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb), we do it
as follows
X ± ΔX = (a ± Δa) + (b ± Δb) = (a + b) ± (Δa + Δb)
⇒ X = a + b and ΔX = Δa + Δb in case of sum
And X = (a – b) and ΔX = Δa + Δb in case of difference.

PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT

We add the fractional or percentage errors in case of finding product or quotient.

If P = ab then

If then

POWER OF A QUANTITY

If x = an then
Example:

For , If and

Then × 100 = (2 × 3 + 4)% = 10%

Similarly:

KEEP IN MEMORY
1. More the accuracy, smaller is the error.
2. Absolute error |ΔX| is always positive.
3. |ΔX| has the same dimensions as that of X.
4. If the least count of measuring instrument is not given and the measured value is given the
least error in the measurement can be found by taking the last digit to be 1 and rest digit to be
zero. For e.g. if the measured value of mass m = 2.03 kg then .
5. If a number of physical quantities are involved in an expression then the one with higher
power contributes more in errors and therefore should be measured more accurately.
6. Relative error is a dimensionless quantity.
7. We are always interested in calculating the maximum possible error.